English Is Your Mo th er Tongue/Ang Ingles Ay ang Tongue ng Ina MoERIC CM.lAllNDA

Comm odor e George Dewey, the h ero of the Battle of Man ila Bay, had this to say

ab out the Philippin es; "T he Ph.ilip pin es were to us a terra incogn i.ta . No ship of ou r

service h ad been there for years. When , after m y ap p oin tment as co m man d er o f th e

Asiatic Squadron , I sough t information o n th e subject in Wash ington, I fo u n d t hat

the latest official report relative to the Philippines on file in the offi ce of naval

in tell i.gen ce b ore the date of 1876 ." l

Mo re than a century later . the age o f the Inte r- n et may h ave made information

on the P hilipp ines mo re readily available. but it remains a fact that most Americans

know no more about their fe rmer colony than Dewey did in 1898 . Few Americans

are aware o f th e h isto ry of the United States in the P h ilipp i nes. a h ist or y th at was

kept secret from their own people for ma ny reason s. This h istory WII S also largely

u nkn own to many Filipinos who grew up d\.\l'jng lind after th e Second Worl d \Yar­

grew up, that is , with the belief that the United States was a savior twice over, stlving

them fin t from the Spanish and late" from th e Japanese.

The image of savio r and redeemer was something the Un ited Sta tes explo ited

with the pre cisio n an d effi ciency of a p rofessio nal publi city agen t from 1899. when

it invaded the archip elago. Since then. there hnvc 1>('l" n two m aj or dei ties i n the

p antheo n of th e Filipino psyche . God and Amel'icn.

T hose of us who grew up in Manila i n the 196 0 5 lind ' !)70s know this c .u)' too well.

We lear ned English the m oment we were ready fo r 10.1.,,01 - ;> roulld ,h", age t,f Ilve, if

n o t earlie r . wh en we learned it at h om e. 'We were taugh t thai 1\ WilS fil l' Apl'l f> :.nd we

learn ed to sing Amer ica the Beautiful and we were nwnre IIlaL ill ! l" "" ll lhl'l' there was

anew and Santa C laus carne down ou r ch imn eys, even ifw,' 1,;"1" "",,. W,· watched ILJveLt'~J and 'F1mh·GOI·don and listened to Top 4 0 r ad io and 11' :11 1'111 ,11 II 'dl yw" " d movi es

and rCll.l 1 all Ihe grcat Al1g1o-·S::Lxon authors and knew ~l l l ) lt · I"i hy ~I :o l<" ·. (11',·11 , M, " '" " I'

us di d). And 1110 ...1 irupot-tant, most of us had some next til' k ill ;, ,1 1, 1' l J" ,I,·,1 ~ ; l .," 'X .

wh ose hnMlu..ll11I1 IIlJ., .·... \l ·~ :\lb. ,.Jy arrived like man na from ht·av\· I1 .

H ow ~ lnl1l gt" ' " d i':J"ovr l' that in I~ '! United States peopJcw"uJ , l ll ~ l 'I U""l ' '' '''; I l l .·

" Vlhe~ did you It'ill"ll h"t"';,k l':nglish?" and "Do Rlipm os live in t ttta '( MI low(tir.,J' l" . ill l ill l:

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L O OKING THE O THEl!. WAy ,TH:r. C U LTURAL FALLOUT

to learn that wh ile we kn ew everyth ing about Amer ica-e-knew possibly more about

America th an th e average Amer ican d id-the average American knew n ext to no th ing

about us . The"effect may be something Iike pr aying for a hun dred years to God , and

finding ou t that God never really knew we existed.

But th at's the way i t is . and that is indicative of the one- way traffic of com me rce

and information that has existed between th e United Stat es an d the Philippines

since 1899 . And this relationship applies to the way we use the English language ,

an d the WJy English is used u pon us. To und erstand that . we have to go hack to 1901,

three years afte r the waken ing Ame rican Em pire d efeated Spain. The Un ited States

was abo ut to em b ar k o n o n e o f its mo st ambit io us 'm issio ns, to tr ansfor m th e

in h ab itants o f the 7, 100 isla n d s o f the Ph il ipp ines into an English- ~p eaking people .

That year . a sh tpload of teachers o n the SS Thom as sailed from San Francisco to th e

Ph il ip p in es. These "Thom est tes, " as they called th em selves , wer e sele cted from the

best c m vereu tes i n th e U nited States . T h eir task was to give basic education to as

m any Filipinos as possible. an d to leach them to speak in th e language o f the civilized

wor ld, mean ing English .

The 19 0 1 ·log of t he Thomas, a souven ir publication print ed o n boar d b y the

Tho m asites , said : " O ur natio n has foUnd herself con fr o n ted by a g reat p r oblem

dealing with a peo ple who neither know n or u n d er sta nd the u,nd erlying p rincip les

o f our civi l izatio n , ye t who, fo r o u r mutual happ iness a nd liberty, m ust be b ro ugh t

into accord with us. Be tween them and us is a chasm which must be b ridged by a

co m mon knowledge and sympathy; fe llowsh ip m ust be m ade pc sstble. " 2

The chasm they spoke'of meant many th ings. They we re coming into a terr itory in

;l'n era in which the balance of power in Asia h ad just tilted in favor of th e ~n ited States.

But this power d id not com e p eacefu lly. Two years earIier , the r~ce to exploit the

Orient, in particular the great market that was China. intensified political an d econ omic '

rivalr ies among G reat Brit ain on one h and, an d France , German y, Russin, nridJapan

, on the'other . Russian and Ger man competi tio n was jeopnrdizing Orear Brind n'e trad e '

cen ters inAsia. France was n o help : Britain was disputing its control over African terr it ories.

Germany was becom ing m ore bla tan t about its ambition to dom in ate th e r O!gion. O nly

the t:n ited State~ r emained as Britain 's possible ally, and for a now evident reason . the

United States, only a generntion after th e Civil'Var and the last Indian wars, was becoming

awar-e of its fu ture r ole as the worid' s n ext great power.

] 0 PhilippineAmerican Literary Rdations, ]898- J941, Lu cila H cstllos wrote , "Since the

Civil 'War a nd the Reco nstruction , natio nal d evelopments in th e Un ited States had

been d irected by th e indust rial r evolu tion in th e cap i tal fsric economy. Tech nology

and CCOI'OIOic p l·ogr ess had complicated the democr atic ideals o f irvdcpcude nce.

equality, in d ivid ual :-ights, and social welfare. By the end o f the n ineteen th cl'n tUl'y ,

captteltsoc developsoect had engendeu d the feeling of powe r an d its p h iloso phy o f

fo rce end poln tcal recogn ition of racial superio rity o n o ne hand and th e spirit of

h u ....aanitarianisrn and the concept of ' man ifest destiny' o n the o ther. "3

Mantla was u ~Irategi:l base from which to conduct .America's co m m erce with

Ch ina. Th ls moct... f' beco mes d ear when we n~call that a;, soo n ~~ the Sp:misli ­

American 'A';1I' b roke lO ul in 1 81~L lh r- Un ited States sent Co mmodo re Dewey to the

Plut tppincs, 1' 11 1"1'",,11.(11) I II aid II,, · H lip inos wh u we ..c then fighting a war o f

in d e pe m l., .w\· "y';. i lo~ 1 . 1... ~;JI " Il ;~l . '~.. ... '·f.. Il \l" I'1 lit,·.,,·. ,\ fll' r it defeated Spain, the

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!III

III

GAWAUNDA

U nited Sta tes d ecided to colonize the a rchipelago, "la rgely in an eclectic effor t to

construct a system of coaling , cab le . an d naval statio ns for a n in tegr ated tr ad e r o u te

wh ich could h elp realize Amer ica's overrid ing ambit io n i n th e Pad fie--the penetration

and ultimate d omin atio n o f th e fabled C h ina mar ket . "4

C o mm odor e Dewey recalled . " H itherto the U n ited States h ad b een co nsider ed

a secon d-class power, whose fo reign poliey was an unimpo rtant factor beyo nd th e

three - mile limi t o f th e American hem isphere . " 5

Altho ugh the United States anricipe ted some recalcitran ce fro m Filip ino s. i t

n eve r- imagined the acr imo ny of the in d epend en ce movemen t that the Fil ip ino s

wou ld carry over from their war with Spain . T he Ph tl ip p tne -Amecica n War was o n e

'o f the blo o diest and costliest war s in Amer ican h istory . But b ecause of the tem per

of the. times , the invasion of the Ph ilippint.j wou ld initially find overwhelming ~p~ort

a·m on g the American pu b lic .

'The fact is that the atmosphere o.f the late nineteenth century w<lS so thoroughly permeated

with racist though t (reinforced by Darwirusm) that few men managed to escape It, " wrote

Christop her Lasch in lkAnJi- Imperialist as Raost. "The idea that cenain cultur es an d races

were naturally inferior to others was almost u,n iversally held by educated . middle- class,

respectable Americans-in other words,'by the d om inant majority. "6

Wh}' did the FIlipinos con ti n ue to o ppose an obviously u n bea table enemy? In a

Iet te r- wt-it ten a n 3 1August 1900 to Gen .J. F. Bell of the American cavalry, Apoliriario

Mabini, reputed to be the theor ist o f the Philip p ine Revolut ion, wro te : "The Filiptnos

know o n ly to o well that by fo rce , they can expeet no th ing fro m the United States. They

flght to sh ow the Un ited States that they possess su fficien t cultu re to know their rights

even wh en ther e is a pretense to h id e them by m eans of clever sophisms ."

American victory over the Philippine Republic- just over th r ee months old wh en the

war began-was all that the Un ited States n eeded to becom e a global empire at the turn

of the twentieth century. Later, the United States strengthen ed colonial ties to make

sure the Philippines remained dependent in man y ways . In J94 6 the U n ited States

wou ld finally grant Independen ce , In1! would also make sure the colonial ties would be

tightened with the passage of scvernl nrt s th<ll guat'an teed econ omic subservien ce . T h e

United States passed the Philippine Reheb tllration Act only on the condition that the

Philippines wou ld accept the Bell T rade Act, which ensured the u nrestricted Dow of

American goods to the Ph ilippin es and gran ted "p"l'iLy" r igh ts allowing U .S. ci tizen s

equal r igh ts to exploit Philip p ine natu ral resou rces. Maruln, being the second m ost

devastated ciw in the wor ld afte r the Second Wo rld Wa,' , had no choice but to accept the,terms . The Military Assistance Pact gav~ the Un ited Slat,·s. IIHough mili tary aid , contr ol

over th~ military forces o f the Ph ilrp ptn es. F" rllll' . I1 " . ...-, t ill' Milita l"y IlaM's Act allowed

the United States free use of twenw- th ree base lI i l<-s. ' Fh i-, ", • •·Hl' i...·d in 1~)92 an d tod"y,has been replaced by the VISi ting Forces Ag n ·' ·lIw lIt . Sil'" ..d iu h ·I.....:uy [IJ~ )R, the VFi\

was opposed bv manv ind;.,.id~h cud o rxani:t:al itllls, ;" "l> " ~ l1 wllI lIw ( :"ll ,nli\' Hi.slmps·" ,Con ference·ofme Philipp ines, wh ich said thai ·'t ln - VFA w:.:l ~ i ': I I" , 1 Wi ll"" ,1 jluhlif:

n) I ' ~ : Il l l:: tion . " AInong the YFA'! p rovisions are Ihe ftlll. ,wi J I I :: " I '1 ,,1'1'1';I I>' ., 111 1" .•il i,'s.

w.';"""1" .,f I) t-i <T\;l l y righ t to exercise j u risdictio n when req ue- ..!(·.1 1'1 I r•.':. mil l" " il J , . ,." •• ' " I

., "1 ,1 1:1' " I I< ' I , . , I ;tl u l 11n re xt rietcd m oveme I1t of (American) ve~sds ;, I II I a ii'" n,II ',."

TIU' I I" i",d ~ ;l.olo ' s «lso ercngcbened colon ial ties thro ugh the j .l l'H " I 1" ll't 'I:" ·

Ig!Ulri l lg , II" f:ld ,k it .IH' '''Ol1·.(itution of the Philipp ine Republic of T8gH W,U1 l '..II.·•• ,,~ l

L O OXING T B lI OTB.!!. J. WAY, TH.!!. CULTU:J.AL F ALL O'l]'l"

after those of France and Amer ica , the Un ited States h ad to convince its p ublic-and the

Filipinos themsdve9-that Fi1ipino~ were inept in the art of self-gover nm en t. In o rd er to

j usti fY its in vasion o f an independ ent republic, the Un ited States had to cr ea te no t o nly

its own image as redeemer. b ut o f the Filip inos as a peop le in need of rede mp tio n .

That r ed em ptio n came in the fo r m ofpublic edu catio n , and education was to b e

co n d ucted i n English . Ph ilippine governor general of 19 32 T h eo d o r e Ro osevelt ,

the so n a nd namesake of the former p resident, r eported in ColonialPolicitsoftht Unittd

Stolu: "E nglish was ad o p ted as the b asic lan guage, and righ tly .50, fo r the Philip p in es

were not like P u erto Rico. which had already a single la nguage that had b een used

fo r yean. 'What was necessary in th e Ph ilipp ines, if ther e wer e to b e a u n ited peop le ,

was a single lan~age, at least fo r official use . Spanish was reason ably widely spoken

wh en we too k them, but i t h ad not reached the back cou ntry or the small er t owns to

any great extent, Pr obab ly b ecau se o f the logic of this action th ere never has been

the re sistance to English e ncoun ter ed in Puer to Rico. "

The impoenton o f English WBs no t all' simple as that. I t involved a calculated p rogram

to d iscred it Span ish and the existing native languago::s, to convince the Fil ip ino s of

their in fer io r ity and the refo re their need fo r uplifiment, an d to glo r ify the mate r ial

and Intellect ual p rogr ess the E nglish language p r o mised.

·O n e p:oof of the Filipino s' inferiori ty was the alleged fact th at they had not be en

able to p roduce a n ational l iterature, "The la nguages have p rodu ced li ttle o r n oth ing

which ca n claim to be li te rature in th e sen se of elegan t an d ar tistic writing." wr ote

Fran}; R. Blake in AmeriamAnthropologist in 1911. ''The literature of the Phil ip pine language~

is li ter at ure o n ly in the b roader sense o f wr itten speech ."?

T h is was not. en ti rely true , as Oo-..ernor Gener al Roosevelt would assert in late r,

less u nenltghtec ed times, He wou ld say, "The average individual has an en tirely

-....r ong im p r ession of the Filipinos. H e thinks of th em as savages . They ar e n ot savages

any m o re than the citizens o f the U n ited States are savages. Even b efor e the Span iar d s

came they had th elr own civilizatio n . They in no fashion resembled the Indians o f

America. They had n li ter ature and a wr-itten language. What is more, th i ~ M IS l'l~cogniled

by the p eop le who came in con tact with them . La Perouse , the Freuch cxplore j- , said

in 1787 that the Filipinos wer e 'in no way infer ior ' to the peopl e o!" T': \1 n'p t~ ," ~

La Perou se was n ot the 0IllY o ne to make that observation . As early ns the sevente en th

century . m issio n ary gr ammar ian s already recognized tlH' maluri ty o f Filipin o

(Tagalog) po et ics . In 1]4,4, the Fr iar Jua:} Francisco d f' San A utu n i" wr ote in h b

Cronicos; "T he nat ive s a re fond o f versesand reprosem.utons. They arc lnd(·r:lt ig:1 h lc

where ver ses are co ncer ned , a nd will act them out as they n ';ld them , Wh c n they

wr uc, they hei,ghten their style with so m any rheto r ical p lu'ls~~ . mctapho'rs, and pict ures.

that man y wh o t hi n k themselves poets wo uld be glad to do us m uch . e ud yet th is is

only in prose. Fo r wh en it ce rn es to p oesy, he who wou ld u n der -s ta n d i t IU USL be va y

lear-ned in th ei r l ;lllgl.l i'l ~1.' even :lm~mg h it> co mparriors . ,.

'Mo reove r , mil n y e p- ics we-re written in the n ative hmgunges . so me of wh ich

vrcre alrcedy rrnn slctcd im o Spa nish by th e late nineteenth cen tury. Among th ese

•....e r-e th e I lokono epic Lom-ml&, first r ecord ed in 188 9 . th e Bi cclan c !b3Ion. :"'i rst

,·ei (/ rd ..d in ·,V. R. Re~,' na 's Arc/lilXl d~! Dibliofib in M adrid in 1895; the Bagobc .

!U K.~H1 I1•.o: , discovered by E. Arsenio Manuel in 1956 ; t:"lC Hugao H;;Jhcd end IJml ;

lJini!/IIf'uJ, the e pic o f th e Su lo d peo p le of Panayo th e Maguindanao !rul.:Jrojlatrc ami

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GA.MAlJNDA

Stllqymr.m ; the T I.n~sug Parang Sabi/; the Barltugan. o f th e Ma r-anew, an d th e Bqyb~a/J o f

Bukidn o n . I n a 19 62 study, M an uel fou nd thirteen epics fro m paga n Filip ino s.

rwo fr o m C h r istians. an d fou r fr o m Moslems.

Bu t there would be mo re proo fs o f tile Filipinos' sup posed in tell ectual in feriority.

O ne was th e fact that afte r- thr ee centu ries u nd er Spain , Fil ip in os allegedly never ­

p r od uced any significant li teratu re i n Span ish. Again this was not true. It ign ored

the r eality of censorship , the fact that Spanish friars d eliber ately withheld the language

from the Filipin os. beheving that knowledge of th e lan guage would in ci te Filip in os

to r eb el against ecclesiastical co n tr ol.

H arley Harris Bartlett , in a study called "Ve r nacular L iterature in th e

Philip p in es ," p ublished in Mich(gan All,lmnUJ QliarterfJ RelJirw in 1936, wrot e - "N othing

cou ld he printed with out p ermis.sion , an d permission was seldom gran ted , excep t for

a r eligiou s book of which it could be certifi ed by the censor apartce que noda contiClecontTaria

o 10ft. All too prevalen t among the clerics was the attitude o f the Franciscan friar,

Miguel Lucio Bustaman te, who , writing in Tagalog. to ld Filipino s that they o ught no t

to u n derstand Spanish, fo r the mom ent they cou ld speak Spanish they would beco m e

ene mies o f the King and God . They ough t to learn o n ly to .say their- p raye rs a nd to

spend the rest of their tim e on th eir carabaos."

The clergy' s paran oia was no t u n fo u nd ed . By the late nineteen th centu ry, the

P hilip p ines was opened to in ter natio nal tr ad e. cr eatin g a new Filip ino mid d le class

wh o se n t th eir child ren to b e educated in Eur ope, This n ew gen erati.o n of Filipin os

b r ough t h om e r ad ical id eas an d cr eated what is no w referred t o as EI Sig/o Oro, the

gcldco age of H isp an ic Filipino lite ratu re . Amo ng th e writers of this age were J ose

Rizal , J ose Bur gos , Marcelo del Pilar , G raciano Lcpee j aea a. and other intell ectuals

o f th e Refo r m Movement .

O n ly later would the Amer ican r egime take advantage of Rizal 's anti -clerical works

to cut Filipinos fr om their Spanish pnst. But to cur tail the in festation of national ist

idens , and because most anticolon ial literatu r e was still being written in Spanish , the

Ll nltcd Stutes passed the Sedition L lW on 1. November ! 901. li m iting wr iting in that

Itlllg-UllKl" mHI imlJO.~ing-lhe d ('iJlh ]1Cllally 0 1' prclcnged imprisonm en t on anyon e who

spoke, wrote , or published "scurr-ilous lil)('l ~ " IIgnins! the American colon ial govern m en t.

T he unimcnd ccl effect here wue it utmulnred wri ting in th e Philippine languages, led

by the growing l~ngtlll rrllnca thHt Ylll~ TflKnlog, wh ich we' re not understood by the censor s,

nnd which they had uh'ellrly decided WlL~ net wo rlhy (If prcdc eing "ar tistic -#l-iting. " Bu t

hy ce nsor ing the IISC' o r ~l' llIl jKll , 11 11" {J IUlN! S l iU c~ Ill,ld c su re anything written in it

wo u ld re m ain ilJ:lcco:-ssihlC' 1I 11d . l llO' l~ I~ 'I"l" l\llI'\l'"isl l·lll .

"T h e ab il ity I.u 1"(';111 ll\ (' 1I 11 ~ l illic' i ll n ., ,,,· jc·ly wlu-rr- l'<'nplf' had nothing to read

we rihy of being callt' ll Iitt, 1 ·:I I I I I·I~, " wn 'I t- .I 1l1l! " .~ I ~' UI 'y i n ·111(' Americans ill thePhilippines

i n 1914. " It was felt th at Il l(' l ' l l i l i l' l' i l "'~ h illi n u l 1' /"I "l u ·.I a Ill"ly of writings which

would serve t o eit he r acquatm il~ 1" '''1 ,1.· will, w"dol I ll" '· IllI·11t~ ;1:1<1 thuught or to

b ring t o them a r ich n ative cn h u ro·."·l

It was all "cry clear: Th e fac l \!l ;ll SI ';lIl i~ 1e ll f Y' -r I.... ;" " ,· d ,,· ,", " li mon la:' gu2ge

d esp ite th r ee c ..nru r-ics of Span ish ru le, 11"'1 " " ~ i,l.:I' l r , , · . "' 1 l 'l '· I·.,I., ,,· i" ~:I'''ll i~h WM

evcr p r odu ced by the Filip inos , ..rid the ir Iwliy,· l " "~ l ,. l lo: '·" w,· ...· 1m' _~"I'h i ~ t inl j ed

enough to p r oduce art , were all proofs thort he I'ilil' il l '" w"I'< ·IoIl ' · ~. '·,';l ..1 ill " l i" ,",(pab le

of sdf -rule, an d th at colonization was j ustifi ed , :t lll l I ' rl' r" ~ lll '/ . n'l 1a, II'·ill,~ t IWIll 1:0

LoOX-I NG'THX O'rHXll. WAy,THZ GUL1'Ull.AL FALLOUT

through the pai ns of learn ing a n ew language, the United Srares reinforced the

mentor-pupil relatio nsh ip , rein forced also i ts sup er io ri ty over what Rudyard

Kipling described in h is famous poem as Amedca ' ~ " new-caugh t sullen peoples.

half- devil and h alf-child ."

Filipino writer Nickjoaquin d escribed it tim way in 19 57 in the SlJndr:J TimesM~nt:

"A people that h ad got as far as Baudelaire in one language was being returned to th e

ABC's of another and taught to read ' H ump ty- Dumpty' and The Little Red H en'

ins tead of C ervantes, Calder on de 1a Barca, Lop e de Vega, and Ruben Dar ia . " 10

T h e te rms used to refer to Fi lip in os in several rep or ts and le tters from that

per iod reveal what th e curren t attitude was: they were "savages," "Inj u ns." "niggers, "

and "gook!." By proving b eyond doubt that Filipinos were in ferior . President

McKm ley's divine missio n to can y out the United States' "manifest destiny" in the

Pacific was now justified.

"The political and economic background of Philippine American relations colored

the Filipino image in the Un ited States, ~ wrote Hosillos. "Biased reporta ge and partisan

writ ing, playing up the defects of the Filipino character and ign or ing FilipinO

achievements, d isto rted th e Filipino image. O rganh ed b usiness i nte rests, both in the

United States and in the Ph ilippines, lauded works distort ing the Filipino image as

part of the campaign for racial prejudice an d anri - fn clepen d en ce."

English, naturally , would plu ck the R lip inos c ut of their backward ness and keep

th em attuned 10 the progress made possible by Angle -Sese» knowledge fi n d traditions.

Popular education was somelhing the Filfp inos never had under Spain. and was therefore

an effective way to fur ther dem on ize the van qui&hed colon izers. Inrpo o th e director of

education made English the offlcial la.{iguage "with the intention of making it the common

language of th e people, the medium of expression on the street an d in th e h ome, as well

as in the classroom, in the school shop. and on the school playground."

Btenven id o Lu mbera an d Cyn thia Nograles Lu mb era , editors of Philippine

literature:A HimJ~)' and Anthe/cp " wro te : "Through English . th e flow of cul tural influen ce

was facilitated an d an immediate gain for the colonizers as the progressive deter ioration

of resistance to Americ an colon ial control. English open ed the floodgates of colonial

values through th e conduits of textbooks originally intended for Am erican children;

books and magaz in es beamed at an American audi~n ce that familiar ized Filip inos

with the blessings of economic affluence in a -capitalist cou n try; phonograph

r ecords th at infected you ng Filipin os Wlth the same concer -ns and pri or ities li S

American teen agers; and film s. thai vividly recreated fin the Filipi n t> ;llulienn ·s. lift·

in th e U.S. , feeding the min ds of the young with bogus im;'gcs of a j us l a lHI a ll l" u i, I. ;,·

goyernmen l an d its won drou sly happy an d con tented c itivc ns."

Hi storia n Ren ato Con stan tin o , in an essay celled "The Mrscducuticu or tll\ ~

Fili pino ." rep rin ted ill th is book said. "The Filipinos becamc avid co ns umers of

Amcrtcan products and the Ph ilippines, a fer tile grou nd fO I Allle.rican investm ent . ,.

But th ere was someth ing "he th at English ac h ieved in th e Philipp ines. H e wr o te .

·'Ellgl i.,h becam e the wcdg'C that scparmcd the Filipin os from th eir past at th e san. ",

tina: thar it helped to fu rther !ep 3rate educated Fltipinos from the mass es. "II

In et her- words, English became a mark of social stan ding. The more proficiem

o ,re- was 111 it , t he me re education on e was presum ed to h lln: h ad. This p erception

W,I ~ oupo rtant in controll ing th e islands. When the Un ited Stares organ ized th e

.G A Y.ALIN DA

Philippine Assembly shortly after th e Philippine -American WaI , it rest ricted voting

to Filipinos whose incomes were above a certain level and wh o had had considerable

Ame rican educati on . H istor ically, this is nothing new. T he pc liey is similar to the

o ne adopted whe n the original th irteen Un ited States were in tegrated , wh ereby on ly

people of p roperty were allowed to par ticipate in democracy.

By doing th is, the Un ited States ensured th at members of th e native Iawmekiog

body would come fro m wealthy Filipin os who would protect their own busin esses as

well as those o f th e United States, T hese n ative lawmakers would be kept un der the

tu telage of the Un ited States , a relationship that ensured that only the U n n ed States

.would decide if and .....hen the Fifipinoa were. smar t enough for self -rule .

Richard E. Welch, Jr. wrote in Rtspcmu toImptrialism : "If American ad mi I'iUtrators

sought to promote 'progress' in the islands, th ey often fell victim to the occupati onal

disease of the p edagogue who w'ould dominate as well as instruct and who remains

re luctant to declare his pup il equipped for the fr eedom of gradu ation . Tu telage can

h ave a crippling effect , an d app re nticeship too long cont inued can p romote a sense

of psychological as well as economic depen dence. " 12

Today in the Philippines, English is the offidaI language of the media, government,

busin ess, and higher education . English is a status symb ol. an in dicauon of being

civilized. The p erception that English is a sign of progress and education and the

nativt_Ianguages a sign of beckward ness has been so successfully i nsril led in Filipin os

that even today many Filipmos li re ashamed to be caught speaking their language. In

everyday life, from shopping-to government and business transact ions, a Filipino

must speak English if h e or she is to b e taken seriously. This bias is reinforced even

in the United Slates, with accent d iscrimination . In the American mass media, for

instance, a person with an accent is often portrayed as stup id , n o matter how articu late

h e may be in another lan guage. An Interesring exception h as been poin ted ou t to

me, h owever , this form of d isc j- irninat ion does not gen erally ap ply to p eople with

Br tttsh 0 1' Fren ch accents .

"Colo nia l subjugation for more than tiJree hu ndred years dur ing which the

Filipinos wen' kept ignorant and made to believe that th ey b clooged 10 an in feri or

race p rodu ced a cu l~ur...l n eurosis whieh admitted the super-ior-ity of the con qu eror ,"

observed I-Iosillos , "The u-end toward gr owth and progress attainable only through

WC'~ll"rn i 1Jlti (l11 nllfl th c' i\rIH"·ri~:;;\n ou tlook encouraged imitation in almost all p hases

(, I' Iifi· . ' 1111" Hbil ily 10 '~J!rllk , re url , (tlld writ e in EIlKli.~h lx-caruc an envi.~bl<,: achievem ent

" r ille' ' '' lIlt !' ' 111' Filip ino : il \"'l'l'll lr' , h.. kl'y I.. "nl" ~ S\l n T S" ill life."

' !'h is ill ,·" " j' .' H' ·'·' · '.~ b r"·II Il I! ' ,.."n' ;I P l'll I'CI II to ., 111.1" 11 '-' d u ri n!>:, th ,' fi rst two

111'nll lf"; Il l' , Ill: AlI1 cd " ;l1l re·g illil' . 'I'lll·y W" I',' y" " ",: , 1,. ,,01"1 11 I"·"I'J,· who witne-ssed

I hI' gnulual d l :llllsr of r'ij ip iIl ' > htc'l'a l l IlT i I I SI' ;l11i., Il . I' tl l'I I I I 'W ' uTa·.i. " 10" , I 1'1 , Iwinv IIin g

audiences. At the sam e time. Am n i",l l1 ,·lIu,·;,li"1I " 1" ' ;'1" 11 Ill ' " lO n · :I 'l ill l ' r'.n.. li ~h" ,..fca cl er.~hip . From this milieu- the tral,s;l itm o f 11... l'], ili l' l' ir....~ I rm ll "I'" b,,!'.'! ; , ~ : , ·

to an oth r- r-ca new bra nch of Philipp iue lite ratu re wOlllr1 ,·m.. r!.: ,· : ti l<' 1'1" 1.,111"· "rthe An\l: r ;C:H1 1' <l lo nial p eople. .

Ph ilipl' in, ' lil('r:'l uf" in English heg;!n ••s an extension of the IUh' I"J.:" 1-..I.. t l. 'w,I"I '

llt'twC" ' I' lilt' l lll il, ·, J :-: t:>I,·., »udt l.. · l 'h il tp l'i I IC~ . In tIl(' cnsc of Htcratui-c, it Wll.\ l lt" l"l ly

~O, i ll t ill' fi n . 11,·n ..I,· I lll ' l l ll i l " " Slatn I'~'ah li s i ll'd Illl' U ll in ' !'Sil y oCth e l'hil ip\ I!J ,,·. ,

a n d pone ..llt·d it nil .... I h ' r vnl"( 1. TI'" i ll i ll /-i I,....,· W;l ~ \'i g " n ~ (\ ", li nd g'l'ildullli ng J'l'< 1I '1 i l

L OOItING THE OTHER W Ay,THE CULTU U L FALLOUT G AU ALJNDA

str o nger amon g Taga19g writers , who co n t in ued to write in th e d ial ect d espite the

d isadvan tage posed by English m ed ia an d educa tion . Alejandro Abadtlla, in his

b oo k TanagaboJillo (I96S) wr ot e ,

Bulosan. an icon o f Filipino - Arn~rica n l iterature, was bo r n in 19I1 and irumigraicd

wh en h e was eightee n. A sel f- taugh t wrnr- r , he wo r ked in farms on the. "'.'lest C o ast

end h elped organi:le farm labor. Wh ile he i:; mo l'c remembere d for his fiction, particularly

h :5 classic Ameri<:a Is il'! the Hea rt . 11l~ ;I I ~ IJ WI:"lt' poelIy and b ecame a champio n of

T he c.ou ntry tha t is my c.ountry

Is not of this hemisp h ere, nor any

Other : is neither west nor east:

Nor is it on the north or w uth ,

I rej ect the Hul eneus of the compass.

ls not the Ph;lippine:~: -

Nor America, nor Spain...

1 disclaim

Nadons, tribes. peoples, ib gs:

I d isclaim the Ftltptno.G

'Whether i t was fake intellectuali.sm o r net. 500n a number of Filipinos would even­

tually study in the United. States. or settle there . In I905 Philippine American gov­

ernmen t scholars , known as jnrui<madtJs. p ublished. in Berkeley 1h~ FilipiTKJ Stude_n is'

Magazine which carried p oem s in E nglish an d Span ish , We can also say this was the

b l':ginning ofFilipino -Anu:r ican ltt ererure j later . after several waves of iznm igr ation

from the Philippines to the United States, these two b ran ch es of Filipinc literature

in English would develop their own literary h isto ries, with som etimes interweaving

an d som etimes conflicting in tersect io ns.

Two Filipinos wh o received considerable recognition dur ing the early years of

FIlip ino-American literatu r e were J ose Garcia Villa an d Carlos Bulosan. No two

wr iters could b e 'mo 're differ en t fr o m each ano th er.

In the P h ilippin es, Villa was lion ized because h e rep r ese n ted t he b reak fr o m

mo rality and traditio n that Filipino poets had lo ng wan ted to achieve . T he combinatio n

o f H ispanic C atholicis m and Am erican Protestan ism left no room fo r the m oral

and artistic exper iments o f Villa, who was suspend ed fro m th e University o f the

Philippin es for using sexually grap hic language in h is poetry.

Se ttlin g in N ewYo rk City's Greenwich Village at age :<: 1, he was lauded by poets like

Mar ian n e.Moor e , Mark van Dor en , e.e . cu m mings , and Edith Sitwell , who wrote, in

h er introdu ction to Villa's SelectedPoemsand New, 'T he b est of these poem s arc amo ngst

th e most beautiful written in our time ," V illa received several of the country's m ajor

n ational awards and fell owsh ips, and loved to portray h im self as a global artiste:

..

Engll$h poetry

By Filip inO& is a fakery,

Always in deep thought,

In tmelleetoder pose![+

Ang poesiyang Ingb

Pilipino'y huwad,

Lagi nang malsrp

Painte1ektuwad!

I

would soon rival the distinction of graduating from the univer sities Founded by th e

Spaniards in the seven teen th an d eighteen th centuries. In 1910 the U n iversity o f the

Philip pines published its Coli,? Folio , the Hrst scholarlyj ou rnal in English to be p ubl ish ed

in the cou ntry. h was a la ndmark o f sorts, because through th e efforts o f D ean and

H arriet Fansler ofthe E nglish Department , Filip inos for the firs t time were en couraged

to write beyo nd imitat io ns o f the standard r eading texts o f Longfellow, Irving,

Holmes, Arnold . Eli o t. and even Shakespeare. .

By I9I5 , the American-owned Philippines Free Press , wh ich h ad p u b lished only

•Amer -icans, was r eceiving so many poetry sub missions fr o m Filip inos that i t gave in ,

but no t with ou t first commen ting, "The Fru Pros is not m ueh in favor o f encouraging

the you ng Filipino to verse , fo r h e $eem~ to take to it like a d uck to water, an d wit h

m u ch le ss r easo n . "

It can be said th at Ph ilippin e literature in E nglish b egan wh en Filip inos writing

In Engli sh b egan writing ab ou t themselves . Teachers like T . IngliS Mo or e wer e

r esponsible for wean in g Filipino writers from th e early Roman tic models. In 1930he wr ote, "The Filipino . .. has to learn not only to write with English bur-to write

aga inst it . H e has to wri te En glish without b ecoming an E nglishman or American .

This d iffi cu lt task is n ecessary not because Filipino En glish is b etter than English ,

but because a Fi lip in o literatu r e must remain Filip ino if it in ten ds to be liter atu r e, "

Many Filipino poets followed h is advice. The natio nalism created by the li terature

of th e Refo r m Movement would still echo u nd er the new colonial regime . an d no t

surprisingly, o nce Filipino poe ls bega n writing RFliipino English, " m any o f the m

wrote abou t their dual id e n t ity,

A poe m hy Trin idad T ar- r o sa S ubido , wr itten in 19 40 , su m med ';lP the angst

o f t he age :

My Americiln fr ie nu says ,

Show me olle great Filipino 51'" ,,·1, 10 , 1Il;'~ '. Y' ''' '· I''· ' 'p l.. 1" 1'·" , I" ' '''I:], '-"' " '" j,..• •

Show me on,· .1,( '-',':\1 h lipill" ~""I: ri .·), will, ,I,,. "'" II " f y' "" ....",." ,1,.."_••" ,,I 1.1,·_"

Show me " n(' ):".'" Fili p i" " .1,-.."" " li' I·"~·" '· .•",,, ,·,1 ,,, ,,I _.I,i,·I.1

F.·ieL\,I, "" I' MJ ,· ", -.·~ ,,,.,. 1" " 1: 1,,11 w,· "I·." Iw".. " ," - '.1""" I,,·.

Sl' ..-el...~ .,1,,, ~ I 1".ro,-,· d,,· 1",~ i " I: ~ ' I II ,,, I. ,II " I y'.' "I I, , ~, .. ",

Th ey took away the language of my blood ,

P.iving me one "more widely und er sto od ."

N ow Lip s can never

Never with the Soul-of- Me com mune .

.AJa~ , h ow can r interpret my Mood ?

They took away the language of my blood .

Similarly , Rafael Zulu ete y da Co sta , in his famous poem "Like th e Molave " ( I94-0) ,

questio ned the alleged paucity o f Fil tpmo cultu r e and took in sp il";u Jo n frm n ;' 11

Amer -ican lit era ry r ebel , Walt Whitman :

·1'I,,· i ,..~ " . , "I' 1;" lJ.;: U;' 'i ' ' H' lt l ident i1r wo uld become m o re p ro ruiuent in ti,e I ~J ( ' t.h ,

II.. · I", ,' j." I .,1' u ·"cwu( nation ali sm in th e Philippine5. :f h e se n ttm cm .....ould be co me

L O OK I N G- THE OTHE1l. WAy,THE C ULTUUL F A.LLOUT

Filipino im migra n t workers living in harsh co nd it io ns in th e Un ited Sta t es.

In te restingly enough, his wo r ks n ever really caugh t o n in th e Ph ilip p in es, wher e h is

po rtrayal o f farm life and racial p r ej ud ice ran against th e still co m mon ly held image

o f America as a. wealt h y, hap py utopia :

You did not gi-'e Amer ica to me, and never wilL

America is in the hearts of people that live in ir,

But i t is worth the coming. th e" sacrifke, the id e3.l.i~m . 1 6

Both these wr iter s b r oke groun d, b ecause aft er th em it becam e clear that the U n ited

States o ffered u n limited op po r tu nities for p u blicat io n . In 19 5 8 filipino wri te r

N.V.M. Gonzalez wrote in the Fru 17m that "som e gen ius... might make a name for

h im self in the U n ited States." This ob sessio n p ervad es Philipp ine letter s to this d ay.

' '''hil e o p po rtunities for publica tion an d p r izes an d pro fesso r shi.ps have gr own in

the Ph ilippin es, p ublica tio n in the U n ited States is still the d e sirable go al. A wr ite r

in th e Philippin es is n ot " mad e " u n til he h as bee n published in the U n ited States.

At the sa m e time , a mor e in ter natio nal read e rship see ms to be the o n ly alternat ive

for a writer with a dwind ling aud ien ce in h is own ho me .

To d ay. the Filip i.no writer in E nglish seem s to be facing the same fate as the Filip in o

wrtter in Spanish d id a h un dred years ego . With ever increasing natio nalism in the

Ph ili p p in es, the Tagalog- based national language , Filipin o , is gain ing m o re ground as

the o fficial med iu m o f educatio n and govern m en t commu n icatio ns. Increasingly, to o,

the mass m edia use Filip in o . The death of Ph ilip pin e liter atur e in English had been

p redicted sin ce th e 19 6 0 5. In a symposium conducted by th e U n ite d States

Information Service in 1954 , writer Gregorio Brillanres said that "th'e ou tlo ok for

Philippin e writi ng in the 19 6 0 5was less bright than it had been in the I9+0 s. " But in

th e same .ympestu m p oet and novelist Nick j oaq uin gave a less pessim istic p rediction.

"There are m any young writer s,. he said, and they are d oing something to the English

lnngu<tge : it is no lon ger sim ple English ; n ot the English of America or England, hut

their English . These young wr iters, said Mr.]o aq u iri , wi ll con tinue to wr ite ," l7

~lY then do Filip ino s contin ue to write in En glish ? In the 19 6 0~ and 1970s

l::nglish was II burn ing poli tical issue , and m an y writcr s were comp elled to d o som e

sou l search ing, Can E nglish truly expr ess wh at I think an d feel? Am I a tr aitor to my

cou n try for writ in g in Engli sh ?

A po et and fo rmer pm sionado , Fr and .,co Arcellana, WI·o tC: "T her e is someth ing

u ncom m on i ll the no t en viable situation o f the Filip ino wr-iter in F ngli sh fin d th is

is the in superable problems o f languag't' . The Ijfe {rcrn wh id l lit' d l 'a w :; ,"ul l.".I;,, 'cc i ~

lived in a la ngu<lge differen t fro m the lan g'u age he m el' , l ie- iii l h,·...·((\I'(' I ..... iu ·

rem oved : by the langu age Bu d b y the wad .. o r a r t. B UI the wr-it ..r d "~':'J1'l dlOo~e h is

11ln gu.-ge-no mo re !han he ch o oses to write. JI i~ su re-ly ,on a"c i~ ('U l Ih:lt the Filipin (,

wri ter in English wr-i tes in English, a h is ros-icnl m ist ..kc . ":K

A r u rio us m umu c n of this "histo r ical m istake" was the increasing ~JopuI.il·i ty ,

bce inn ing- i ll th e la te 1 ~50s , o f Ta_gli sh . the u rban - centered . media- fu eled . hip

y"u llg li lli:o lh at mer geci Tagalog end Engl ish . Poet Rolan d o T im o was perhaps th e

fi r st 10 usc th e language in poetl}', cr e.- ti ng p o en' s like "Va led ictf o n sa Hillcrest . "

wriUt:n m Iowa in I958:

,•

,

•

,

\

!

G AN ALJ NJM

Pagkacollect ng Ra ilway Expeess sa Uing things

(Dere tso na iyon M barko while I teke the plane) ,

Inakyat kong muli ang N-3II at d. h il dead of wirne r ,

Nakatopcoat at galoshes ak-c ng

Nilg-right turn Sil N wing ng milhabang dilim... 19

Aftrr tht RoillCf5 bpr= rolltatd ng Ihirtgt

(Thg 'rc htadm! slmigh! to tilt boot 1Dhile1toke tht plant)

1!ook lht N -jlJ cnce moreond since il wos dMdof wiMer,

I aes wearing "9 toproo! rllldgalO.lhu

& I mocf " rigilt n. rn lo lht N "'ng in tht ltngt~ darh:us...2Q

Although T in io d isavowed Taglish p o etry after il wh ile , h e m aintained th e free ­

dom o f the poet to write in any language he wanted : "There seem s v eT)' little in o u r

nat io nal li te ratures wh ich can be solved in ter ms o f p r ogn ms. The Tagalog writer

will write in Tagalog for those who wish to r ead in Tagalog . The Spanish write r willwr i te in Spanish for those who wish to r ead in Span ish . And , for as lo ng as there a re

read ers in English , the best th ing fo r the Flhpmc writer in English is to write in

English . If tomorrow, I sud d enly decided to read.noth ing b ut Tagalog poems, pe rhaps

even to wr ite Tagalog poems-well. isn' t that nice? Perhaps I will , an d perh aps I

won 't, bu t whatever I cho ose to d o is certai nly nobo dy el se' s bu stn ess, " 2 1

Even t oday th e issu e of language a nd identi ty co n t inues to b e discussed in th e

Ph ilip p in es. In an issu e of the Asian PacificAmericanJollmol in 19 98 , novelist an d p oet

J o se D nlisay sai d : "Among th e wr iter s I know her e in Manila, the issue of whether

to write in Engli.,h has ceased to be an issue-if i t ever lr u ly was; you writ e in th e

language you know , and thr ough which you can do more kn owing ; otherwise, qu ite

sim p ly, you can' t an d you d o n ' 1. "22

Clearly, one legacy of the imposition of Eng1i!h in the Ph ilipp in es is a con tin u ing

identity crisis among Filip ino writers, a cr isis that W:lS n ot evc n p r esent dur in g the

Spanish era. lfthe dire pr edictions d o co;ne tr ue, however , 'and Philippine lite rature in

English dies a natural death, there is evidently another center in whi ch th is Iiteratu re 'will

continue, A n ewgeneration of Filip inos and Filipipo Americans is being published in the

U n ited State s, a tr en d that seem ed to have hit its s tri d e shortly a fter Filipino s

o ve r rhrew Fe rd inan d Mar cos in 1986 , It h as b een no ted that polit ical in terest fueled

inte re st in Ph ilip p ine liter atu re at the beg inn ing o f th i ~ ce n tury . and it still d oes today.

'Wh ether the U ruted States will accept the Ii tc l'll!urt : nl" its 'fo rmer p up il is a d ifferen t

matter altogethe~ . In a se m inar on B r it ish 1 1 1 .~r..t tu-c i" C 'lmbridge, E nglan d , in

198 9 , .the cr itic George Ste ine r said Ihut Ill(' llLm l "l«' lt i" K Bri tish liter atu r e was

coming from its form er colon ies. V....ilI Am f': l" in \ lo u k I n itx len-mer colon}' an d g ive

its Iiter at ur e the same b onorvPossibly , h u t i l> ,1" lIIK 1'" Il l<' U n it,'11 Stat es wil! also

event ually ha...-e t o confron t th e tr u th alm u l I R~ I ' I ' .-v' · 11 I" ,b y. tln-rt- is Jl U official

ad ;;nnwledgm t:n t that th e-Ph ilip p in c - Am " l-i,-;m Wa " W." " w.u- " I ,, !~ ! : n 's.~ion . T h e:

" n ,,"olili c relationsh ip that m orivatcd the Un; I.:,1SI.,I,·.• I. >" ,1" "" ,,· i., ·, ' i l l l :l l ·.~ f' ly in

1'1;,""_ Filip in o$. by vir tue of their unceasing p"v" I" y ,.. .. I !,,, Iil ll ,,l i"' I.,l. il ily. :l r",

,ti ll ~ ,·tTt ;'l S the back.....ar d ch il d ren th at th (!y wcrc u 1111 11,1..,. 1r "IO I ~ j'l: ' >' 11 ..- i .. b nt ilf' s

2 57

LOOl":.IN G TH~ OTHER.WAy,TH~ CULTUltAL F A LL OUT

who could no t produce literature, in Sp an ish , En glish or their n ative languages,

because of what Arthu r Riggs, in an essay called "Filipin o Literature and Drama " ·

publish cd in Ovtrlalld MOllfhJy in 19°5, bla med on "a lack of hard, common sense ,

analytic powers , power of synthesis or grasp of princip les. " 23 By using these same

constructs applied a h un dred years ago , it is easy to j ustify why such a peop le stilln eed to be con tinually uplifted and civiljaed,

And Filipi no literature in English- will it suffer the same fate as Filipino H ispan'ic

literature? A decade ago . this seemed likely. But today, when the centers ofhterature

are no longer geographically predictable , an d the In tern et continues to create n ew

readerships throughout the world , it may just be possible that this Iaera turewill su rvive

for a while. Bu t one thing is certain. At the close of the first century of the American

Empire , it is obvious that the United States has achieved its goal : to transform

Filipin os, or at least a great maj ority of them, into an English -sp eaking n ation .

's '

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G A..)l A.. L1N DA

NOTESl

• . ~l)rg" D~wey, Th , iwtobicgmp,('!Cc4rgt lkl<19 (New York, Clll rie. Scribner's Son~, 19 [3). 156.

2 . Ronald P. GL~amn. ea. , Th. Lot of tk Thcmos. P\lb1i,~er notsp\l<;ifi ed. 1901 . 11.

3. Lueila Hood lm, Philippi'" Amma,n Lik.ary R,lolwtl$. 1898-19,fJ (Q uezon City: University of the

p hilippinr, Press, 1969), 27·

f. Thomas]. McCormid, "Insul ar PO» e$sion, fo r the C hina Marlet. W Am..,iC(l~ Imp..riaJi1Jll andAnti­

I~al>i>n. (New Yor);, ThomM Y. Cnn..ell Company. 19 73) . 6+.

5. D ewt}', 219.

6. Chri~lophrc Losch. ''Tl"" Anl i.lmpnialhl u Racin , · AmtrironImp.rio/ism onJAnti- I",pmo/i>m (N"""

York, The mes Y. Crowell Company, 1973) . It ?

7. H osillOJ, Pltillppin. Am.o 7iffmLil lra? Rtlatio>ll J898-19+1. 107 ·

8. Theodore Roosevelt . CoIonial1'Dlicili I'feN UnitfdStata . (N.,.... Yorl:: Doubleday. Do nn & Compa ny.

Inc.• I937) . IS4-·

9. H Olillos. Philippm. A....rictl n LitEra!} ReigtionJ 189~ -194 1 . to .

m Ib id , H .n . Renata Constantino, 1M filipino i" tk Pt.ihp;maondOth.... E.s.g.. Q.\lezon CitY: Malaya Booh , 19 66 .

ra. Richard E. Welch , J r ., R.spon.K ttJ Imp.rig/Um. University orNcrtb Carolina Press. [979 ·

J3. Exc:e rpu of Tarrosa. Subtdc and Zulueta y da CQ5ta Irc m Cemino H. Ahad and Edna Z.

ManLapu,edi., Man olEa""' . Q,uezo n Cily. At~neo de Manil.t U nivusity Press, 1989.

14- T ranslation by B. LumDeca in An lo n" io Manuud , ed. • B",,,,,, H," tap (Q.urzon C ity, Areneo de

Manil:! Un,vn"Sily PTe..., 1967) 357.

' 5- J05r Garcia Villa. &ledtdPonrun,.JJ{, f(P (New York, M( DowelI, O bolrnsky, 1958.)

16 . .Man gjEftrlh. ,

I7. Manmul, 794 ·

1& Ibid . 60 7.

\9. Btenventde Lumbera. Cynthia Nograles b ,mhera. eds., Pli il,ppint Li!tral~rt' ),. Hillary andAnihaloo

(M~n i l a , Nation~ 1 Booksto re. 1982) , 368.

20. Translati on by Gamalinda.

zr, Manuud . 619.

22 . Alian PacifioAm"icanJou rn al (New York, Asian AmericanWrit ~ rs Workshop , 1993 .),

23. Hosillos, Philippin, Am"rican Lit lra, R, lctionl l898 · ·194 1, 107·

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