PST312M Summaries Study Unit 1: Philosophy of Education Study Unit 2: History, Development and Value of Physical Education and Sport Study Unit 3: Anatomy and physiology Study Unit 4: Growth and development Study Unit 5: Teaching learners with special needs Study Unit 6: Teaching physical education Study Unit 7: Nutrition and fluid replacement Study Unit 8: Drugs in sport Study Unit 9: Sports injuries

Study Unit 1: Philosophy of Education Physical education involves teaching learners skills. It provides the teacher with the opportunity to educate learners through the experience of motor movement. Further is teacher them about their bodies and physical

Sport is a human activity that involves administration and rules. Sport also involves competition, challenge, and the use of certain skills. Also, any sport has a definite historical background.

Recreation is a voluntary activity that is beneficial to the participant; recreation, by its very nature, is undertaken during leisure or free time.

Play is a spontaneous and enjoyable activity that individuals engage in for its own sake. A child must play to be able to learn.

Relationship between physical education and sport

Physical education: Includes the development of the child’s physical fitness, strength, flexibility and basic sport skills. It helps develop the child physically, psychologically and socially. It takes place in the school set up. In preschool, physical education is referred to as movement; it is in primary school that we first encounter the term "physical education". Sport: Is a human activity involving specific administrative organisations and a historical background of rules. It involves competition or challenge and a definite outcome that is primarily determined by physical skill. It is characterised by certain rules and common goals. Aims of physical education: aim to create an environment that stimulates selected movement experiences, encouraging optimal development of all phases of the individual's life.

Objectives of physical education (1) To develop the movement potentialities of each individual to an optimal level. (2) To develop a basic understanding and appreciation of human movement. (3) To develop skills, knowledge and attitudes, basic to voluntary participation in satisfying and enjoyable physical recreation experiences. (4) To develop personally rewarding and socially acceptable behaviours through participation in enjoyable movement activities. (5) To develop and maintain optimal individual muscular strength, muscular endurance and cardiovascular endurance.

Value and place of Physical Education and sport for learners: 1. means of self-expression 2. explore the environment and express their feelings 3. understand the value of socialising better 4. opportunity to develop physically 5. leads to understanding of how to play games and sports 6. teaches the learner to enjoy physical activities 7. teach a learner the meaning of being sporting, or of being ``a good sport''

Study Unit 2: History, Development and Value of Physical Education and Sport

Development of sport and physical education through the ages: * Primitive society * Ancient civilisations * Middle Ages * From the reform to Modern Times * Modern era

Factors influencing sport in modern times:

Secularism. Sport is far less linked to religious beliefs and religious rituals than it was in earlier times. Material values play a more important role.

Equality for all. Now there is a need for all to take part in sport. Men and women and people of all classes have equal opportunities to participate.

Specialisation. Increasingly specialised sporting equipment and training methods are being introduced. Athletes start to specialise at a very early age.

Rationalisation and rules. Sport is controlled and regulated by rules and strategies. Unfortunately children's games are dominated by the rules for adults.

Bureaucratisation. Modern sport has become a complex structure with formal organisations at three levels: national, regional and local.

Qualifications. Measurements and statistics are common aspects related to modern sport. All events are recorded according to time, distance and score.

Records. Considerable emphasis is placed on setting up and breaking records. The overemphasis on winning has caused many athletes to stop participating at an early age.

Other factors (1) The rapid and widespread development of technology. (2) Long working hours. (3) The school timetable. (4) Community and club involvement. (5) The use of drugs in sport. (6) The Development of media technology. (7) Material values.

Fundamental characteristics and particular nature of sport: 1. universal 2. playing games 3. captures attention 4. human activity 5. concept is very complex 6. building human character 7. socializing force 8. particular method of expression 9. elements of competition

Value of Sport to society:

Educational

Social . Sport as a fundamental human need Play is therefore an important part of childhood for two reasons: Ð It promotes and enhances growth, experience and knowledge. Ð It allows children to lose themselves in games and enjoy their activities. . Sport and its other contributions to society - promotion of health and other social improvements. - tool to bring about social change. - can be used to counter juvenile delinquency. - helps to develop individual traits and fosters growth and development of social relationships. - promotes a range of values: respect for the rules of the game, honest play, courage, - ---- - unselfishness, respect for the group, sporting spirit and leadership. * It is important to note that the state, community, church, private sector, school and family are all involved in sport.

Psychological

Physiological three values (1) a spirit of cooperation in the playing of a team sport (2) free participation among individuals and groups (3) submission to authority and discipline of the law (abiding by rules of game)

Ethical

Political

Economic - Construction industry - professional athletes - careers in sports medicine, sport law, sport psychology, sports administration and stadium - ----- management. Sponsorships - economic value of sport for its workers - Media Coverage - state lottery

The link between sport participation and good academic performance is long established:

``mens sana in corpore sano'' Ð a healthy mind in a healthy body. Study Unit 3: Anatomy and physiology

Knowledge of the structure and functioning of the body

This knowledge will enable the coach to know how the child/athlete responds to exercise and training, which exercises are relevant for the child and which are suitable for the athlete's level of development. Children should not be treated as little adults, which means that the coach has to make certain adjustments when teaching children. Structure of the body:

Cells

Skeleton

Bones

Joints

Muscles and tendons

Nervous system

Cardio-respiratory system (heart + lungs)

Joints - form the junctions between the bones used for movement. Bones - support, protect and help the body perform any muscular movement. Muscles - muscular movement goes on all the time --- for breathing, moving and standing. Nervous system - carries signals from the brain --- the nervous system includes brain, spinal cord, and many other nerves that branch off the spinal cord. Cells: The building blocks of life Functions: - carry msg’s (nerve cells – carry electrical msg’s)

- carry chemicals (red cells – in blood – O2 around the body) - support the body (bone cells – make up skeleton) - move the body (muscle cells – can create force)

Skeleton 3 Main functions: - support - protection - movement Defn: A skeleton is a system of bones and other supporting material that is found inside our

bodies. (1) Support. The skeleton supports the rest of the body, like the framework of a building. Without this a human being would be a shapeless lump. (2) Protection. The skeleton protects important and delicate organs of the body; for example the skull protects the brain. (3) Movement. The skeleton provides anchorage for muscles. Muscles that are fixed to the skeleton can operate joints. We can move the body as a whole and also move parts of the body with a high degree of precision and control.

Bones - Living & non-living parts - living parts make the bone slightly flexible and let it absorb sudden shocks. - nonliving part of a bone makes it rigid and gives it strength * Bones act as a system of levers * not actually joined; instead they fit closely together, forming joints. Joints - form the junctions between bones - bones at each joint are linked by tough, flexible ligaments - Ligaments are strong fibrous straps that will not return to their original shape once they have been damaged or stretched. - different joints between the bones allow you to move in different ways. - Each joint therefore allows a different sort of movement. Muscles and Tendons * The muscle used to control movements consists of bundles of long, thin cells called muscle fibres. Each bundle of fibre is held together by a tough sheath. * All the connecting sheaths join together at the end of each muscle, forming the tendons which anchor the muscle to the bone.

The fast twitch muscle fibre is like the engine of a racing car. It produces high-speed movement for short periods of time.

The slow twitch fibre produces less power and speed but can operate for much longer periods.

Tendons are connecting sheaths joined together at the end of each muscle from tendons. They are made up of strong tissue.

Nervous system

* The nervous impulse is an electrical signal carried by the nerve cells. * The nervous system is a whole network that includes the brain, spinal cord and the many nerves that branch off the spinal cord to all parts of the body.

Cardio respiratory system (heart + lungs)

Blood is important for the following reasons:

Blood carries oxygen from the lungs and food from the digestive system to the cells of the body. (Red cells in the blood transport oxygen.)

Blood carries carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs, where it is removed by being breathed out of the body.

Blood carries waste materials from body tissues to the kidneys, where they are excreted.

Blood prevents infection by healing wounds and fighting germs. * method of body typing is called somatotyping. three main body types (1) Endomorph. These persons tend to have a

less well-defined body outline and can become fat easily.

(2) Mesomorph. These persons are well proportioned and muscular. (3) Ectomorph. These are thin individuals who tend to be tall.

“posture”. This has to do with the alignment of the body segments. In other words, how well the child can keep his or her body erect and balanced.

Problem Description Correction

Kyphosis Round upper back is a marked increase in the curve of the back.

Exercises for the head and neck position: . head pull . head turns . heck flattener . head lift Exercise for round shoulders: . hanging . pull-ups . push-ups . arm rotators . wall push . head and arm raisers

Lordosis Hollow back, an exaggerated forward curve of the lower back.

Exercises for the lower back: . cat stretcher . trunk stretcher . back arch Exercises for abdominal muscles: . curl-ups . elbow-knee touch . hip raisers

Scoliosis Lateral curvature, C-shaped, extending the length of the spinal column.

Exercises for functional scoliosis: . hanging . side stretch Exercises for the lower back: . cat stretcher . trunk stretcher . back arch

Tests used to evaluate child's posture

1. The side and rear view plumbline test and posture charts are used to evaluate posture. Both serve as basic screening devices. The physical educator can pick up any major changes in a learner’s posture.

2. The view from the side: take a line through the middle of ear and shoulder joint, slightly in front of anklebone.

3. Back view: Through middle of head, vertebra and middle of buttocks, and equidistant between heels.

Guidelines on improving each position and methods of improving posture in general

Use the plumb line test as a basic screening device.

Make learners more conscious of their posture when standing, sitting or carrying out a variety of movement patterns.

Correct functional postural defects by using a special programme to improve overall muscular strength, endurance and flexibility.

Exercise to improve head and neck position (head pulls, head turns, neck flatteners).

Exercise to improve round shoulders (hanging, pull-ups, push-ups, arm rotators, wall pushes, head and arm raisers).

Exercise to help lower back problems.

Exercise to strengthen abdominal muscles.

Exercise to improve functional scoliosis.

Study Unit 4: Growth and development

Importance of knowledge of growth and development ● Knowledge of growth and development helps coaches choose the correct type and duration of

exercises in relation to a child's/athlete's stage of development. ● Working with weights can be dangerous if the child has not yet reached adolescence. This is

because the child's skeleton is still mostly cartilage which is softer than bone). ● Heavy weights and repeated pounding should be avoided. ● The length of the training session also has to be considered. ● Realistic expectations encourage the child to participate in sport throughout his or her life,

which is essential for good health. Growth - the change in body size that results from more Ð and bigger Ð body cells and more

intercellular material. Development - change in a learner's level of functioning. changes in the functional level in a behavioural sense. Maturation - changes which occur in the body over a period of time. Experience - vast number of opportunities a learner has to learn to move. Period of childhood to adolescence divided into categories based on certain age groups:

Infancy is from birth to one year.

Childhood is from one year to adolescence and is divided into early childhood (the preschool years) and middle childhood (the elementary school years).

Adolescence starts at sexual maturity. For girls this is between ages 8 and 19, most commonly around 11 and 12. For boys, the age is from 10 to 22 years, but most commonly around 13 and 14 years.

Growth Spurt = rapid increase in growth ----- Body size Phys. Development ----- Body Proportions

Changes in body proportions influence how skills are performed. ● The relative size of the head in early childhood influences the balance of the body during

movement. ● The relative shortness of legs in very young children limits running ability. ● Long arms and legs at the beginning of puberty enable children to run better. ● Rapid growth leads to clumsiness. ● The additional weight that girls gain during puberty, and their change in body posture

influences the speed at which they can move. Changing from a shorter distance to a longer distance is often advisable, because pubescent girls run more slowly.

Aspects of growth & Dev.

Phys. Growth & dev.

Skeletal growth & dev.

Muscular growth & dev.

Cardio-respiratory growth & dev Implications of the learner's growth and development for the physical educator

Note growth stage because it is more important than age.

Note changes in physical proportions as they will affect performance.

Help learners to understand the changes taking place in their bodies.

Set standards of performance according to developmental age, not according to chronological age.

Emphasise skill development, because late developers may be very successful in the future.

Group learners according to physical development, using height and mass as a guide.

Avoid exercises that place excessive force on the bones during periods of maximum growth.

Avoid using weights before adolescence. Effects of exercise on growth ● Exercise develops cardiorespiratory system; lung capacity will be increased and heart

strengthened. ● Muscles are enlarged and strength increased. ● Exercise and, especially, flexibility reduces the risk of injury. ● Beware of heavy workloads for young athletes; growth areas are soft and can result in injuries. ● Results in a healthy outlook on life. 6 Phases of motor dev. 1. Reflexive behaviour 2. Rudimentary movement 3. Fundamental movement 4. General movement 5. Specific movement 6. Specialised skill Social development of the child:

SELF-IMAGE

The influence of others

The influence of parents

The influence of other learners

The influence of the physical educator

The influence of the coach

The coach's contribution in the development of the athlete's self-image. The coach can: ● develop a close relationship with learners (which is often not found between learners and their parents) ● become an important part of a young learner's life ● encourage the learner to get involved in new and exciting activities ● help develop a sense of pride in young learners ● help create a positive attitude towards physical education and sport in the minds of young learners ● help young learners overcome various, different problems

The reason for the modification of rules for children's sport (mini-sport) ● Children cannot play according to adult rules and nor can they use adult equipment. ● Children's physical size and proportions are changing constantly and rules need modification. ● Modifications include decreasing the playing area, the goals, the playing times, and smaller teams. ● Changes will increase the level of success/achievements which, in turn, will have a good effect on children's self-image. This will then encourage them to continue participating in sport. Mini -Hockey ● Decrease the playing area by about half. ● Make the goals smaller (use markers). ● Make the teams smaller (eg seven a side) ● Change players as frequently as possible. ● Decrease the playing time. ● Use smaller hockey sticks and softer balls. ● Eliminate the rules for off sides. ● Eliminate the rules of long and short corners.

Mini-Tennis ● Decrease area --- use half the court. ● Use smaller rackets or use bats. ● Use softer balls if possible. ● Allow for double bounce at first. ● Enlarge the area, use the tram lines.

Basketball

Use a smaller ball.

Eliminate zone defences.

Use a shorter distance to the basket from the foul line.

Eliminate the concept of five members per team.

Lower the basket's height.

Eliminate certain violations (eg 3-second count, 5-second jump ball). Soccer

Use a smaller ball, perhaps a number two or three.

Use a smaller playing area so that learners have the opportunity to touch the ball more often during play.

Use smaller goals and scrap the position of goalkeeper.

Reduce the number of players in a team in order to emphasise teamwork.

Eliminate the off-side rule.

The following adaptations are made to suit the needs of the child:

Modify techniques.

Adapt and use equipment and tools of suitable size and weight.

Modify rules to help learning and performance. The implications of modified sport for the coach.

Keep the rules to the minimum.

Keep competitions informal until the age of 12 years.

Avoid involving children in adult competitiveness before they are ready.

Refrain from putting pressure on the learner to win at all costs.

Reward learners for their efforts.

Adapt the sport to suit the child.

Use equipment of appropriate weight and size.

Modify rules to improve learning.

Use smaller groups when possible.

Try to be creative when solving problems.

Study Unit 5: Teaching learners with special needs special educational needs:

deaf learners, learners with physical disabilities, intellectually gifted learners with disabilities, learners with visual disability and learners with behaviour problems.

Physical activity - therapeutic benefits for people with disabilities in the early stages of sports

participation - can improve muscle control, flexibility, coordination, balance and posture.

Successful participation in physical activities and sporting endeavours improves people's self-esteem, independence, confidence and ability to cope with frustration. This often applies to the person with learning and behavioural problems.

need to participate in physical activity and sport for the same reasons as their able-bodied peers.

Importance of movement and physical education

to develop independence

gross motor and fine motor skills

test their competence and become more independent by developing physical fitness and motor skills.

Developing self-confidence, leadership, and social interaction Learners with disabilities have to cope with the following disadvantages:

a lack of opportunity to develop the basic movement skills in early childhood

poor socialisation skills, which make appropriate interaction difficult

a poor body image, which expresses itself in a lack of confidence and motivation to try new skills

communication difficulties

integrate learners with disabilities in normal everyday events.

Integration is a process of normalisation; these learners need to participate and enjoy experiences with their peers.

They need to become part of the group, subject to the same rules and regulations as the other learners.

Inclusion of learners with disabilities gives them the opportunity to take risks, make mistakes, make choices, and win and lose.

should not be placed in the mainstream without the necessary support: they need an environment that allows for their participation in mainstream schools.

This means a recognition and acceptance of differences by educators and peers. Benefits of an inclusive programme:

It is an opportunity to learn social skills in more `'natural'' environments, for example appropriate greeting, learning nonstigmatising behaviour.

It offers contact with age-appropriate, able-bodied role models.

Learners without disabilities learn to appreciate individual differences better, and develop more positive attitudes with adult guidance.

Special educators learn what is appropriate for learners without disabilities.

Higher educators' expectations of learners with disabilities are incorporated in inclusive programmes.

Learners without disabilities get a broader perspective on life and their own abilities (eg by having contact with learners who may struggle to manage an action most of us take for granted, like keeping one's head upright).

It gives learners opportunities to upgrade their skills and confidence in a wide range of modified games that can be tuned to match their physical, intellectual and emotional development.

It supports learners as they grow in dignity, self-confidence and self-esteem, through enjoyable and rewarding physical activity.

It encourages parent and community involvement in the physical education programme, whether at school, in a community centre or a local sports club.

It involves learners in the same programme at the same school as their siblings and peers.

It can be fun for all learners. Make allowances for natural energy combined with a shorter attention span scale down the playing field as a way of increasing the amount of activity in the time available. do not make unnecessary allowances or lower your standards Progress is measured by the improvement in a learner's responses, skills level, and in participation and

enjoyment.

role as an educator is very important to the success of the process of integration. assess whether the learner's level of ability and skills matches the activity's demands and expectations. Educators must therefore consider:

type of activity (group/individual; degree of interaction required)

degree of proficiency required

type and degree of disability

General Considerations: o be familiar with the learner's medical condition. o do not administer any medication o Allow learners the dignity of independence and its risks; do not dwell on unrealistic fears and medical

matters to the point of interfering with the learner's opportunities to participate.

Medication

Learners who exhibit a pattern of fidgety, restless and distractive behaviour, e.g.: hyperactive, are prescribed medication to relieve the condition.

enhances the attention span and concentration, and reduces motor activity.

Possible side effects are excessive suppression of motor activity, sedation and occasionally depression.

Learners with an intellectual disability, brain damage and severe behaviour disorder are prescribed tranquillisers to help them with self-control.

Sensory disabilities: Deaf and hearing impaired

o hearing impairment may experience balance problems o main problem is with communication. o Initially learning is slow because of communication difficulty - no lack of intelligence. o Once the idea or concept grasped - rate of learning is generally normal o use demonstrations and develop key signals and cues (a flag, or a tap on the shoulder)

Blind and visually impaired: degrees of visual impairment from perception of light and shadow and colour, with some peripheral vision, to total blindness pointers will help you coach a blind or visually impaired athlete:

- Identify yourself and introduce the athletes to others present. - Tell them when you are leaving. No one likes talking to thin air. - Familiarise them with obstacles in the training and the competition areas. - Describe technique and correct technique in an articulate and imaginative way. - Visually impaired people are not deaf Ð do not shout. - Demonstrate all techniques individually; if necessary break down complex movements into

manageable parts. - Always correct style manually. But do not push or prod, or grab them unexpectedly. - A buddy system may be helpful for exercising. - Give constant feedback on progress in any activity or game. - Some games or sports may require acoustic signalling to communicate direction or distance. - Educators must develop and use keywords, for example communicating direction by referring to the

hands on the clock (eg ``three o'clock''). Intellectual Disabilities:

generally respond to logical, sequential physical activity programmes.

important requirements apply to the education of learners with intellectual disabilities: - Give instructions slowly and sequentially and express them in a concrete, physical form. - Use simple, familiar imagery to get your message across. - Be prepared to teach basic movement patterns and skills, in the event of developmental delays. - Keep practice time on specific activities brief to prevent loss of concentration and boredom. - Divide skills training into smaller manageable parts. - Review and repeat skills training, drills and games in many different ways. - Move the learner through the desired motion when teaching new skills. - Demonstrate in a way that the learner can follow. - Praise good efforts immediately and spontaneously. - Motivate with the appropriate devices Ð for example use award schemes or present medals. - Encourage learners to compete against themselves.

Key principles of communication which are specific to teaching learners with sensory and intellectual disabilities Sensory ■ Demonstrate all skills. ■ Develop key signals. ■ Tap on shoulders. ■ Change methods of class attention. ● Tell the athlete when you are leaving. ● Visually impaired people are not deaf. ● Demonstrate all techniques individually. Intellectual ■ Breakdown skills into smaller parts. ■ Teach the basic movements. ■ Keep instructions slow and sequential. ■ Keep practice time focused on a specific action. Physical disabilities: need to understand the basic principles of coaching learners with a physical disability, e.g.: amputees, wheelchair-bound or cerebral palsied same warm-up, stretching and similar activity programmes and cool-down exercises as used for able-bodied learnersActivities should maximise the learner's functional potential. Amputees: require the least attention of the major disabled groups. They will already be well adjusted to their condition and able to suggest how activities can be modified to suit their circumstances. Hints for the educator

Be prepared to modify skills and techniques to accommodate individual strengths.

Consider the learner's starting balance and the need to transfer weight during movement.

Keep all landing areas safe.

Identify safe methods for landing and spreading weight load.

Adopt a ``whole body'' approach to activities and exercising. Imbalances may lead to poor biomechanics and increase risk of injury.

Learners using wheel chairs: due to injury to the spinal cord through trauma, polio or spinal bifida. Hints for the educator

Check on easy wheelchair access to your venue.

Know which muscle groups are useable for specific movements.

Strengthen muscles wherever possible. Paraplegics need very strong arms, so focus on developing these muscles.

Find ways to build fitness and drilling skills but do not over-use the upper body.

Severe spinal cord injury impairs ability to regulate body temperature. So be sure that affected learners get enough to drink and can cool down in hot conditions. You may need to take breaks during a lesson.

In learners with spinal cord injury in the neck area the heart rate does not rise with intensified activity. So log time and distance to monitor improvements in fitness.

Ensure that learners maintain their wheelchairs in top condition. Cerebral-palsied learners:

Cerebral palsy (CP) is a congenital neuromuscular condition caused by injury to the brain before, during or immediately after birth.

characterised by a lack of coordination in certain parts of the body.

Abnormal reflex activity and muscle tone, perceptual-motor problems, visual dysfunction, learning disabilities, and other soft signs of neurological damage.

Guidelines for teaching cerebral-palsied learners

Warm-up, stretching and cool-down exercises are essential.

Temperature, body position, type of movement, emotions and fatigue will all influence muscle tone.

Guard against any permanent muscle shortening due to muscle spasticity or paralysis when developing a flexibility programme.

Avoid sudden and ballistic stretching for learners with spasticity, as it may trigger a strong muscle contraction.

Cognitive ability may be less developed than in their able-bodied peers. Explain and express yourself clearly.

Repetitive learning drills seem to be the most successful way of teaching CP learners.

Keep lessons short and regular, because of learners' short attention span. Teaching learners with health-related conditions:

Being physically fit can improve one's resistance against asthma, diabetes and heart disease.

individual has to learn to cope with physical stress. Learners with epilepsy: Seizures may be a fact of life for these learners even though they are under medical supervision. In the event of a seizure, take the following steps:

Apply no restraints and allow the seizure to take its course.

Make sure the environment is safe by removing all obstacles, thereby minimising risk of injury.

As soon as possible, move the learner into a lateral recovery position. This keeps the tongue out of the way, maintains an open airway and allows free drainage of secretions and vomit.

Once the seizure has stopped, check that the tongue is not blocking the airway.

Keep the learner in the lateral recovery position. Make sure the learner is warm and comfortable, and feels secure.

Send for medical assistance.

Learners with asthma:

Asthma is a lung disease that is characterised by the swelling of the mucous membrane lining, excessive secretion of mucus, and spasms of the bronchial tubes.

General symptoms are coughing, heavy wheezing and a constriction, or tightening, of the chest.

Asthma attacks often start either during or after physical activity.

intensity and duration of exercise - both important factors in triggering an attack.

Weather conditions also play a major role.

Prophylactic medication - taken when - learner exercises in cold and/or dry air because this atmosphere is extremely irritating to the condition.

swimming in a warm humid atmosphere has been found to be very beneficial to learners with asthma.

benefit considerably from physical fitness.

Exercise improves lung capacity and decreases body fat. Less fat around thorax - improved air flow into the lungs

Learners with diabetes:

Diabetes is caused by a deficiency of insulin in the blood.

injection of insulin

control of diabetes requires a balance between diet, medication and exercise. Learners with heart disease:

most limiting of all conditions as regards participation in sport.

need frequent rest periods

should be encouraged to participate at a level suited to their capacity.

Setting up a physical education programme: Depend on the types and degrees of disabilities and whether the learners are in a separate group or in a group with able-bodied learners. Objectives to consider:

Develop physical fitness to maintain long-term health.

Develop motor skill proficiency for worthwhile use of leisure time.

Develop alertness, self-control, confidence and a positive sense of self-esteem.

Stimulate less active learners to be more active.

Give learners with multiple and severe disabilities opportunities for movement and activity.

Facilitate integration into the community by offering access to physical activities and sport.

Develop the will and ability to play games and sport, to be a good loser or winner, to cooperate with others and to accept that allowances need only be made when valid.

Establish a happy environment.

From Workbook answers: Factors which have to be considered when teaching learners with certain conditions Diabetes:

■ Know which child suffers from diabetes. ■ Retain balance between diet, medication and exercise. ■ Listen if athlete requires rest. ■ Establish a happy environment. ■ Encourage the less active to move more.

Epilepsy: ■ Know how to deal with a seizure. ■ Make the area safe. ■ Keep the stress levels down. ■ These athletes should be given the same challenges as everyone else --- they should not be made to feel inferior. ■ Develop physical fitness and long-term benefits. ■ Develop motor skill proficiency. ■ Make it easier for these learners to become integrated into the community. ● Know how to help the learner after a seizure.

Dealing with epileptic seizure ● No restraints should be applied -- let the seizure take its course. ● Environment must be made safe, remove objects. ● Place child in a lateral recovery position. ● Keep the tongue out of way, open air way. ● Allow for free drainage of secretions and vomit. ● Once finished, get tongue out of way. Keep in lateral position. ● Keep patient warm and comfortable, send for medical assistance.

Dealing with Sally and her asthma ■ Encourage her to relax before the race. ■ Teach her to breathe deeply. ■ Tell her not to start out too quickly, too soon. ■ Concentrate on positive aspects. ■ She must relax during the race.

Study Unit 6: Teaching physical education

physical educator must be well organised.

decide about content

how to organise learners

how to organise the content

how to give feedback.

o instructional programme - total experience of activities, methods and teaching strategies. o Through physical activities learners gain fundamental locomotor and nonlocomotor skills, and grasp the basic

skills and concepts involved in games and dance, o helped to maintain an optimum level of physical fitness o to move their bodies easily and efficiently o to express themselves creatively o gives them access to other valuable lessons of life.

Development levels: Development stages are seen as approximate time periods from early childhood in which learners assimilate psychomotor, cognitive and affective concepts, and gain certain skills and understandings.

Level I: Early childhood Level II: Middle childhood Level III: Late childhood (pre-adolescence) Level IV: Adolescence

four domains of physical education in the secondary school phase: (1) Physical and psychomotor development Ð with focus on:

stimulating growth in a variety of vigorous activities acquiring basic physical fitness mastering selected physical skills through movement experiences maintaining good health and combat the degenerative effects of modern living

(2) Cognitive development with focus on: acquiring knowledge about the body, its growth, health and fitness, the individual's potential, kinetic principles of

human movement, cultural aspects of physical education, sport and recreation getting experience in problem solving, in a largely physical context, as an individual and with others developing an aesthetic sense, appreciation of quality of movement and recognition of skilled performance,

rhythm timing and efficiency of movement (3) Emotional development with focus on:

having fun, relaxing from stress and attaining mental health and self-confidence, and having scope for self-expression

controlling and expressing emotional behaviour, becoming self-disciplined and able to cope with stress situations developing positive attitudes towards the self, to others and to healthy physical activity, with a view to adopting a

healthy lifestyle (4) Social development with focus on:

learning social skills, especially in cooperation with others and in competition with others developing leadership potential

developing a good sporting spirit developing sound character and a code of ethics

various factors determine the quality of the physical education programme:

The climate (season and region) has a bearing on which activity to choose.

Cultural factors have to be considered.

Circumstances at the school apply, such as time allocations and class size.

The educator's background and competence in physical education has a direct bearing on the nature and direction of every aspect of the programme.

Availability of equipment and facilities is a consideration.

Teaching progression suited for children during early childhood Children need:

● A broad exposure of activities, games, dance and gymnastics. ● Exposure to explore and discover body (body in space). ● Emphasis on movement concepts and skills. ● Grade 1 - 2 need opportunity for creative and exploratory ways of learning, locomotion and non-locomotion activities. Include dance activities, rhythmics, skills and singing games and creative movement. ● Activities should cater for the learner/child's level of maturity and abilities.

Steps to follow in yearly programme ● Establish basic objectives/outcomes of the programme.

- 3 domains - psychomotor, cognitive and affective (emotional) - used as a framework to state the basic outcomes.

● Select general activity areas. - difficult to allocate the right proportion of time to game, dance and gymnastic activities - because of differences in learners' abilities and experience, educators competence, and availability of

equipment. ● Develop an instructional unit.

- list of outcomes - sequential list of concepts and skills to be learnt - list of activities - list of organisation and teaching strategies - list of equipment and facilities - written evaluation - list of resources

● Develop flexible lesson plans. - setting up equipment - entry activities - part 1: introductory activities - part 2: skill development - part 3: concluding activity - evaluation

● Conduct student and programme evaluators/assessment - ongoing process of determining whether programme units, or lesson plan outcomes are being met

Organisational Details: class size time allocation scheduling assistance

Effective class organization: how to make the most of time before lessons start individualised teaching patterns grouping procedures routine procedures

Time best spent before a lesson The teacher must set up the necessary equipment and check the safety of the area. Pupils can be used to help set up the equipment. This can be used as a warm-up session. Physical education apparel - the necessary apparel must be worn by all students unless they are excused by their parents (in writing). Roll call - use class list to mark off the names. Class excuses - only children with medical notes or excuses from parents to be exempted from PE.

Study Unit 7: Nutrition and fluid replacement Nutrition refers to all that a person consumes in the form of food and drink.

- human body relies on food and drink to produce its energy

- act as fuel, providing energy and chemicals for movement and growth, and to keep the body healthy - amount of nutrition we need is determined by our age, sex, body build (physical form), level of physical

activity and state of health. Calories:

- energy is measured in the form of calories

- Different foods provide different amounts of energy therefore we have different values of calories. - Each person different amount of calories, depending on how big and active & how efficiently the body uses

food - Rate at which a person converts food to energy is known as the metabolic rate - Betw 12 – 17yrs children need more basic energy than during later life.

Energy Balance:

- typical growing adolescent - 2 500 calories of energy per day for basic energy requirements

- additional 500 calories for a training session - athlete's diet that does not include sufficient calories cause a reduction in performance. - excess intake of calories – stored in the body as fatty tissue. - energy balance to ensure successful training and competition

Nutrients:

- Food is made up of different things which are essential to the body's functioning nutrients

- different jobs to perform in the body o protein o carbohydrate o fat o vitamins o minerals o water o fibre

Proteins: Growth and repair food

- Until the age of 18 the body makes new cells in order to grow

- cells wear out and are replaced again. - material for cells comes from food - main body-building nutrients - needed to repair any damaged tissue, and also for a regular protein intake. - consist of building blocks called amino acids - 21 types of amino acid - combine in different ways to make up

proteins - Proteins are broken up into amino acids. - All but eight made up inside the human body essential amino acids

- High-quality proteins generally animal proteins such as egg protein, milk protein, fish and meat protein - Lower-quality protein is food in plants such as nuts, lentils and beans. - Athletes in training need extra protein to create muscle tissue. - increased need for extra calories and extra protein eating more food. - Any extra amount eaten - body does not use - converted for use as an energy source or stored as body fat.

Carbohydrates:

Energy food - body gets the major part of its energy from carbohydrates

- broken down quickly and easily in the digestive system basic fuel = glucose - obtained from natural sources such as rice, corn, potatoes, beans and fruit, and have a balance of other

nutrients. - Concentrations of refined carbohydrates such as white sugar, honey, soft drinks and chocolate bars are poor

sources of carbohydrates. - low in nutrition, high in calories, and cause the body to produce large quantities of insulin - very quickly takes

the glucose out of the blood - athlete feel low in energy - Natural carbohydrates enter the blood more slowly and increase the amount of energy available. - Carbohydrates should be the main part of any person's diet.

Fat: Slow energy food

- found in many animal and vegetable foods

- two basic types of fat: visible and invisible - Visible or saturated fats are those which are solid or hard at room temperature, such as margarine, plant oils,

fish oils, fat on meat and even cream - Invisible fats, or polyunsaturated fats, are found in fish, cheese, nuts and certain vegetables. - very concentrated source of energy - provide twice as much energy as carbohydrates - fat is not as good a source of energy as are carbohydrates - main source of fuel to the muscles while we are resting or asleep - stored under the skin and inside the muscle - reserve energy - essential to carry the fat-soluble vitamins around the body - Diets containing large amounts of fat can lead to obesity, heart disease and cancer - only need a small amount of fat in foods

Vitamins:

- needed daily in very small amounts

- important for the various chemical processes that take place in the body - low vitamin level can reduce performance - absence could cause illness - Enough of the right food will supply the vitamin level required for good health. - fat-soluble (stored in the body and ready for use) - water-soluble vitamins (cannot be stored; have to be taken in daily food intakes) - human diet requires 13 vitamins - need small but regular dosages of vitamins - Any water-soluble vitamins not used are passed out of the body - no use taking more extra vitamins than the body can absorb. - content of both fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins is determined by the way food is stored and cooked. - longer food is stored the more vitamins are lost - Cooking also removes vitamins - best is to eat as many raw, uncooked vegetables as possible.

Minerals:

- basic elements which are to be found in the soil and in the air.

- Only small amounts are needed daily - Incl. calcium, sodium, potassium, iron and iodine - essential for the proper functioning of nerves and muscles and to help build the body (bones, teeth, skin and

muscle). - Iron is essential for the transportation of oxygen in the body. - Women in particular need more iron in their diet. - Red meats are rich in iron - Other sources: dates, prunes, apricots, raisins and most beans. - Iodine helps to control the rate at which energy is released from the blood - Shortage causes the thyroid gland in the neck to swell up. - Sources: Fish and seafood

Water:

- essential in any diet

- most important nutrient required by the body - two-thirds of the body consists of water - Each cell contains water - blood is water with minerals, vitamins, proteins and blood cell floating in it. - average person should drink one litre of water a day - exercise - need more water, particularly in hot climates. - Water is lost in the form of sweat. - Dehydration is what occurs when not enough water has been taken in to replace what has been lost from the

body. - Small amounts should be taken in before, during and after competitions or training. - Diluted fruit juices are better than fizzy drinks - Salt tablets are not recommended as normal diets contain plenty of salt to replace sweat

Fibre: - very important part of the diet

- found in every plant cell - Plants are high in fibre - grains of wheat, oats and rice - forms a natural laxative in food - White flour, white rice and white pastas - not so healthy to eat – fibre content is removed in manufacturing.

Nutrient Balance: * like energy balance

- All the nutrients taken in the correct amounts will ensure a balance in the energy level.

RECOMMENDED HIGH PERFORMANCE DIET Protein 15±20% Carbohydrates 60±65% Fat 20%

Weight control:

- Coaches should pay attention to their athletes' weight

- can be controlled by regulating food and drink intake: by cutting out high calorie foods, for example. Balanced diet: A balanced diet maintains the individual's energy balance and nutrient balance. Guidelines for maintaining a balanced diet

(1) Eat lots of different kinds of food, vegetables, fruits, fish, meats, dairy produce and grains. (2) Eat fresh food rather than frozen or canned. (3) Eat high proportions of carbohydrate-rich foods. (4) Grill, steam or bake foods. Avoid boiling and frying. (5) Avoid fatty meals and sweet or salty snacks. (6) Check your fibre intake. Eat wholemeal breads, cereals and pasta. Avoid eating refined foods. (7) Flavour foods with herbs and spices rather than salt. (8) Drink small amounts of water and fruit juices often.

Nutritional neglect:

- Children and adolescents - are possibly the most nutritionally neglected groups participating in modern sport. - accepted practice at sports meetings - supply sweets, chips and cool drinks. - nutritional needs of children and adolescents - among highest of any group - combined demands of sport and

of growth and development. - influences of bad eating habits often go unnoticed by parents, coaches and educators. - Poor concentration, falling asleep in class, irritability, short-temper or declining sports performance often

dismissed as simply part of a busy learners' lifestyle -symptoms can often be attributed to a poor diet. - encouragement given to learners to improve their sporting skill as well as to enjoy sport and competition\ - few people seem at all concerned about their eating behaviours - Proper planning is needed to avoid poor eating habits at sports venues.

Planning for nutrition at sports events:

- Planning for snacks and meals at sports events is particularly important.

- Carbohydrate foods - most effective to fuel muscle work and should be focus of any athlete's diet. - used to make glycogen and are particularly important following sport, since this is when the body is best

equipped to replace the glycogen fuel stores that have been used during the event - no other time that this glycogen replacement occurs so efficiently. - Incomplete replacement of glycogen increases the risk of premature fatigue or training burnout.

Parents, educators and coaches should encourage:

- Make nutritious snack foods and drinks a part of the sport equipment - Reinforce good eating habits - Change habits

The digestive system: Digestion - breaking down of food into small chemical units so that it can be absorbed.

- absorption of chemical units into the blood takes place in the stomach and small intestine.

- Food not used is passed out as solid waste.

PRE-COMPETITION NUTRITION: EATING TO WIN Energy levels in the body should be high before training and competition. What and how much should one eat and drink before a competition?

(1) Eat a small, easily digested meal, usually less that 500 calories. (2) Eat about two-and-a-half to four hours before competing. (3) Restrict fats and proteins since they are slowly digested. (4) Avoid foods which form gas in the digestive system. (5) Drink small amounts of water often: before, during and after competition.

Fluid replacement in sport:

- Ability to control body temperature is crucial to health.

- Coaches should be aware - increase in the core body temperature (internal body temperature) can significantly reduce performance levels.

- body has two defence mechanisms against an increase in core temperature: o sweating response - have to sweat profusely in order to effectively control body temperature

- Large quantities of water are lost on hot days

- Between four and five litres can be lost during a two-hour period - Sweating cools the body.

o vasodilation response - altering of the blood flow through the skin

- On a hot day - blood in the body takes the heat to the surface

- people become red in the - better to start sweating, increase of blood supply to the skin means that less blood

is available to the working muscles Guidelines for the educator

(1) Arrange practice sessions for the cooler parts of the day. (2) Refrain from training sessions if the humidity is too high. (3) Insist that athletes take water breaks. (4) Keep an eye on heavier and unfit athletes. (5) Make sure athletes are wearing loose-fitting clothes. (6) Arrange that fluid replacement takes place over a period of time, not in one ``drinking bout''.

sharp drop in the fluid level can seriously interfere with body functioning

∵ water makes up approximately 60 percent of total body weight

Coaches and physical education educators have to make learners aware of the necessity of fluid replacement

Advice on nutrition

Recommended Not recommended Vegetables, Fruit Fish Fatty food Fresh food Fried food High proportions of Carbo Chocolate Grill steam or bake Sweets Wholewheat bread, cereal, pasta Chips

Sport friendly food

Sport organisers and tuckshops should sell: wholesome meat and salad rolls warm soup bread, pasta dishes fruit juices home-made muffins fresh fruit

Physiological responses to temperature

■ Sweating response - sweat profusely ■ Vaso-dilation response - Alter blood flow through skin (become red in face)

Fluid replacements drinks

No, they contain a lot of sodium which absorbs natural salt of the body which makes you even more thirsty. When you sweat you lose sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, magnesium

Study Unit 8: Drugs in sport Drug - treat a variety of illnesses ranging from influenza to heart disease:

to relieve pain

to bring on sleep

to fend off sleep

to put on weight

to alleviate anxiety * use of drugs is not exclusive to the modern era. The argument against the use of drugs involves the following points:

(1) Drug taking in sport undermines the whole idea of sport, which promotes honesty and fair play. (2) Inexperienced young athletes, who are particularly vulnerable to pressure from school, coaches, parents, teachers and sponsors, need to be protected. (3) Drugs stimulate aggressive responses, with possible antisocial effects - both on and off the field. (4) Sport is known to promote a healthy lifestyle. Drug taking which is not medically prescribed definitely undermines this value. (5) Sports personalities should set an example for their admirers. Social drug taking may encourage youngsters to do the same.

REASONS WHY ATHLETES TAKE DRUGS

1. can earn huge sums of money from advertisers, sponsors or governments.

2. can earn huge sums of money from advertisers, sponsors or governments. 3. tremendous physical strain of training has driven athletes to look for additional help. 4. recover from competition and training more quickly 5. full-time career move to warmer countries to train and also go to high altitudes in an effort to improve their

performance

many testing schemes were inconsistent and unreliable. Not all countries tested for drug taking;

Drug taking may occur out of season; however, athletes were tested during competition (in season) - ``clean''.

British Sports Council then suggested the best way to test: at random.

Types of drugs Eg’s Effects

Narcotics analgesics: Morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine:

puts people to sleep and leads to impaired judgment. Causes drowsiness and respiratory depression.

Anti-inflammatories: Brufen, voltaren, reparil gel: nausea, vomiting, liver failure, renal disease and cardiovascular failure.

Non-narcotic analgesics: Paracetamol, aspirin, ponstan: detrimental to stomach, liver, kidneys.

STIMULANTS - best-known stimulants are amphetamines.

- used to increase alertness and physical endurance. - ``pep pills''. - increase the heart rate respiration and blood pressure and stimulate the brain - have a direct, stimulating effect on the central nervous and cardiovascular systems - most important effect - help athletes continue working at high levels for prolonged periods of time. - suppress the feeling of fatigue - Once athlete reaches limits of endurance, pain steps in to warn the body to stop before any damage occurs - If pain is suppressed and stress is continued, the muscles pull, and cramps and strains occur - body temperature rises, and dehydration and heatstroke may occur could result in death - more often athletes use a stimulant the more they become accustomed to it - less of an effect on the body -

only way to benefit is to increase the intake

NARCOTIC ANALGESICS - includes morphine, heroin, methadone and even codeine

- Narcotic drugs put people to sleep, while analgesics are used as painkillers. - highly addictive & illegal - use of morphine is known to cause an initially powerful stimulating effect which is then followed by a longer

sedating effect - athlete could fall asleep and could be seriously injured.

ANABOLIC STEROIDS - developed after World War II

- mostly used by doctors to aid growth in patients after a serious illness. - chemicals related to the male hormone testosterone - used mainly during the training seasons prior to competitions - help build power and reduce the recovery rate after training. - effects of steroids - two main categories:

o Androgenic effects: related to the development and maintenance of the male sex organs and the male secondary sex characteristics. various side effects: in women, growth of facial hair, acne, deepening of the voice and disappearance of breasts; in men, impotence, infertility and prostate cancer High and regular doses of steroids may cause death.

o Anabolic effects: used to accelerate the healing of body tissues and to make athletes more aggressive and competitive Side effects include liver damage, personality changes, gastric ulcers, fluid retention and prematurely completed bone growth if taken during adolescence.

- drugs do not make athletes stronger and more powerful within days - enable the highly motivated athlete to train harder with less fatigue and shorter recovery time

DIURETICS - used mainly for rapid weight loss especially in sports where weight categories are involved

- used to dilute the concentration of drugs in urine by producing more rapid excretion in an attempt to reduce the possibility of detecting banned substances in the urine.

- attempt both to deliberately reduce weight artificially to get a participant into a lower weight category - to dilute forbidden substances in the urine - definitely manipulates the rules and compromises sporting ethics

SOCIAL DRUGS - alcohol or tobacco.

- side effects are far from socially desirable - Cigarette smoke contains tar which is the major cause of cancer - collects in lungs – nicotine - very harmful to

the heart, blood vessels and nervous system - gases in tobacco smoke damage the small hairs lining the bronchial tubes, which prevents them from

removing the dust and other particles from the lungs. The result is that the air cells in the lungs become clogged and prevent efficient breathing.

- Alcohol - fairly harmless if taken in reasonable quantities - danger arises when an individual becomes dependent on it - Drinking and sport are often linked: players discuss a game over a drink; some use alcohol to calm their

nerves - drink and top sports performance do not go together

Difference between stimulants and steroids Stimulants increase alertness, increase heart rate and physical endurance. Stimulants increase the athlete's ability to perform by suppressing fatigue. Steroids are used help build strength and reduce the recovery rate of training and result in either an androgenic or anabolic effect. Steroids help to accelerate body healing; they also make athletes aggressive, cause liver damage, personality changes, gastric ulcers. The role of the coach in drug education ■ equip learners/ athletes with skills to make the right decisions (the correct decision being not to take drugs) ■ teach athletes to withstand the peer group pressures which could force them in the wrong direction ■ emphasise short-term health and immediate social consequences ■ emphasise the legal implications of taking drugs ■ the coach should discourage young athletes from focusing on potential financial rewards, which tends to encourage drug use. ■ emphasise the financial loss involved in drug use (drugs are very expensive)

Study Unit 9: Sports injuries (From workbook memo)

Procedures to prevent injuries

■ Warm ups ■ Stretching ■ Cooldowns ■ Fitness - good conditioning ■ Protective devices ■ Safe playing areas ■ Obedience to rules

Importance of warming up and cooling down

Warm ups improve flexibility and prepare mind, heart, muscles and joints for exercises to follow. Reduce the likelihood of injury. Cooldown prevents pooling of blood in limbs --- helps heart, muscles and tissues to recover from exercise.

Safety consideration matching learners for skill, size, sex and age

Yes

First aid procedure for Jane and other players

Jane: Stop play. Make sure all obstacles are removed. Don’t move her. Check if she is breathing. Call ambulance immediately.

Meaning of mnemonics (Abbreviations)

Rest Heat Ice Alcohol Compression Running Elevation Massage Referral

Avoiding HARM factor

HARM must be avoided because heat increases bleeding, alcohol increases swelling, and running and exercise too soon make injury worse. Massage in the first 48 - 72 hours increases swelling and bleeding.

Application of ice to soft tissue injury

■ Elevation is essential. ■ Ice should be covered to prevent burning. ■ Ice should be applied firmly and immediately. ■ Apply HARM. ■ Injury must be firmly strapped. ■ Apply RICER.

Overuse injuries

Marked individually

Steps to treat an injured athlete

Refer to STOP table in study guide

Study Unit 9: Sports injuries The golden rule, ``prevention is better than cure''

1. Warm ups 2. Stretching 3. Cool-downs 4. Fitness - good conditioning 5. Obedience to the rules 6. Playing areas and facilities 7. Spectators 8. Protective devices 9. Environmental conditions 10. Proper management of injuries 11. Illness and participation 12. Medical conditions and participation 13. Balanced competitions 14. Common sense

Injury Management:

- NB to manage injuries correctly – prevent further damage. - Basic knowledge of first aid advisable.

STOP –assess severity of injury and determine whether player should continue or not. RICER – treat minor injuries

Working with injured athletes:

- Coach – know how to treat injured athlete & deal with recovery from injury - Recovery process – lengthly if precautions not taken to avoid further damage

RICER:

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIFIC SPORTS INJURIES 1 LIFE-THREATENING INJURIES

2 SERIOUS INJURIES

3 LESS SERIOUS INJURIES

4 OVERUSE INJURIES