Proceedings,  8th  International  Conference  on  Language  and  Development,  Bangladesh  2009    

   

Mother  Tongue  Education  in  Multilingual  Settings:  Quality  Education  for  All  

 Catherine  M  B  Young  

   

Abstract    

There   are  more   than  6,000   languages   spoken   in   the  world   today.  However,   over  90%  of  people  globally  speak  only  about  300  majority   languages.  The  remaining  5,700   languages   are   termed   “minority   languages”   or   “non-­‐dominant”   languages.  These   languages  represent  the  ethnolinguistic  diversity  of  our  world  and  the  rich  cultural   heritage   embedded   within   cultural   communities.   A   number   of   current  international   initiatives   highlight   language-­‐in-­‐education   policy   and   practice.  Research  and  experience  have  shown  that  quality  language  education  occurs  most  effectively  when  the   learner  begins  to  read  and  write   in  their  mother  tongue  and  then   transitions   in   a   structured   manner   to   other   languages   of   wider  communication   used   for   education   in   the   nation.   The   vital   issue   of   enabling  learners   to   make   a   successful   transition   from   mother   tongue   education   to   full  participation   in   national   language   education   needs   to   be   considered   from  beginning   of   planning   a  multilingual   education   strategy.   This   paper   will   review  underlying  principles   for   the   implementation   of  mother-­‐tongue-­‐first  multilingual  education  in  the  elementary  years  as  a  foundation  for  quality  language  education  in   the   national   and   international   languages   of   education.   It   will   also   share  examples   of   current   innovations   illustrating   the   context   in  which  mother   tongue  education  is  happening  within  both  formal  and  non-­‐formal  sectors  in  Asia.  

   Introduction    There  are  more  than  6,000  languages  spoken  in  the  world  today  (Ethnologue,  2005).  However,  over   90%  of   people   globally   speak   only   about   300  majority   languages   –   the   remaining   5,700  languages   being   termed   “minority   languages”.   These   languages   represent   the   ethnolinguistic  diversity   of   our  world   and   the   rich   cultural   heritage   embedded  within   cultural   communities.  Multilingualism   is   a   reality   in   every   nation   of   South   and   Southeast   Asia   and   almost   every  country   in   the   world.   Yet,   the   design   of   education   systems   has   traditionally   focussed   on   a  monolingual,   monocultural   approach   –   a   model   that   has,   in   general,   been   inherited   from  Western  colonial  systems  of  education.  Thus,  there  is  a  need  for  both  programme  content  and  delivery   to   be   designed   in   ways   that   reflect   the   realities   of   the  multilingual   contexts   and   be  responsive   to   the   needs   of   learners   whose   mother   tongue1  is   not   the   dominant   language   of  national  education  systems.    Worldwide,   participation   in   basic   education   is   increasing.   The   2008   EFA   Global   Monitoring  Report  notes  evidence  of  increased  enrolment  in  primary  schools  worldwide  of  6.4%  since  1999  (2007b:  12).  However,  in  some  countries,  including  those  in  South  and  Central  Asia,  average  and  net  enrolment  rates  are  still  low.  For  example,  Pakistan  is  cited  in  the  Global  Monitoring  Report  2008  (2007b:  13)  as  having  an  enrolment  rate  of  only  68%.  In  addition,  it  should  be  noted  that                                                                                                                            1  First  language  (L1)  or  “mother  tongue”  can  be  defined  as  the  language  that:  (a)  one  has  learnt  first;  (b)  one  identifies  with  or  is  identified  as  a  native  speaker  of  by  others;  (c)  one  knows  best;  and  (d)  one  uses  most  (UNESCO,  2003:  15).  People  can  have  several  first  languages  (UNESCO  2004:  1).  

Proceedings,  8th  International  Conference  on  Language  and  Development,  Bangladesh  2009    enrolment  is  uneven  in  some  nations.  Nepal  reports  net  enrolment  rates  (NER)  in  the  west  and  far-­‐western  regions  of  the  country  above  95%  whereas  in  the  eastern  and  central  areas,  those  more  affected  by  political  and  social  unrest,  NERs  are  below  60%.    Research   and   data   (World   Bank,   2005:   1)   show   that   children   who   are   not   mother   tongue  speakers  of  the  official  medium  of   instruction  are  often  over-­‐represented  among  out-­‐of-­‐school  populations.   Therefore,   there   is   an   urgent   need   to   ensure   that   language   of   instruction   issues  receive  adequate  attention.      The  Challenge    However,  it  is  not  axiomatic  that  high  enrolment  rates  reflect  a  situation  where  learners  receive  appropriate   education   that   is   responsive   to   their   lifelong   learning   needs.   Access   to   and  participation   in   schooling  does  not   automatically   guarantee  an  optimal   learning  environment.  “Quality”   is   a   key   term   explicit   in   Education   for   All   (EFA)   Goals   Two   and   Six.   The   design   of  systems   of   education   for   learners   from   non-­‐dominant   language   (NDL)   communities   –   those  often  marginalised  through  inappropriate  educational  design  and  delivery  –  should  be  situated  within  a  holistic  framework  of  quality  education  measures.    Kosonen  (2009)  in  Figure  1  shows  that  no  region  is  without  challenges  in  terms  of  language  of  instruction  policies  and  practices.  Only  62%  of  learners  in  East  Asia  and  the  Pacific  and  66%  of  South   Asian   learners   have   access   to   education   in   their   first   language.   The   graph   in   Figure   2  (overleaf)  shows  that  many  learners  in  East,  South  and  Southeast  Asia  are  taught  in  languages  that  are  not  spoken  in  their  immediate  community  (Kosonen,  2009).    Figure  1:  Estimated  populations  with  access   to   education   in   their   first   language   (Source:  UNDP,  2004:  34)  

     

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Proceedings,  8th  International  Conference  on  Language  and  Development,  Bangladesh  2009    Figure  2:  Estimated  populations  with  access  to  education  in  their  first  language;  figures  estimated  and  interpreted  by  the  author  (Source:  Ethnologue,  2005;  Leclerc,  2008)      

   Mother-­‐tongue   based   multilingual   education 2  in   schools   for   children   from   non-­‐dominant  language   communities   is   of   particular   importance   as   it   impacts   literacy   in   succeeding  generations.   Children   who   do   not   successfully   become   literate   in   the   languages   of   wider  communication   in   the   nations   in   which   they   live   will   become   part   of   the   illiterate   adult  population.  Adult  populations  with  low  literacy  rates  and  low  participation  in  further  education  are   often   linked  with   low   economic   development   indicators.   UNESCO   declared   2003-­‐2012   as  United   Nations   Literacy   Decade   (UNLD)   acknowledging   the   complex   interrelation   among  environmental,   social,   cultural   and   economic   factors   and   their   impact   on   the   contexts   of  communities  and  their  desire  to  access  development  opportunities.  Improving  access  to  quality  basic  education  is  identified  within  the  priorities  of  the  UNLD  Action  Plan  as  a  key  component  of  educational  approaches  that  support  change.  Outcomes  relating  to  the  UNLD  2003-­‐2012  include  improved   quality   of   life   (poverty   reduction,   increased   income,   improved   health,   greater  participation,  citizenship  awareness  and  gender  sensitivity)  among  participants   in   the  various  educational  programmes  under  EFA  (UNESCO  2005:  3).    Over   the   past   decade,   the   delivery   of   quality  mother-­‐tongue-­‐first  MLE   has   started   to   receive  increased  attention.  As  a  result,  many  nations  including  some  in  South  and  Southeast  Asia,  have  begun  innovative  programmes,  using  non-­‐dominant  languages  as  a  foundational  component  of  systematic   mother-­‐tongue   based   multilingual   education   for   children.   “Education   in   a  Multilingual  World”  (UNESCO  2003:  Introduction)  affirms  that:      

…  while   there   are   strong   educational   arguments   in   favour   of  mother   tongue   (or   first  language)  instruction,  a  careful  balance  also  needs  to  be  made  between  enabling  people  to   use   local   languages   in   learning,   and   providing   access   to   global   languages   of  communication  through  education.  

 When  the   languages  of   the   learner  and  the   languages  of   learning  do  not  mesh   in  a  sequenced,  well-­‐structured   manner,   research   suggests   that   education   will   be   less   effective.   Successful  

                                                                                                                         2  Multilingual  education  (MLE)  refers  to  the  use  of  more  than  one  language  as  the  language  of  instruction  and   literacy,   and   through  which   learning   of   concepts   and   curriculum   content   takes   place.  Multilingual  education  also  refers  to  situations  in  which  several  languages  are  used  in  education,  although  individual  learners  may  learn  only  some  of  them,  for  example,  one  or  two.  (UNESCO,  2004:  1).  

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Proceedings,  8th  International  Conference  on  Language  and  Development,  Bangladesh  2009    approaches   begin   in   the   language   the   learner   knows   best,   using   a   cultural   framework   that  reflects  the  learner’s  worldview  and  prior  knowledge.      In  the  position  paper  referred  to  above,  “Education  in  a  Multilingual  World”  UNESCO  (2003:  31)  provides  guidelines  on  language  and  education  and  states  its  commitment  to  the  development  and   delivery   of   appropriate   education   systems   for   learners   from   non-­‐dominant   language  communities.  One  of  the  three  principles  outlined  in  the  UNESCO  paper  states  that:    

UNESCO   supports   mother   tongue   instruction   as   a   means   of   improving   educational  quality  by  building  upon  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  learners  and  teachers.    

(I) Mother   tongue   instruction   is   essential   for   initial   instruction   and   literacy   and  should  be  extended  to  as  late  a  stage  in  education  as  possible.  

 (II) Literacy   can   only   be   maintained   if   there   is   an   adequate   supply   of   reading  

material,   for   adolescents   and   adults   as   well   as   for   school   children,   and   for  entertainment  as  well  as  for  study.  

 (III) With  regard  to  teacher  training  and  mother  tongue   instruction:  All  educational  

planning   should   include   at   each   stage   early   provision   for   the   training,   and  further  training,  of  sufficient  numbers  of  fully  competent  and  qualified  teachers  of  the  country  concerned  who  are  familiar  with  the  life  of  their  people  and  able  to  teach  in  the  mother  tongue.  

 As   the   graphs   in   Figure   1   and   2   have   shown,   many   learners   lack   access   to   education   in   the  languages  they  speak  and  understand  well.  However,  research  and  experience  have  shown  that  quality  language  education  occurs  most  effectively  when  the  learner  begins  to  read  and  write  in  their  mother   tongue  and   then   transitions   in  a   structured  manner   to  other   languages  of  wider  communication  used  for  education  in  the  nation.  Research  shows  that  the  strongest  predictor  of  a  child’s  success  in  school  is  the  number  of  years  of  education  that  child  has  had  in  their  mother  tongue  (Baker,  2006;  Cummins,  2000;  Dutcher,  2004;  Kosonen,  2004;  Skutnabb-­‐Kangas,  2000;  Thomas  and  Collier,  1997,  2002).  Conversely,  lack  of  access  to  education  in  one’s  own  language  can  be  linked  to  higher  than  average  school  dropout  and  failure  rates  for  children  in  both  formal  and  non-­‐formal  education  programmes.    Experience  suggests  that   first   language  proficiency  can  be  the  basis   for  effective  acquisition  of  second   and   additional   languages   (Dutcher,   1994;   Tucker,   1996;   Klaus,   2001;   Thomas,   2002;  Dekker  and  Young,  2007;  Durnnian,  2007;  UNESCO,  2007b;  Dekker  et  al,  2008;  Noorlander  and  Churk,   2008).   Learners  who  become   literate   in   their  mother   tongue  are  more   able   to   acquire  literacy  in  additional  languages.    Studies  indicate  that  the  further  a  person  moves  towards  a  full  and  richly  developed  bilingual  or  multilingual   experience,   the   greater   the   likelihood   of   cognitive   advantage   (Cummins,   1976;  Baker,   2006).   The   optimal   situation   for   effective   educational   outcomes   is   one   in   which   the  mother  tongue  is  maintained  throughout  the  educational  experience  of  the  child  as  the  second  and  additional  languages  are  added.    This   vital   issue   of   enabling   learners   to   make   a   successful   transition   from   mother   tongue  education   to   full   participation   in   national   language   education   needs   be   considered   from   the  outset  of   the  development  of   a  multilingual   education   strategy.  UNESCO   (2004:  17)  describes  the  components  which  serve  to  provide  a  quality  environment  for  improved  learning  outcomes.        

Proceedings,  8th  International  Conference  on  Language  and  Development,  Bangladesh  2009    These  are:    

• Teachers  • Instructional  time  –  particularly  time  on  mathematics,  science  and  language  • Core   subjects   –   literacy   and   reading   being   cited   as   critical   for   improvement   of  

quality  in  education  • Pedagogy  –  multiple  strategies  delivered  in  a  child-­‐friendly  environment  • Language  of  instruction  • Learning  materials  • Facilities  • Leadership    

 Key   cross-­‐cutting   themes   in   the   factors   identified   above   are   local   relevance   and   cultural  appropriateness.   In   the   design   of   educational   approaches   and   contexts   for   non-­‐dominant  language   communities,   these   are   particularly   significant.   Malone   (UNESCO,   2007a:   14)  describes   a   principled   approach   to   the   introduction   of   languages   emphasising   the   need   to  develop   oral   fluency   before   the   introduction   of   literacy   in   a   language   and   the   subsequent  consolidation   of   literacy   competence   in   one   language   before   additional   languages   are   added.  This   progression   enables   learners   to   build   a   strong   educational   foundation   in   their   first  language  (L1),  bridge  successfully  to  additional  languages  (L2,  L3,  etc)  and  continue  learning  in  both/all  languages.      Figure  3:  A  systematic  approach  to  language  education  (UNESCO,  2007a:  14)        

       Continue  building  fluency  and  confidence  in  using  L1,  L2  and  L3  for  everyday  communication  and  for  learning  new  concepts  Introduce  reading  and  writing  in  L3  

        Continue  building  oral  and  written  L1  and  L2    Introduce  oral  L3  

      Continue  building  oral  and  written  L1  and  oral  L2  Introduce  reading  and  writing  in  L2  

    Continue  building  oral  and  written  L1  Introduce  oral  L2  

  Continue  building  oral  L1  Introduce  reading  and  writing  in  L1  

Build  small  children’s  fluency  and  confidence  in  oral  L1  

 A  sequential  approach  to  the  introduction  of  language  in  education  is  noted  by  Kosonen.                  

Proceedings,  8th  International  Conference  on  Language  and  Development,  Bangladesh  2009    Figure  4:  An  “ideal”  model  of  mother  tongue-­‐based  multilingual  education  for  ethnolinguistic  minorities3  (UNESCO,  2007a:  9)    

Primary  Level  

G6    L1  (LoI  +  subject)    L2  (LoI  +  subject)  

G5    L1  (LoI  +  subject)    L2  (LoI  +  subject)  

G4    L1  (LoI  +  subject)    L2  (LoI)  +  L2SL  

G3    L1  (LoI)    L2SL  

G2    L1  (LoI)    L2SL  (oral  +    written)  

G1    L1  (LoI,  literacy  in  L1)    L2SL  (oral)  

Pre-­‐primary  Level  

KG2    L1  (LoI)    L2SL    (oral)  

KG1    L1  (LoI)  

   This  is  consistent  with  the  approach  described  in  the  2006  Education  for  All  Global  Monitoring  Report  (UNESCO,  2005:  2),  which  states  that:    

The  use  of  mother  tongues  is  pedagogically  sound  but  must  offer  a  smooth  transition  to  learning  opportunities  in  regional  and  official  languages.  

   Recommendations    What   recommendations   can   then   be  made   on   a  way   forward   in   South   and   Southeast   Asia   in  terms  of  using  non-­‐dominant  languages  as  a  bridge  language  of  instruction,  equipping  learners  for  more  effective  learning  of  national  and  international  languages?    Ferguson   (2006:   49)   notes   that   discussions   relating   to   multilingual   education   and   policy  implementation   are   multifaceted,   incorporating   “an   instrumental,   pedagogic   dimension   and,  more   fundamentally,   an   ideological,   political   one”   and   “complex   constellations   of   interacting  components”  (Ferguson,  2006:  53).    The  educational  process  itself  is,  perhaps,  more  multidimensional  than  it  seems  on  the  surface.  In  order  for  educational  innovation  to  be  most  effective  and  responsive  to  the  needs  of  learners  from   non-­‐dominant   language   communities,   a   number   of   components   need   to   be   considered.  Cummins  (2000:  40)  emphasises  that  social  networks  are  at  the  heart  of  successful  education.  Relationships   between   stakeholders   in   the   educational   process   can   either   provide   or   destroy  the   environment   in   which   students   choose   to   participate   in   or   withdraw   from   schooling.  Educational   methodology   and   classroom   practice   need   to   be   embedded   within   intentionally  constructed  frameworks  of  respect  and  affirmation.    

                                                                                                                         3 (Notes: Gx = Primary grade x; KGx = Kindergarten grade x; L1 = learners’ first language; L2 = the commonly used language in education or the learners’ second language; L2SL = teaching/learning L2 as a second language; LoI = language of instruction)

Proceedings,  8th  International  Conference  on  Language  and  Development,  Bangladesh  2009    Information   on   the   disparities   of   educational   access   and   achievement   is   needed   in   order   to  identify  populations  where  educational  innovations  are  most  urgently  needed.  Such  data  should  be   disaggregated   on   the   basis   of   the   languages   of   learners   in   order   that   language-­‐related  educational   and   social   issues   can   be   determined   most   easily   and   the   most   appropriate  responses   to   these   issues   developed.   Educational   planners   should   collaborate   with   linguistic  researchers  and  conduct  national  language  surveys  and  language  mapping,  if  these  are  not  yet  available.  

 Gradual  progress  towards  strong  forms  of  mother-­‐tongue  based  multilingual  education  can  be  started  by  initiating  small  changes,  initially,  in  the  use  of  non-­‐dominant  languages  in  education  (Kosonen   and   Young,   2009).   These   actions   include   both   corpus   and   status   planning   for   non-­‐dominant   languages,   paying   special   attention   to   writing   systems   and   the   development   of  dictionaries,   intentional   efforts   to   attract  more   teachers   from  ethnolinguistic  backgrounds   for  training   in   mother-­‐tongue   based   MLE   approaches   and   participatory   development   of   reading  materials   in  non-­‐dominant   languages.  The  initiation  of  such  changes  can  help  create  openness  about  the  use  of  NDLs  in  general  and  demonstrate  ways  to  overcome  some  alleged  challenges  in  the  use  of  non-­‐dominant  languages.    Collaborative   planning   should   be   undertaken   with   stakeholders,   not   only   Ministries   of  Education,  but  other  international,  national  and  local  actors.  Strategies  for  multi-­‐level  advocacy  and  awareness-­‐raising  activities   should  be   incorporated   into   these   strategic  plans   to   facilitate  understanding   of   appropriate   education   strategies   among   implementers,   policy-­‐makers,  community  members  and  other  partners.    Ideally,  pilot  programmes  should  be  established  as  action  research  projects  with  clear  processes  for  monitoring,  evaluation  and  documentation  of  the  context,   input,  processes  and  results,  and  strategies   developed   for   the   effective   sharing   of   the   outcomes   of   studies   to   support   the  expansion  of  effective  approaches.      Conclusion    Education   quality   is   a   cross-­‐cutting   theme   in   multiple   sectors   of   educational   planning   and  provision.  The  call  for  a  review  of  educational  quality  was  affirmed  in  the  Dakar  Framework  for  Action,  in  which  the  sixth  Education  for  All  (EFA)  goal  (UNESCO,  2000:  17)  is      

…   improving   all   aspects   of   the   quality   of   education   and   ensuring   excellence   so   that  recognised  and  measurable  learning  outcomes  are  achieved  by  all,  especially  in  literacy,  numeracy  and  essential  life  skills.  

 Literacy   and   language   education   are   key   components   of   successful   education   delivery.   The  world   is   linguistically   diverse   and   the   language   of   one   is   not   the   language   of   all.   In   order   to  deliver  effective  Education  for  All,   the  appropriate  languages  of  education  need  to  be  carefully  considered   and   incorporated   into   the   curriculum   in   a   principled   manner   using   theoretically  sound  methodologies  situated  in  a  supportive  policy  environment.              

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