1 10 Essential Rules for Teaching Concepts to Children With Autism Sharon A. Reeve, Ph.D., BCBA Kenneth F. Reeve, Ph.D., BCBA January 16, 2009 Presented

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10 Essential Rules for 10 Essential Rules for Teaching Concepts to Teaching Concepts to Children With AutismChildren With Autism

Sharon A. Reeve, Ph.D., BCBASharon A. Reeve, Ph.D., BCBAKenneth F. Reeve, Ph.D., BCBAKenneth F. Reeve, Ph.D., BCBA

January 16, 2009 January 16, 2009 Presented at the ConferencePresented at the Conference

Evidence-Based Interventions for Teaching Individuals with Autism Evidence-Based Interventions for Teaching Individuals with Autism Sponsored by the AJ Foundation For Children With Autism Sponsored by the AJ Foundation For Children With Autism

& The Comprehensive Learning Center& The Comprehensive Learning Center

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The 10 Rules The 10 Rules (Presentation Objectives)(Presentation Objectives)

Overview of ConceptsOverview of Concepts Rule #1: Know the Importance of Concepts

Importance to learners with and without autism Rule #2: Remember the Basics

Generalization, discrimination, etc. Rule #3: Know How to Use Concept Teaching

Procedures Simultaneous, successive, and conditional discrimination

training procedures Rule #4: Know How to Test for Concept Formation

Behavior necessary to infer concept formation Rule #5: Teach All Types of Concepts

Perceptual classes, relational classes, equivalence classes

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The 10 Rules The 10 Rules (Presentation Objectives)(Presentation Objectives)

Rule #6: Use Multiple Exemplar Training Analysis of relevant features of exemplars

Rule #7: Use Multiple Distractors Reducing “correct” chance responding

Rule #8: Teach in Appropriate Context for Specific Concepts Identify higher order antecedent stimuli

Rule #9: Concurrently Teach Multiple Concepts Avoid teaching single concepts in isolation

Rule #10: Use Error Analysis Determine what is controlling behavior when concepts fail

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Traditional cognitive psychologists talk Traditional cognitive psychologists talk about about internal mental rulesinternal mental rules that define why that define why certain things “go together”certain things “go together”

Cognitive psychologists assert that these Cognitive psychologists assert that these internal mental rules ARE conceptsinternal mental rules ARE concepts

Major problem is that these internal Major problem is that these internal processes are not observable or processes are not observable or measureable!measureable!

What is a Concept?What is a Concept?

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Behavior analysts, however, refer to conceptsBehavior analysts, however, refer to concepts As As sets of stimuli that occasion a common sets of stimuli that occasion a common

responseresponse and… and… Within a set of stimuli, some stimuli occasion Within a set of stimuli, some stimuli occasion

the behavior the behavior without the benefit of explicit without the benefit of explicit teachingteaching (other names for concepts are “stimulus classes” or (other names for concepts are “stimulus classes” or

“categories”) “categories”)

What defines the “boundaries” of a concept What defines the “boundaries” of a concept (how large or small the set is) is often (how large or small the set is) is often determined by society, culture, schooling, etc. determined by society, culture, schooling, etc. E.g., color categories across different culturesE.g., color categories across different cultures


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Behavior analysts identify the Behavior analysts identify the characteristics of characteristics of the stimulithe stimuli in the “concept” that evoke the in the “concept” that evoke the behavior, rather than rely on inferred and behavior, rather than rely on inferred and unobservable “mental structures” to explain unobservable “mental structures” to explain conceptual behaviorconceptual behavior E.g., what characteristics define “tree”E.g., what characteristics define “tree”

Behavior analysts also examine how certain Behavior analysts also examine how certain kinds of kinds of teaching proceduresteaching procedures (discrimination (discrimination training, programming for generalization) affect training, programming for generalization) affect the likelihood of concept formationthe likelihood of concept formation E.g., How expansive will a child’s concept of “dog” E.g., How expansive will a child’s concept of “dog”

be if we only use 3 exemplars to teach it?be if we only use 3 exemplars to teach it?


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Rule #1: Know the Importance of Concepts (In General)

Get something for nothingGet something for nothing New behavior occurs without trainingNew behavior occurs without training

Reduced teaching timeReduced teaching time Less need to explicitly teach everything Less need to explicitly teach everything (economical instructional time)(economical instructional time)

“ “Psychic” power!Psychic” power! Person can make assertions about the Person can make assertions about the characteristics of something you’ve never characteristics of something you’ve never encountered before if you know what concept it encountered before if you know what concept it comes fromcomes from

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Rule #1: Know the Importance of Concepts (Relevance to Autism)

Children with autism have difficulties forming Children with autism have difficulties forming concepts concepts (Burke & Cerniglia, 1990; Bowler, 2006; Johnson & Rakison, (Burke & Cerniglia, 1990; Bowler, 2006; Johnson & Rakison, 2006; Lovaas, Koegel, & Schreibman, 1979)2006; Lovaas, Koegel, & Schreibman, 1979)

May be due to failure to respond to multiple stimulus May be due to failure to respond to multiple stimulus components (called components (called control by restricted featurescontrol by restricted features))

For example, if a child only attends to “4 legs,” they will be For example, if a child only attends to “4 legs,” they will be unable to learn concept of DOG (since many other features unable to learn concept of DOG (since many other features are also relevant to be called a dog and many other animals are also relevant to be called a dog and many other animals are 4-legged)are 4-legged)

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Problems may also be due to responding to only a Problems may also be due to responding to only a limited range of stimuli (limited range of stimuli (control by restricted conceptscontrol by restricted concepts))

For example, maybe only 2 of the following 4 stimuli are For example, maybe only 2 of the following 4 stimuli are labeled as a “DOG” by a learner with autismlabeled as a “DOG” by a learner with autism

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Control by Control by restricted features restricted features and/orand/or restricted restricted conceptsconcepts is referred to as is referred to as stimulus overselectivitystimulus overselectivity (Lovaas, Koegel, & Schreibman, 1979)(Lovaas, Koegel, & Schreibman, 1979) This leads to:This leads to:

communicative delays in speech and languagecommunicative delays in speech and language problems in academic skillsproblems in academic skills social delays social delays (Hoffner-Barthold & Egel, 2001)(Hoffner-Barthold & Egel, 2001)

Therefore, behavior analysts need to have a better working Therefore, behavior analysts need to have a better working knowledge of stimulus control issues to remediate these knowledge of stimulus control issues to remediate these difficulties in concept formation for individuals with autism…difficulties in concept formation for individuals with autism…

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Rule #2: Remember the Basics Stimulus ControlStimulus Control - study of how antecedent events - study of how antecedent events

affect likelihood of a behavior’s occurrenceaffect likelihood of a behavior’s occurrence

Discriminative stimulusDiscriminative stimulus (S (SDD or S+) or S+) is an is an antecedent stimulus that sets the occasion for antecedent stimulus that sets the occasion for reinforcement of a specific behaviorreinforcement of a specific behavior Are many within a conceptAre many within a concept

S-delta S-delta (S(SΔΔ or S-) or extinction stimulus or S-) or extinction stimulus is an is an antecedent stimulus that sets the occasion for antecedent stimulus that sets the occasion for NON-reinforcement of a specific behaviorNON-reinforcement of a specific behavior Often called “distractor stimuli” (non-concept members)Often called “distractor stimuli” (non-concept members)

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Differential Reinforcement: SDifferential Reinforcement: SDD or S or SΔΔ

When a person responds in one situation but not in another When a person responds in one situation but not in another (or responds differently), we say that the person (or responds differently), we say that the person discriminatesdiscriminates between the situations. between the situations. E.g., Child throws a ball in the yard but not in the living roomE.g., Child throws a ball in the yard but not in the living room

Simplest way to teach discrimination is to reinforce a specific Simplest way to teach discrimination is to reinforce a specific behavior in one situation (Sbehavior in one situation (SDD) and withhold reinforcement in ) and withhold reinforcement in the other (Sthe other (SΔΔ)) E.g., Child asks for the ball in the yard and is allowed to enjoy E.g., Child asks for the ball in the yard and is allowed to enjoy

playing with the ball. No ball is provided in the living room. playing with the ball. No ball is provided in the living room.

““Stimulus control” also refers to a change in behavior that Stimulus control” also refers to a change in behavior that occurs when either an Soccurs when either an SDD or S or SΔΔ is presented. is presented. SSDD presented = probability of target response presented = probability of target response increasesincreases SSΔΔ presented = probability of same response presented = probability of same response decreasesdecreases

E.g., Child learns to ask for ball in the yard but not when in the E.g., Child learns to ask for ball in the yard but not when in the living roomliving room

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Generalization vs. DiscriminationGeneralization vs. Discrimination

Discrimination Discrimination = target behavior occurs in = target behavior occurs in one situation but not in othersone situation but not in others We discriminate “among or between settings, people, We discriminate “among or between settings, people,

stimuli”stimuli” E.g., Regarding ball playing, the child can E.g., Regarding ball playing, the child can

discriminate between the yard and the living roomdiscriminate between the yard and the living room

GeneralizationGeneralization = target behavior occurs = target behavior occurs across multiple situationsacross multiple situations We generalize “across settings, people, stimuli”We generalize “across settings, people, stimuli” E.g., Child will ask for a ball in the neighbor’s yard, E.g., Child will ask for a ball in the neighbor’s yard,

Grandma’s yard, and the school playgroundGrandma’s yard, and the school playground

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Stimulus GeneralizationStimulus Generalization Why does generalization occur across Why does generalization occur across

newnew stimuli following teaching? stimuli following teaching? Occurs when new stimuli share common Occurs when new stimuli share common

properties or properties or featuresfeatures with the original with the original discriminative stimulus (or stimuli) used in discriminative stimulus (or stimuli) used in teachingteaching

Will “appropriate” generalization occur Will “appropriate” generalization occur automatically? (that is, will concepts automatically? (that is, will concepts form?)form?) Maybe yes, maybe no…Maybe yes, maybe no…

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Stimulus DiscriminationStimulus Discrimination

Why does discrimination occur between Why does discrimination occur between stimuli?stimuli? Occurs when other stimuli do NOT share Occurs when other stimuli do NOT share

common features with the original common features with the original discriminative stimulus (or stimuli) used in discriminative stimulus (or stimuli) used in teaching. Or, does not share sufficient teaching. Or, does not share sufficient numbers of common features.numbers of common features.

Will “appropriate” discrimination occur Will “appropriate” discrimination occur automatically? (will learner discriminate automatically? (will learner discriminate one concept from another?)one concept from another?) Maybe yes, maybe no…Maybe yes, maybe no…

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Role of Generalization and Role of Generalization and Discrimination in Concept FormationDiscrimination in Concept Formation

Target behavior generalizes WITHIN the Target behavior generalizes WITHIN the concept (i.e., within a set of stimuli, each concept (i.e., within a set of stimuli, each concept member occasions a common concept member occasions a common response) response) E.g., Child says “That’s a cat” in the presence of E.g., Child says “That’s a cat” in the presence of

many different catsmany different cats

Target behavior does NOT generalize to OTHER Target behavior does NOT generalize to OTHER concepts (i.e., learner discriminates among concepts (i.e., learner discriminates among different concepts)different concepts) Nothing is said, or some other expressive label (“That Nothing is said, or some other expressive label (“That

one’s a dog!”) is given for members of other conceptsone’s a dog!”) is given for members of other concepts

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Rule #3: Know How to Use Concept Teaching Procedures

One method is to arrange the presentation of One method is to arrange the presentation of SSDDs from different concepts (called s from different concepts (called “exemplars”) so that one follows an other “exemplars”) so that one follows an other (called (called successive discrimination training)successive discrimination training)..

Teach behavior that is appropriate for each Teach behavior that is appropriate for each SSDD (or teach learner NOT to respond to an S (or teach learner NOT to respond to an SΔΔ))

See simple See simple successive discrimination training successive discrimination training example on next slide…example on next slide…

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““If you see If you see money, take it”money, take it”

Learner receives reinforcement for taking the money

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Learner receives NO reinforcement for taking the ball

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In alternative procedure, In alternative procedure, simultaneous simultaneous discriminationdiscrimination,, the S the SDD for one concept is for one concept is presented with multiple Spresented with multiple SΔsΔs (members of other (members of other concepts) at the same timeconcepts) at the same time

Learner is taught to respond to the SLearner is taught to respond to the SDD. .

See simple See simple simultaneous discrimination training simultaneous discrimination training example on next slide…example on next slide…

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Learner receives NO reinforcement for taking the clock or ball


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In another procedure, In another procedure, conditional conditional discrimination trainingdiscrimination training, , the presence of a the presence of a “sample stimulus” (such as a visual stimulus “sample stimulus” (such as a visual stimulus or different instructions given to a learner) or different instructions given to a learner) dictates which of two or more “comparison dictates which of two or more “comparison stimuli” or “distractors” the learner should stimuli” or “distractors” the learner should select.select.

The “sample stimulus” changes from one trial The “sample stimulus” changes from one trial to anotherto another

See example on next slide…See example on next slide…


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““Pick the Pick the money”money”

““Pick Pick the ball”the ball”

One sample trialOne sample trial Another trialAnother trial


Learner receives reinforcement for taking the ball

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Conditional DiscriminationConditional Discrimination The behavioral function of each comparison The behavioral function of each comparison

changes depending on the presence of the sample.changes depending on the presence of the sample.

That is, sometimes a comparison stimulus is an SThat is, sometimes a comparison stimulus is an SDD for selecting it and in other situations the Sfor selecting it and in other situations the SΔΔ

The correct response is “conditional on” (dependent The correct response is “conditional on” (dependent on) the specific sample stimuluson) the specific sample stimulus

Conditional discrimination Conditional discrimination is an “IF-THEN” ruleis an “IF-THEN” rule

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Conditional Discrimination = Conditional Discrimination = Matching To SampleMatching To Sample

Because the conditional stimulus is referred to Because the conditional stimulus is referred to as a as a samplesample and the choices we respond to are and the choices we respond to are called called comparisonscomparisons, this procedure is also called , this procedure is also called matching to sample (MTS)matching to sample (MTS)

More examples…next slideMore examples…next slide

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Identity matching Identity matching (match one thing to itself)(match one thing to itself)

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Perceptual similarity-based matchingPerceptual similarity-based matching (e.g., (e.g., match one dog picture to a similar dog match one dog picture to a similar dog picture) picture)

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Arbitrary matching Arbitrary matching (e.g., match one dog picture to dissimilar stimulus such as a word) (e.g., match one dog picture to dissimilar stimulus such as a word)

DOGDOG HOPHOP CATCAT

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Rule #4: Know How to Test for Concept Formation

Specific behavioral properties must be Specific behavioral properties must be demonstrated in the presence of the stimulus demonstrated in the presence of the stimulus members to infer that they are functioning as a members to infer that they are functioning as a concept:concept: Each stimulus in the set occasions a particular Each stimulus in the set occasions a particular

responseresponse This generalization emerges after training has occurred with This generalization emerges after training has occurred with

only a subset of all the possible stimuli in the potential class only a subset of all the possible stimuli in the potential class (Lea, 1984; Herrnstein, 1990). (Lea, 1984; Herrnstein, 1990).

Stimuli in other sets do not occasion that same Stimuli in other sets do not occasion that same response (Adams et al., 1993; Fields, Adams, response (Adams et al., 1993; Fields, Adams, Buffington, Yang, & Verhave, 1996; Wasserman & Buffington, Yang, & Verhave, 1996; Wasserman & DeVolder, 1993). DeVolder, 1993).

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Rule #4: Know How to Test Concept Formation

Example: If teaching the concept of “dog,” Example: If teaching the concept of “dog,” how does an instructor infer that the child how does an instructor infer that the child has learned the concept?has learned the concept? Child says “That is a dog” to many different Child says “That is a dog” to many different

dog pictures (this happens even though child dog pictures (this happens even though child was directly taught to respond to only some of was directly taught to respond to only some of the pictures)the pictures)

Child does NOT say “That is a dog” to Child does NOT say “That is a dog” to pictures of lions or tigers or bears, etc. pictures of lions or tigers or bears, etc.

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1. 1. Perceptual classPerceptual class = stimuli in the set share = stimuli in the set share some physical characteristics some physical characteristics Examples: dogs, flowers, children, chairs, cars, etc.Examples: dogs, flowers, children, chairs, cars, etc.

2. 2. Relational classRelational class = stimuli in the set = stimuli in the set characterize some abstract relationship characterize some abstract relationship Example: “bigger than,” “same/different”Example: “bigger than,” “same/different”

3. 3. Equivalence classEquivalence class = stimuli do NOT share = stimuli do NOT share any physical characteristics (Stimuli “go any physical characteristics (Stimuli “go together” just because society says so)together” just because society says so) Example: numeral Example: numeral 11 = written = written oneone = spoken “ = spoken “WUNWUN””

Rule #5: Teach All Types of Concepts

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1. Perceptual Classes1. Perceptual Classes In these concepts, there is a perceived similarity across In these concepts, there is a perceived similarity across

the stimuli within the conceptthe stimuli within the concept It is difficult, however, It is difficult, however,

(a) to define all stimulus properties (features) of (a) to define all stimulus properties (features) of concept members, and concept members, and

(b) to identify the range or “boundaries” of the (b) to identify the range or “boundaries” of the concepts (these characteristics are ill-defined or concepts (these characteristics are ill-defined or fuzzyfuzzy))

stimuli in perceptual classes contain different stimuli in perceptual classes contain different combinations of multiple possible featurescombinations of multiple possible features

For example, what features define DOGS? For example, what features define DOGS? Rachmaninoff music? TREES? Rachmaninoff music? TREES? (Adams, Fields, & Verhave, 1993; Blough, 1990; Cerella, 1979; Cook et (Adams, Fields, & Verhave, 1993; Blough, 1990; Cerella, 1979; Cook et

al., 1990; Herrnstein, 1990; Lea, 1984; Rosch & Mervis, 1975)al., 1990; Herrnstein, 1990; Lea, 1984; Rosch & Mervis, 1975)

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Perceptual Classes: Control of Perceptual Classes: Control of RespondingResponding

Presumably, category members contain some Presumably, category members contain some combination of multiple possible features (I.e., a tree combination of multiple possible features (I.e., a tree contains a certain number of tree features: leaves, contains a certain number of tree features: leaves, bark, tall, etc.)bark, tall, etc.)

If a stimulus does not contain enough of these features, If a stimulus does not contain enough of these features, then it will probably be excluded from class membershipthen it will probably be excluded from class membership (Herrnstein, 1990; Jitsumori, 1993, 1996; Lea & Ryan, 1984; (Herrnstein, 1990; Jitsumori, 1993, 1996; Lea & Ryan, 1984;

Medin & Smith, 1984; Rosch & Mervis, 1975; Smith & Medin, Medin & Smith, 1984; Rosch & Mervis, 1975; Smith & Medin, 1981; Wasserman, Kiedinger, & Bhatt, 1988)1981; Wasserman, Kiedinger, & Bhatt, 1988)

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Teaching & Testing ProceduresTeaching & Testing Procedures

During teaching, learners are exposed to During teaching, learners are exposed to multiple different stimuli from each multiple different stimuli from each potential perceptual classpotential perceptual class called called multiple exemplar training (MET)multiple exemplar training (MET)

(Becker, 1971; Cook et al., 1990; Haring, Breen, (Becker, 1971; Cook et al., 1990; Haring, Breen, & Laitenen, 1989; Homa & Little, 1985) & Laitenen, 1989; Homa & Little, 1985)

Stimuli can be presented either one at a Stimuli can be presented either one at a time (successive discrimination), or time (successive discrimination), or concurrently (simultaneous discrimination), concurrently (simultaneous discrimination), or in conditional discrimination. or in conditional discrimination.

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““What is this?”What is this?”

Learner receives reinforcement for saying “car”

Successive discrimination trial with one car exemplar

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Learner receives reinforcement for saying “car”

Successive discrimination trial with another car exemplar

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Learner receives NO reinforcement for saying “car” (but does receive

reinforcement, of course, for saying “truck” if that concept is also being taught)

Successive discrimination trial with a non-car distractor

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““Point to the car”Point to the car”

Learner receives NO reinforcement for pointing to the motorcycle or truck

Learner receives reinforcement for pointing to car

Simultaneous discrimination trial with one car exemplar and two distractors

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Learner receives NO reinforcement for pointing to the motorcycle or truck

Learner receives reinforcement for pointing to car

Simultaneous discrimination trial with another car exemplar and another two distractors

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Testing for the ConceptTesting for the Concept

Additional NOVEL stimuli from the same concept must Additional NOVEL stimuli from the same concept must occasion the same target behavior even though they had occasion the same target behavior even though they had never been presented before (this is generalization to never been presented before (this is generalization to new concept members)new concept members)

Likewise, the learner should NOT emit the target Likewise, the learner should NOT emit the target behavior in the presence of novel NON-members behavior in the presence of novel NON-members (discrimination between categories)(discrimination between categories)

To assess this…To assess this…

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Child says “Car” but no programmed consequences

Generalization test trial (successive discrimination trial) with a novel car not

used in teaching

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Generalization test trial (simultaneous discrimination trial) with another novel car not

used in teaching

No programmed consequences

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Training & Testing Procedures: Training & Testing Procedures: Conditional DiscriminationConditional Discrimination

establishment of perceptual classes can establishment of perceptual classes can also involve also involve conditional discrimination conditional discrimination procedures, such as matching to sampleprocedures, such as matching to sample

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sample

Following presentation of the Following presentation of the sample, some observing response, sample, some observing response, such as touching the sample, must be such as touching the sample, must be emitted. emitted.

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Next, at least two additional stimuli, called Next, at least two additional stimuli, called comparisons, are presented. comparisons, are presented.

One is drawn from the same potential One is drawn from the same potential perceptual class as the sample and is perceptual class as the sample and is called the positive comparisoncalled the positive comparison

Other comparison comes from a different Other comparison comes from a different class and is called the negative class and is called the negative comparisoncomparison

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Sample 1

+ comparison - comparison

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Sample 1

+ comparisoncomparison

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Sample 2

+ comparison - comparison

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Sample 2

- comparison + comparison

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Testing Procedures: Testing Procedures: Conditional DiscriminationConditional Discrimination

New NOVEL stimuli must occasion selection of other concept New NOVEL stimuli must occasion selection of other concept members even though they had never been paired together members even though they had never been paired together before in a match-to-sample trial (generalization to new before in a match-to-sample trial (generalization to new concept members)concept members)

Likewise, novel stimuli must NOT occasion selection of Likewise, novel stimuli must NOT occasion selection of stimuli from a different concept (discrimination between stimuli from a different concept (discrimination between concepts)concepts)

To assess this…To assess this…

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Sample 1

NOVEL + comparisoncomparison

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Sample 2

- comparison NOVEL + comparison

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2. Relational Classes: Definition2. Relational Classes: Definition

These concepts are more abstract These concepts are more abstract because no specific stimulus features because no specific stimulus features define concept membership, nor is any define concept membership, nor is any specific stimulus by itself a “member”specific stimulus by itself a “member”

Rather, the concept is defined by a Rather, the concept is defined by a specific specific relationshiprelationship among or between among or between stimulistimuli

For example…For example…

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Relational Classes: DefinitionRelational Classes: Definition

Consider the unlimited number of pairs of stimuli Consider the unlimited number of pairs of stimuli that define the concept of “larger than” that define the concept of “larger than”

““Which one is Which one is larger?”larger?”

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Note that any pair of objects can exemplify the Note that any pair of objects can exemplify the concept “larger” as long as one occupies more physical concept “larger” as long as one occupies more physical space than the otherspace than the other

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Relational Classes: DefinitionRelational Classes: Definition

Another example is the abstract relational Another example is the abstract relational concept of “same” concept of “same” Again, no particular stimuli define the concept. Again, no particular stimuli define the concept. Any two (or more) stimuli that are identical in Any two (or more) stimuli that are identical in

all respects can serve as exemplars of the all respects can serve as exemplars of the conceptconcept

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““Are these the Are these the same?”same?”

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3. Equivalence Classes: Definition3. Equivalence Classes: Definition

A finite group of physically disparate A finite group of physically disparate stimuli (no perceptual similarity)stimuli (no perceptual similarity)

Stimuli become related solely as a function Stimuli become related solely as a function of teaching of teaching (Fields, Adams, Buffington, Yang, & (Fields, Adams, Buffington, Yang, & Verhave, 1996; Fields, Reeve, Adams, Brown, & Verhave, 1996; Fields, Reeve, Adams, Brown, & Verhave, 1991; Sidman & Tailby, 1982; Sidman, 1994)Verhave, 1991; Sidman & Tailby, 1982; Sidman, 1994)

An equivalence class must contain at least An equivalence class must contain at least three stimuli (but often has many more)three stimuli (but often has many more)

Typically taught using conditional Typically taught using conditional discrimination proceduresdiscrimination procedures

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Example Stimuli in a 3-Member Example Stimuli in a 3-Member Equivalence ClassEquivalence Class

Written wordWritten word

Spoken wordSpoken word

A pictureA picture

DOG“DOG”

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Another ExampleAnother Example

Written wordWritten word

Spoken wordSpoken word

A pictureA picture

CAT

“CAT”

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Rule #6: Use Multiple Exemplar Training

Experiments show that Experiments show that larger numberslarger numbers of of training exemplars produce better concept training exemplars produce better concept learning than fewer exemplars learning than fewer exemplars (Becker, 1971; (Becker, 1971; Bhatt & Wright 1992; Engelmann, & Carnine, 1982; Bhatt & Wright 1992; Engelmann, & Carnine, 1982; Homa & Chambliss, 1975; Homa, Cross, Cornell, Homa & Chambliss, 1975; Homa, Cross, Cornell, Goldman, & Swartz, 1973; Homa, Sterling, & Treple, Goldman, & Swartz, 1973; Homa, Sterling, & Treple, 1981; Omohundro, 1981; Sands, & Delius, 1988)1981; Omohundro, 1981; Sands, & Delius, 1988)

No studies YET for children with autism!No studies YET for children with autism!

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Why is Multiple Exemplar Training Why is Multiple Exemplar Training (MET) Superior for Concept (MET) Superior for Concept

Formation?Formation? Unlikely that a single exemplar of a Unlikely that a single exemplar of a perceptual classperceptual class, for , for

example will contain all the possible relevant features that example will contain all the possible relevant features that define membershipdefine membership Teach a variety of exemplars that represent all relevant featuresTeach a variety of exemplars that represent all relevant features E.g., selecting pictures containing relevant features of dogsE.g., selecting pictures containing relevant features of dogs

Also, since stimuli may also contain features that are Also, since stimuli may also contain features that are IRRELEVANT for class membership, these irrelevant IRRELEVANT for class membership, these irrelevant features may be controlling behaviorfeatures may be controlling behavior E.g., if you use five pictures of dogs with brown collars, then any E.g., if you use five pictures of dogs with brown collars, then any

animal with a brown collar may be called a doganimal with a brown collar may be called a dog

For control of responding to be exerted by the relevant For control of responding to be exerted by the relevant features, the learner must, features, the learner must, by necessityby necessity, be exposed to , be exposed to more than one class exemplar (more…)more than one class exemplar (more…)

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Why is ME Training Superior?Why is ME Training Superior? As the number of exemplars used during As the number of exemplars used during

discrimination training increases, there is a greater discrimination training increases, there is a greater probability that the learner’s behavior will be probability that the learner’s behavior will be reinforced in the presence of the reinforced in the presence of the relevant featuresrelevant features and a reduced likelihood of reinforcement in the and a reduced likelihood of reinforcement in the presence of irrelevant featurespresence of irrelevant features E.g., Child’s behavior for selecting a picture of a dog E.g., Child’s behavior for selecting a picture of a dog

must occur in the presence of relevant features for a must occur in the presence of relevant features for a dog: round/oblong head shape, tall shoulders, claws dog: round/oblong head shape, tall shoulders, claws always present, bigger nose & eyes (barking)always present, bigger nose & eyes (barking)

Behavior never occurs in the presence of irrelevant Behavior never occurs in the presence of irrelevant features: short shoulders, retracted claws, smaller nose features: short shoulders, retracted claws, smaller nose & eyes, triangle head shape (meowing)& eyes, triangle head shape (meowing)

Keep in mind there are always features dogs that dogs share with Keep in mind there are always features dogs that dogs share with other categories of animals –fur, 4-legs –so you need to make sure other categories of animals –fur, 4-legs –so you need to make sure that the relevant dog-specific features are there.that the relevant dog-specific features are there.

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Why Not a Single Exemplar?Why Not a Single Exemplar?

Although teaching with a single exemplar might be Although teaching with a single exemplar might be “easier,” it provides an equal likelihood that both “easier,” it provides an equal likelihood that both relevant and irrelevant features will be correlated relevant and irrelevant features will be correlated with reinforcement for responding, thus reducing with reinforcement for responding, thus reducing the likelihood the child will learn the category (they the likelihood the child will learn the category (they often will just learn that one picture)often will just learn that one picture) For example, only using one picture of a dog to teach For example, only using one picture of a dog to teach

the category of dog might mean “4-legs” is controlling the category of dog might mean “4-legs” is controlling the behavior and not dog-specific features, such as the behavior and not dog-specific features, such as shape of head etc. shape of head etc.

As another example, using only a banana to teach the As another example, using only a banana to teach the color yellow might lead to the color yellow might lead to the shapeshape of the banana or its of the banana or its smellsmell or the or the peelpeel rather than the color controlling rather than the color controlling behavior. behavior.

Pilot StudyPilot Study Alternating concept teaching with many Alternating concept teaching with many

exemplars versus few exemplars to see exemplars versus few exemplars to see which produces better concept formationwhich produces better concept formation

Conducted with young learners with autism Conducted with young learners with autism who do not show basic conceptswho do not show basic concepts

Taught 6 animal concepts (half of classes Taught 6 animal concepts (half of classes with 3 exemplars each and other half with 6 with 3 exemplars each and other half with 6 exemplars each)exemplars each)

See sample trial…See sample trial…

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“Point to DOG”

TRAINING: Used 3 different teaching exemplars of dogs, TRAINING: Used 3 different teaching exemplars of dogs, cats, and birdscats, and birds

On alternate days, used 6 different teaching exemplars of On alternate days, used 6 different teaching exemplars of horses, snakes, and monkeyshorses, snakes, and monkeys

For TESTING: Used 3 NOVEL exemplars for EACH For TESTING: Used 3 NOVEL exemplars for EACH conceptconcept

Results…Results…

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Rule #7: Use Multiple Distractors (Comparison Stimuli)

Consider the conditional discrimination (MTS) procedure Consider the conditional discrimination (MTS) procedure used to teach our categories of DOGS and CATSused to teach our categories of DOGS and CATS

In previous slides, we showed you trials in which there were In previous slides, we showed you trials in which there were only 2 comparison stimuli (a positive and negative only 2 comparison stimuli (a positive and negative comparison)comparison)

There are a few problems with this arrangement (see There are a few problems with this arrangement (see next…)next…)

“DOG”

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Effects of Number of DistractorsEffects of Number of Distractors One problem is that a child may learn to respond to dog stimuli but One problem is that a child may learn to respond to dog stimuli but

then simply respond “anything but dog” on trials in which cat stimuli then simply respond “anything but dog” on trials in which cat stimuli should be selectedshould be selected As a result, the child will still be correct on cat trials, but NOT because As a result, the child will still be correct on cat trials, but NOT because

they have learned the CAT conceptthey have learned the CAT concept This is called This is called responding by exclusion responding by exclusion and it produces a failure to learn and it produces a failure to learn

the second conceptthe second concept A learner really doesn’t have to attend to the other concept; just make A learner really doesn’t have to attend to the other concept; just make

sure it is NOT a dog stimulussure it is NOT a dog stimulus

“DOG”

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Effects of Number of DistractorsEffects of Number of Distractors

Another problem with only two comparisons is that the Another problem with only two comparisons is that the probability of being correct by GUESSING is 50%!probability of being correct by GUESSING is 50%!

If guesses are reinforced, but not “conceptual behavior,” If guesses are reinforced, but not “conceptual behavior,” then it is unlikely that the concept will be learned since the then it is unlikely that the concept will be learned since the relevant features are NOT what is controlling behaviorrelevant features are NOT what is controlling behavior

“DOG”

75

Increasing Number of DistractorsIncreasing Number of Distractors

Adding additional distractors reduces the likelihood Adding additional distractors reduces the likelihood of guessing being reinforcedof guessing being reinforced In the example below, there is now only a 25% chance In the example below, there is now only a 25% chance

of a guess being reinforced of a guess being reinforced

“DOG”

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Increasing Number of DistractorsIncreasing Number of Distractors

Adding additional distractors also reduces the likelihood that any Adding additional distractors also reduces the likelihood that any class was learned by exclusionclass was learned by exclusion

In the training paradigm below, the child would need to learn at In the training paradigm below, the child would need to learn at least 3 of the 4 concepts (CAT, DOG, BIRD). The fourth, least 3 of the 4 concepts (CAT, DOG, BIRD). The fourth, however, might still be learned as “NOT cat, dog, bird” but it however, might still be learned as “NOT cat, dog, bird” but it would not be FROGwould not be FROG

“DOG”

Rule #8: When Possible, Teach in Rule #8: When Possible, Teach in the Context That Exerts Control the Context That Exerts Control Over the Conceptual BehaviorOver the Conceptual Behavior

Identify all higher order antecedent stimuli Identify all higher order antecedent stimuli and teach concepts in their presenceand teach concepts in their presence Stokes and Baer (1977) referred to this Stokes and Baer (1977) referred to this

principle as “programming for common stimuli”principle as “programming for common stimuli” The folks at PCDI often use this principle The folks at PCDI often use this principle

through the use of activity schedulesthrough the use of activity schedules E.g., A tooth-brushing schedule is found in the E.g., A tooth-brushing schedule is found in the

bathroom and contains relevant pictures of bathroom and contains relevant pictures of items necessary for brushing teethitems necessary for brushing teeth

Rule #9: Concurrently Teach Rule #9: Concurrently Teach Multiple ConceptsMultiple Concepts

Do not teach a single concept in isolationDo not teach a single concept in isolation Examples on next slide…Examples on next slide…

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DOG

DOG

DOG

DOG

What’s the Problem?What’s the Problem? Assuming you saw those 3 trials, would Assuming you saw those 3 trials, would

you say that the learner can match the you say that the learner can match the written word DOG to the corresponding written word DOG to the corresponding dog picture? NOdog picture? NO

What function might the sample or What function might the sample or conditional stimulus (written word) be conditional stimulus (written word) be serving? NONEserving? NONE

What is the problem with arranging trials in What is the problem with arranging trials in this way? EVERYTHING!this way? EVERYTHING!

NEVER, NEVER, NEVER NEVER, NEVER, NEVER TEACH IN ISOLATIONTEACH IN ISOLATION

This “tricks” the teacher that a child is This “tricks” the teacher that a child is learning a concept. In fact, child may not learning a concept. In fact, child may not be learning a conceptbe learning a concept

A more serious mistake is that child many A more serious mistake is that child many be learning the wrong things, such as:be learning the wrong things, such as: Don’t attend to the sample stimulusDon’t attend to the sample stimulus Don’t attend to the comparison stimulusDon’t attend to the comparison stimulus Pick whatever picture is on the deskPick whatever picture is on the desk

E.g., 5 x 2, 7 + 3, 9 + 1, 12 – 2, E.g., 5 x 2, 7 + 3, 9 + 1, 12 – 2, 4 – 2, 3 – 1, 2 – 0, 5 – 3, 6 – 4, 7 - 54 – 2, 3 – 1, 2 – 0, 5 – 3, 6 – 4, 7 - 5

84

Rule #10: When Concept Formation Fails, Use Error Analysis!

Did you first identify the relevant features making up the concept? What are the relevant features of a shoe

Shape, fasteners, sole/heal,

Did you make sure the relevant features appear often in your teaching exemplars? Have a wide variety of shoes with shape, fasteners,

sole/heal

Did you make sure that irrelevant features are not consistently appearing E.g., all shoes used in teaching are brown

Problems In Conditional Problems In Conditional Discrimination (MTS) TrainingDiscrimination (MTS) Training

Also called “extraneous stimulus control”Also called “extraneous stimulus control” That is, something other than the teacher-That is, something other than the teacher-

defined antecedent stimuli is controlling defined antecedent stimuli is controlling behaviorbehavior

Often times, extraneous control can Often times, extraneous control can APPEAR to be “proper” stimulus controlAPPEAR to be “proper” stimulus control

Let’s examine the following trials…Let’s examine the following trials…

CAT

CAT

CAT

What’s the problem?What’s the problem?

Assuming you saw those 3 trials, would Assuming you saw those 3 trials, would you say that the learner can match the you say that the learner can match the written word CAT to a picture of a cat?written word CAT to a picture of a cat?

What function might the sample or What function might the sample or conditional stimulus (written word CAT) be conditional stimulus (written word CAT) be serving? NONEserving? NONE

What is the problem with arranging trials in What is the problem with arranging trials in isolation this way? SAMPLE BECOMES isolation this way? SAMPLE BECOMES IRRELEVANTIRRELEVANT


Now look at these 3 trials…Now look at these 3 trials…

CAT

DOG

HAMSTER


Assuming you saw those 3 trials, would Assuming you saw those 3 trials, would you say that the learner can match the you say that the learner can match the written word to corresponding picture?written word to corresponding picture?

What function might the sample or What function might the sample or conditional stimuli (written words) be conditional stimuli (written words) be serving? NONEserving? NONE

What is the problem with arranging trials in What is the problem with arranging trials in this way? LEFT COMPARISON IS this way? LEFT COMPARISON IS ALWAYS CORRECTALWAYS CORRECT


Now look at some more trials…Now look at some more trials…

DOG

DOG

DOG

What’s the Problem?What’s the Problem?

Assuming you saw those 3 trials, would you say Assuming you saw those 3 trials, would you say that the learner can match the written word DOG that the learner can match the written word DOG to the corresponding dog picture?to the corresponding dog picture?

What function might the sample or conditional What function might the sample or conditional stimulus (written word) be serving? NONEstimulus (written word) be serving? NONE

What is the problem with arranging trials in this What is the problem with arranging trials in this way? NEW STIMULI ARE NEVER CORRECT way? NEW STIMULI ARE NEVER CORRECT SO THEY CAN BE IGNORED!SO THEY CAN BE IGNORED!

Are these novel distractors relevant? NOAre these novel distractors relevant? NO

Strategies to Reduce Extraneous Strategies to Reduce Extraneous Stimulus Control in MTSStimulus Control in MTS

Within a session, alternate the sample Within a session, alternate the sample stimuli used.stimuli used. E.g., Can’t always be a picture of a dogE.g., Can’t always be a picture of a dog

Each different sample should appear in an Each different sample should appear in an equal number of trials.equal number of trials. E.g., don’t teach more trials of dog than cat –E.g., don’t teach more trials of dog than cat –

teach equal number of trials of cat and dogteach equal number of trials of cat and dog Use the SAME comparisons within a Use the SAME comparisons within a

session during training. session during training.

MoreMoreStrategies to Reduce Extraneous Strategies to Reduce Extraneous

Stimulus Control in MTSStimulus Control in MTS Make every comparison used be, at some Make every comparison used be, at some

point, a correct answerpoint, a correct answer E.g., cat, dog, frogE.g., cat, dog, frog

Use 3 or more comparisons on every trial to Use 3 or more comparisons on every trial to reduce likelihood of reinforcing guessing. reduce likelihood of reinforcing guessing. What is the limit on number of comparisons?What is the limit on number of comparisons?

Within a session, the correct comparison Within a session, the correct comparison stimuli should appear equally often stimuli should appear equally often (frequency of occurrence)(frequency of occurrence)


Stimulus Control in MTSStimulus Control in MTS Within a session, the correct comparison stimuli Within a session, the correct comparison stimuli

should appear equally often in EACH POSITIONshould appear equally often in EACH POSITION For each trials, the learner should be required to For each trials, the learner should be required to

make an make an observing response observing response to the sample to the sample (conditional) stimulus.(conditional) stimulus. Require the learner to touch or point to the sampleRequire the learner to touch or point to the sample

Do not rearrange the trial stimuli in front of the Do not rearrange the trial stimuli in front of the learner. Screen these and then present them in learner. Screen these and then present them in the “proper” array. the “proper” array.


Stimulus Control in MTSStimulus Control in MTS If teaching matching, have learners POINT If teaching matching, have learners POINT

to the correct comparisons rather than to the correct comparisons rather than PLACE ON TOP of the sample stimulus.PLACE ON TOP of the sample stimulus. This is a very functional response that is good This is a very functional response that is good

to practice to practice The learner can see both stimuli at the same The learner can see both stimuli at the same

timetime At some point the stimuli may be too big to At some point the stimuli may be too big to

move (E.g. refrigerator, car)move (E.g. refrigerator, car)


Stimulus Control in MTSStimulus Control in MTS Use Use errorless teaching errorless teaching rather than rather than trial and trial and

errorerror E.g., Make relevant feature more salientE.g., Make relevant feature more salient

Idea here is that we may also reduce Idea here is that we may also reduce emotional side effects of trial and error emotional side effects of trial and error learninglearning E.g., gradually fade out stimulus promptsE.g., gradually fade out stimulus prompts

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1 10 Essential Rules for Teaching Concepts to Children With Autism Sharon A. Reeve, Ph.D., BCBA Kenneth F. Reeve, Ph.D., BCBA January 16, 2009 Presented