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21/04/23 1
First Course in Organic ChemistryFirst Course in Organic Chemistry
2010 - 2011 2010 - 2011
Introduction to Organic ChemistryIntroduction to Organic Chemistry
By Dr. Nabila AljaberBy Dr. Nabila Aljaber
21/04/23 2
•This document contains visual aids for lectures•It does not contain lecture notes
•It does not contain actual lectures•Failure to attend lectures can harm your
performance in module assessment
WARNING!
21/04/23 3
21/04/23 4
What is Organic Chemistry?
It is defined as the study of hydrocarbons It is defined as the study of hydrocarbons (compounds of hydrogen and carbon) and (compounds of hydrogen and carbon) and
their derivativestheir derivatives
7 million Organic Compounds7 million Organic Compounds1.5 million Inorganic Compounds1.5 million Inorganic Compounds
Animal and plant matter, Foods, Animal and plant matter, Foods, Pharmaceuticals, Cosmetics, Fertilizers, Pharmaceuticals, Cosmetics, Fertilizers,
Plastics, Petrochemicals, ClothingPlastics, Petrochemicals, Clothing
21/04/23 5
Periodic TablePeriodic Table
21/04/23 6
Why is it the element of life on earth?Why is it the element of life on earth?
Has Four Bonding ElectronsHas Four Bonding Electrons
Unique Strong Unique Strong Covalent Bonds Covalent Bonds
Strong Strong SingleSingle, , DoubleDouble and and TripleTriple Bonds Bonds
Average Bond Energies (KJ molAverage Bond Energies (KJ mol-1-1))
C-CC-C 607 607 Si-SiSi-Si 230230 C-HC-H 416416 Si-HSi-H 323323
C-NC-N 754754 Si-NSi-N 470470 C-OC-O 336336 Si-OSi-O 368368
O-Si-O = Sand and RocksO-Si-O = Sand and Rocks
CarbonCarbon
21/04/23 7
H
CH H
H
methane
Carbon has 4 valence electrons
C
H
H
H
H
H C
Ne
Neon
Stable Octet required
Simplest Organic molecule
Covalent Bonding – Atoms Share Electrons
21/04/23 8
C(6) - 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py
1, 2pz0
lowest energy state
Hybridization
C(6) - 1s2, 2s1, 2px1, 2py
1, 2pz1
Excited stateExcited state
4 sp3
2s 2px2py 2pz
+ + +
4 X sp3
21/04/23 9
Px
Py
Pz
Px
Py
Pz
21/04/23 10
2s 2px 2pz2py1s sp3 sp3 sp3 sp3
109.5o
Promote Hybridize
x
z
y
Methane: Carbon
21/04/23 11
Methane building blocksMethane building blocks
21/04/23 12
Methane is TetrahedralMethane is Tetrahedral
109.50
SpSp33 hybridized carbon hybridized carbon 4 equivalent C-H bonds (4 equivalent C-H bonds (bonds)bonds)
All purely single bonds are called All purely single bonds are called bondsbonds
H
CH
HH
21/04/23 13
CCH
H
H
H
120oFlat molecule – “Planar”
C(6) - 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py
1, 2pz0
C(6) - 1s2, 2s1, 2px1, 2py
1, 2pz1
Hybridization
3 sp2
Three -bonds
-bondC C
H H
HH
-bonds – One C-C, two C-H bonds per carbon atom-bond
21/04/23 1421/04/23 14
s-orbital
p-orbitals
When a single bond ispresent between atoms, thatbond is always bond DB contains one bond andone bond
end to end overlap of orbitals leads to -bond
Spherical Symmetry
bondside ways overlap
Groups or atoms can be rotated about a single bond, but DB is rigid – No rotation about a DB is possible without breaking the bond – This leads to cis-trans Isomerism
-bond
The-bond lies perpendicular to the -bond – overlapping lobes above and below the plane of -bond
21/04/23 15
AlkynesH C C H H3C C C H
Ethyne(acetylene)
Propyne
180o
Sp3 hybridisation in Saturated Bonds (e.g. alkanes)Sp2 hybridisation in DB (e.g. alkenes)Sp hybridisation in TB (e.g. alkynes)
C(6) - 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py
1, 2pz0
C(6) - 1s2, 2s1, 2px1, 2py
1, 2pz1
Hybridization
2sp 2bondsTwo -bonds (C-H) and (C-C)And Two -bonds between C-C per C atom
Linear Molecule
21/04/23 16
ALKANESALKANES
21/04/23 17
AlkanesAlkanes CnH2n+2
consist of only carbon and hydrogen bonded by consist of only carbon and hydrogen bonded by single covalent bonds singlesingle covalent bonds single
H
CH H
H
H
CH C
H
H
H
H
H
CH C
H
H
C
H
H
H
H
H
CH C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
H
H
CH3
H
CH C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
H
H
methane ethane propane butane
CH3CH3 CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH3
pentane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
21/04/23 18
Skeletal structure of only carbon atomsSkeletal structure of only carbon atoms
propane
butane
pentane
C1 – C4 C1 – C4 nn-alkanes are all gases-alkanes are all gasesMethane main component of natural gasMethane main component of natural gas
Propane and butane often stored as compressed gasesPropane and butane often stored as compressed gases
21/04/23 19
Rotation about single covalent bonds Rotation about single covalent bonds occurs freely. The energy barrier is small. occurs freely. The energy barrier is small. The position of hydrogen atoms relative to The position of hydrogen atoms relative to
one is thus constantly changingone is thus constantly changing
C C
H H
HHH
H
Ethane
21/04/23 20
Nomenclature* General Formula CnH2n+2
Number of carbon
Name Structure
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Sex
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10
C5H12
C6H14
C7H16
C8H18
C9H20
C10H22
21/04/23 21
Alkyl groups (R): (-H)
# Methane CH4 CH3 Methyl
# Ethane C2H6 C2H5 Ethyl
# Propane C3H8 (2 R)
CH3-CH2-CH3
- CH2-CH2-CH3 OR CH3-CH-CH3
n-Propyl Isopropyl
21/04/23 22
# Butane (C4H10)
Butane n -butane Iso butane
CH3 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH-CH3
n-butyl 2 butyl CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH-CH2-CH3
Isobutyl 3 butyl CH3 CH3
CH2-CH-CH3 CH3-C-CH3
21/04/23 23
Degree of carbon
1º1º11ryry
PryPry..
2º2º22ryry
SecSec..3º3º33ryry
terter..
4º4º44ryry
quatquat..
21/04/23 24
isopropyl 3ry-butyl
isobutyln-propyl
methyl
2ry -butyl
21/04/23 25
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry IUPAC
CH3–CH2–CH–CH2–CH3
CH2
CH2 CH3
3-Ethyl hexane
1-Longest continuous chain
CH3–CH2–CH–CH2–CH3
CH2
CH2 CH3
3-Propyl pentane
Not
21/04/23 26
2-Lowest number of attachment of substation 2-Lowest number of attachment of substation
CH3–CH2–CH–CH2–CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3– CH2–CH–CH2–CH3 CH2
CH2 CH3
3-ethyl hexane 4-ethyl hexane
NotNot
21/04/23 27
3-Same alkyl substitute (di -, tri-, tetra, penta.. etc.)
CH3
CH3 – CH – CH2 –C – CH3 CH3 CH3
2, 2, 4-Trimethylpentane2, 2, 4-Trimethylpentane
NotNot
2,4,4-Trimethyl pentane2,4,4-Trimethyl pentane
21/04/23 28
4-Different alkyl substation ( alphabetical)
CH3
CH2
CH3 –CH2 – CH2 – CH – CH – C – CH2 – CH3 CH2 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3
3,3-Diethyl-4-methyl-5-n-propyloctane
21/04/23 29
CH3
CH2
CH3 –CH2 – CH2 – CH – CH – C – CH2 – CH3 CH2 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3
21/04/23 30
Name the following compound
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH CH
CH3CH
CH2CH2
CH
CH3CH3
CH3CH3
longest chain = 9 carbons = nonane1,2-dimethyl propyl substituentmethyl
need to be in alphabetical order
5-(1,2-dimethylpropyl)-2-methylnonane
3D – models show that because of the 3D – models show that because of the tetrahedral carbon atoms the chains are tetrahedral carbon atoms the chains are
zig-zagged and not at all straightzig-zagged and not at all straight
21/04/23 31
Physical Properties of AlkanesPhysical Properties of Alkanes
Non-polar molecules, which are less dense than Non-polar molecules, which are less dense than water. water. Alkanes are immiscible with water making two Alkanes are immiscible with water making two layers.layers.
Van-der Waals or dipole-dipole attractive forces, Van-der Waals or dipole-dipole attractive forces, and not H-bonding (as in polar molecules) are the and not H-bonding (as in polar molecules) are the main intermolecular forcesmain intermolecular forces
Alkanes show regular increases in bpt and mpt Alkanes show regular increases in bpt and mpt as molecular weight increases down the as molecular weight increases down the homolgous serieshomolgous series
21/04/23 32
Physical Properties of AlkanesPhysical Properties of Alkanes
These weak intermolecular forces operate over These weak intermolecular forces operate over small distances, arising because the electron small distances, arising because the electron distribution within molecules at any given distribution within molecules at any given instance is not uniform. Resulting in tiny instance is not uniform. Resulting in tiny electrical attractions between molecules.electrical attractions between molecules.
These These temporarytemporary dipoles hold alkanes dipoles hold alkanes as liquids or solids, and must be as liquids or solids, and must be
overcome in order to vaporize a liquid or overcome in order to vaporize a liquid or melt a solid (wax)melt a solid (wax)
21/04/23 33
Isomers – they have the same molecular formula, but a Isomers – they have the same molecular formula, but a different structures Structural Isomers – same molecular different structures Structural Isomers – same molecular formula, but atoms are bonded in different ordersformula, but atoms are bonded in different orders
..H3C C
CH3
CH3
H
Isobutane
H3C CH
CH3
CH2 CH3
Isopentane
H3C C
CH3
CH3
CH3
Neopentane
Has the same molecular formula as n-pentane, C5H12
Have different PhysicalProperties, Mpt, Bpt,
densities,
CC44HH1010 – has two isomers, – has two isomers, nn-butane and -butane and
isobutane (2-methylpropane)isobutane (2-methylpropane)
(2,2-dimethylpropane)(2,2-dimethylpropane)
(2-methylbutane)
21/04/23 34
Fractional distillation of crude oil
Petroleum Kerosene (C12-C16)Bpt (200-250 ºC)
Heating oil (C15-C18)Bpt (250-300 ºC)
Natural Gas (C1-C4)
Gasoline (C4-C12)Bpt (40-200 ºC)
Straight-chain alkanes are a pure fuel, because of engine knock.n-Heptane has an octane rating = 02,2,4-trimethylpentane has an octane rating = 100
Catalytic crackingCatalytic cracking
21/04/23 35
CYCLOALKANES and Conformational Analysis
21/04/23 36
CycloalkanesH2C
CH2
CH2
Cyclopropane
CnH2n
C
C
CH
H
H H
H
H
H2C
H2C CH2
CH2
Cyclobutane
CH2
CH2
CH2H2C
H2C
Cyclopentane
21/04/23 37
Angle Strain in Cyclopropane and Cyclobutane – weaker “Bent” C-C bonds C-C Bond angles 60 and 88o respectively
Eclipsed hydrogens – Torsional AngleReduced in Cyclobutane by folding or bending
Pentane has C-C bond angles of 108oC-C bonds slightly bent out of planarity in order
to reduce torsional strain
The most stable cycloalkane with 109.5o C-C bond angles
Cycloalkanes have higher bpt/mpt than straight chain alkanes with the same number of carbon atoms
21/04/23 38
Sir D.H.R. Barton, Nobel Prize 1969
21/04/23 39
How to draw Cyclohexane ?How to draw Cyclohexane ?H
HH
H
H
H
put in axial H’s
put in equitorial H’s
H
HH
H
H
H
HH
H
HH
H
H
H
HHH
H
H
H
21/04/23 40
CH4O2 CO2
H2O energy+ 2 2+ +
RCH2 CH2R RHC CHR H H+alkene
High Temp.catalyst
Reactions of Alkanes
Combustion
DehydrogenationDehydrogenation
Br2
Br+ + HBr
light or heat
21/04/23 41
21/04/23 42
When bonds break ions are created – driven by the energy of solvation
Each atom gets one electron each – results in the formation of radicalsRadical – neutral species with one unpaired electron
Using Curly Arrows
21/04/23 43
Sir Robert Robinson, Nobel Prize 1947
Introduced curly arrows in 1922, numerous brilliant syntheses of complex natural products
21/04/23 44
Halogenation
Substitution Reaction – a reaction in which part of a small reacting molecule replaces an atom or
a group of atoms on the organic molecule
21/04/23 45
Mechanisms are widely used by organic chemists to explain reaction pathways to observed reaction products
Initiation
Two highly reactive Chlorine radicals formed
Hydrogen abstraction to form a methyl radical
21/04/23 46
Propagation
Chlorine atom is abstracted to form a chlorine radical
Propagation are the product forming stepsChain Reaction – thousands of radical forming cycles
21/04/23 47
Termination
Radicals Couple Product forming Chains are broken
As the reaction progresses chloromethane accumulates and its hydrogen atoms can be abstracted.
21/04/23 48
Fluorine is the most reactive halogen – mixtures of fluorine and methane can be explosive. Fluorine radical is very reactive. The reaction is controlled with the addition of an inert gas to dilute the reaction.
Chlorine is next most reactive, followed by bromine. Cl2 and Br2 require heat or light. Iodine does not react with methane easily. Iodine radical is disperse and large - unreactive
21/04/23 49
Alkyl Halides or Haloalkanes
21/04/23 50
CH3 CH
Cl
CH CH3
CH3
Cl
CCl Cl
Cl
CH3 CH
Br
CH2 CH2
Cl
F
CH2CH3
BrCl
Cl
CCl F
Cl
F
CCl F
Cl
F
CF
F
C
F
H
H
Naming them
Tetrachloromethaneor carbon tetrachloride
2-Chloro-3-methylbutane 3-Bromo-1-chlorobutane
1-Ethyl-2-fluorocyclohexane1-Bromobutane 2-Chloropropane or
Isopropyl chloride
Tend to be Heavier than waterMore Toxic than Alkanes
Trichlorofluoromethane (Freon-11)
Dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon-12) 1,1,1, 2-Tetrafluoroethane
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)Refrigerant Gases, Ozone Depletion, More H’s more degradable
21/04/23 51
X
C X = F, Cl, Br
-
Nu -
Electronegativity is defined as the ability of atoms to attract shared electrons in a covalennt bond ------------ leads to nucleophilic substitution in alkyl halides
X is readily displaced by nucleophiles
ClCCl ClCl
Symmetrical molecules have no dipole moment or have equal distribution of electrons within covalent bondsTherefore, they are unreactive!
21/04/23 52
ALKENES
21/04/23 53
Unsaturated Compounds – contain DB and or TB
ALKENES
CnH2n
End in ene
CH2H2C H3C CH CH2
Ethene Propene
1-Butene1-Pentene
1-Hexene
1,3-Butadiene
3-methyl-1,4-pentadiene
21/04/23 54
CCH
H
H
H
120oFlat molecule – “Planar”
C(6) - 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py
1, 2pz0
C(6) - 1s2, 2s1, 2px1, 2py
1, 2pz1
Hybridization
3 sp2
Three -bonds
-bondC CH H
HH
-bonds – One C-C, two C-H bonds per carbon atom-bond
21/04/23 55
s-orbitalp-orbitals
When a single bond ispresent between atoms, thatbond is always bond DB contains one bond andone bond
end to end overlap of orbitals leads to -bond
Spherical Symmetry
bondside ways overlap
Groups or atoms can be rotated about a single bond, but DB is rigid – No rotation about a DB is possible without breaking the bond – This leads to cis-trans Isomerism
-bond
The-bond lies perpendicular to the -bond – overlapping lobes above and below the plane of -bond
21/04/23 56
cis- trans-
If each of the two carbons has two different groups attached to it
H
R R
H R
R H
H
H
H3C CH3
H CH3
H3C H
H
cis-(Z)-2-butene trans-(E)-2-butene
Z-E system, we take the group with higher priority (here higher molecular weight), and compare it with the group with higher priority on the other carbon
Geometric isomers have different chemical & physical properties
21/04/23 57
Cl Br
HF
Cl > F Br > H
(Z)-2-Bromo-1-chloro-1-fluoroethene
Cl H
BrF
Cl > F Br > H
(E)-2-Bromo-1-chloro-1-fluoroethene
CH3 H
CH3F
F > CH3 CH3 > H
(Z)-2-fluorobutene
21/04/23 58
bond lobes represent areas of high electron density
E+
Therefore, the bond is susceptible to attack by electron deficient molecules, called electrophiles, E+
ADDITION REACTIONS
C C + A B CA C B
C C
H XCH C X
X X CX C X
CH C OSO3HH OSO3H
CH C OH
H OH
H+
Alkyl Halides
Alkyl hydrogen Sulfate
Alcohols
Dihaloalkanes
21/04/23 59
Mechanism
The electrophile is a Lewis acid, its accepted a pair of electrons, the simplest Lewis acid is H+
The nucleophile is a Lewis base, its donated a pair of electrons
X- is the nucleophile, and the carbocation is the electrophile
C C
H X
C C
H
X+Slow
C C
H X
C C
H
X
fast
21/04/23 60
C C
H OSO2OH
C C
H
C C
H
O
S
O
O O H
OSO3H
Slow
Fast
Markovnikov’s RuleH atom adds to the carbon atom which already has the most H atoms
H2CHC CH3 H2C
HC CH3
H Br Markovnikov addition Product
H Br
Unsymmetrical Alkene
21/04/23 61
H
C H
H
CH3
C H
H
CH3
C CH3
H
CH3
C CH3
CH3
+ + + +
INCREASING STABILITY OF CARBOCATIONS
This determines the selectivity of addition of HX onto an unsymmetrical alkene
21/04/23 62
C C
H
H
H
CH3
H Br
C C
H
H
H
CH3
H
Slow
Br
C C
H
H
H
CH3
H Br
C CSlow
CH3
H
H
H
H
2o Carbocation prefered
1o Carbocation
3o > 2o > 1o
Carbocation stability
2-Bromopropaneis the main product
1-Bromopropane – little formed
The Slow Step is the Rate Determining Step
CH3 CHBr CH3
CH3
H2CBrH2C
21/04/23 63
Bromination of DB – This is an Ionic Mechanism
1. Bromine molecule becomes polarised
3. Formation of Bromonium cation and Bromide anion
2. Bromine bond breaks heterolytically
4. Back-side nucleophilic attack – opening of three membered ring5. Stereospecific Product
Test for DB or TBDecloroization of Br2/CCl4
colourless
Contrast with reaction between Bromine and Alkanes
C C
Br
Br
C C
Br
Br+
Br
C C
Br
C C
Br
Br
21/04/23 64
C
CH
H
C H
C H
Pt or Pd - catalystsolvent, pressure
C
C
H
H2 X CH H
CH H
Pt - catalystsolvent, pressure
Example Pt ethanol, 1 atm
cyclohexene cyclohexane
Hydrogenation – “Reduction”
21/04/23 65
H2C CH2KMnO4, -OH, H2O
OH OHH2C CH2 + MnO2
Oxidation of Alkenes
LEO Says GER 1,2-Ethanediol
Reduction = Gain of electronsGain of HydrogenLoss of Oxygen
Oxidation = Loss of electronsLoss of HydrogenGain of Oxygen
An oxidizing agent gets reducedA reducing agent gets oxidized
21/04/23 66
C C
H
H
H
H H
C C
H
H H
C C
H
H
H
CH3 H
C C
CH3
H H
C C
H
H
H
Cl
C C
F
F
F
F
C C
H H
C C
H
H HH
C C
H
H
ClH
C C
F F
FF
n
Polyethylene
n
Polypropylenepropylene
ethylene
vinyl chloride
n
n
n
n
Poly(vinylchloride), PVC
n
n
n
n
TeflonTetrafluoroethene
Styrene
Polystyrene
Polymers are large molecules containing many identical repeating units (100-1000000)
Polymerisation reaction is a repetition reaction which combines many small molecules of monomer (alkene) to form a polymer
Addition polymer is a polymer in which the monomer simply add together with no other products formed besides polymer
21/04/23 67
ALKYNES
21/04/23 68
AlkynesH C C H H3C C C H
Ethyne(acetylene)
Propyne
180o
Sp3 hybridisation in Saturated Bonds (e.g. alkanes)Sp2 hybridisation in DB (e.g. alkenes)Sp hybridisation in TB (e.g. alkynes)
C(6) - 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py
1, 2pz0
C(6) - 1s2, 2s1, 2px1, 2py
1, 2pz1
Hybridization
2sp 2bondsTwo -bonds (C-H) and (C-C)And Two -bonds between C-C per C atom
Linear Molecule
21/04/23 69
Therefore, a Triple bond consists of one -bond and two -bondsThe two -bonds are perpendicular to each other and form a cylinder of negative charge about the axis of the bond ---------- No bond rotation about TB
sp-orbitals contain 50% s- and 50% p-characterFar less disperse than sp2, which is less disperse than sp3
The Carbon-Carbon bond is 1.2Ao shorter than C=C, which is 1.3Ao. C-H bond is also shorter than ethene, which is shorter than ethane, because in ethyne it is overlap between an sp orbital and a s-orbital of H to give the -bond.The bonding electrons reside closer to the C-nucleus, and so are held more tightly.
21/04/23 70
Alkynes are high energy compounds
C CH H + 2.5 O2 2 CO2 + H2O
Welding gas
Combustion
Alkynes are more reactive in halogenation reactions than alkenes (no longer in this course) and --------
21/04/23 71
Benzenes & AROMATICS
21/04/23 72
BenzeneC
CC
C
CC
H
H
H
H
HH
An Aromatic Hydrocarbon is a cyclic compound that does not readily undergo addition reactions Reactivity is different to other unsaturated compounds-Substitution rather than Addition is favoured.
C6H6
Resonance Structure- Rearrange the bonding electrons
Delocalised or Conjugated System – -bonding electrons can move within the molecule
Delocalisation, Resonance-Stabilise molecules, so make them less reactive
High Carbon content – burn with a smoky flame
21/04/23 73
In aromatic compounds the C atoms are sp2 hybrids, so that each C atom has one remaining p-electron involved in -bonding
C
CC
C
CC
H
H
H
H
HH
Kekul said that he dreamt the structure of benzene – so called Kekul structure of benzene
Three sp2 hybrid orbitals arrange themselves as far apart as possible - which is at 120° to each other in a plane. The remaining p orbital is at right angles to them.
Each carbon atom uses the sp2 hybrids to form -bonds with two other carbons and one hydrogen atom.
This extensive sideways overlap produces a system of -bonds which are spread out over the whole carbon ring. Because the electrons are no longer held between just two carbon atoms, but are spread over the whole ring, the electrons are said to be delocalised.
21/04/23 74
= Flat (Planar) MoleculeRegular Hexagon
-Electron Density Rings above and below the plane of the ring – Susceptible to electrophilic attack
Benzene is a colourless odourless liquid that is a suspected carcinogenBenzene and its derivatives are
said to be aromatic - a term coined because of the strong fragrance of some of the derivatives of benzene
Non-aromatic compounds are said to be aliphatic
Michael Faraday first isolated benzene in 1825
21/04/23 75
=
Flat (Planar) MoleculeRegular Hexagon
Delocalised or Conjugated System – -bonding electrons can move within the molecule
21/04/23 76
1. Must be cyclic 2. Must be planar 3. Each atom of the ring must have a p orbital and these p orbitals must
be perpendicular to the plane of the ring
4. Must contain 4n+2 electrons (where n = 0, 1, 2, ...) –Hückel Rule
n = 1 , 6electrons
Naphthalene Anthracene Phenanthrene
10 π 14 π
Rules for Aromaticity
21/04/23 77
Br
OHOOH
N+ OO
NHH
CH31
2
3
4
O
m
p
Vinyl group
21/04/23 78
Naming Aromatic HydrocarbonsF CH2CH3 CH3 NH2
OH COH
OCl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
CH3
NO2
NO2
CH3
CH3O2N
Br
Fluorobenzene
EthylbenzeneToluene Aniline
Phenol
Benzoic Acid1,2-Dichlorobenzene1,3-Dichlorobenzene
-meta
-ortho
-para
1,4-Dichlorobenzene 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
o-Xylene m-Bromostyrene
21/04/23 79
Electrophilic Aromatic SubstitutionH
H
H
H
H
H
E
H
H
H
H
HE X+ H X
E EH
EH
EH
Electrophilic attack – Slow Rate Determining Step
E
H
sp3
Delocalised Cyclohexadienyl cation
Transition State or Wheland Intermediate
21/04/23 80
H
E E+ - H+
Fast Step is the loss of a proton
Sir Christopher Ingold's ideas (1930s), terminology and nomenclature for reaction mechanisms (e.g. electrophilic, nucleophilic, inductive, mesomeric, SN1, SN2 etc) were generally accepted and employed everywhere.
HNO3(c), H2SO4(c)NO2
E.g. Nitration of benzene
---rapid re-aromatization
21/04/23 81
The Nitration of Benzene
O
N
O
NOO
O2NH
NOO
NO2
NOO
+
electrophile
+
_
electrophilic attack
+
slow
+
- H+
fast =
=+
_
+
+
21/04/23 82
Generating NO2+
Sulfuric acid is a stronger acid than nitric acid
NO2
H
NO2 NO2
Nitrobenzene
S
O
O
OO HH S
O
O
OO
OH NO2 OH
HNO2
__+
H+
+ NO2+ + H2O
2 H+
- [H+]
21/04/23 83
Professor Charles Friedeland Professor James Crafts
Cl
BrBr2, FeBr3
Cl2, AlCl3
HALOGENATION
BrFeBr4Br Br FeBr3 H +
The Halogen is polarised
21/04/23 84
Conclusions
Aromatic Compounds are resonance stabilizedThis gives them added stabilityThey undergo Electrophilic Substitution ReactionsUpon substitution, the fast step is the loss of a proton to regenerate aromaticity
H Br H Br H Br+
+
+
Br
+ HBr
FeBr4
FeBr3
Regenerate the catalyst – so only a small amount is required
double-headed arrows
21/04/23 85
William Perkin
mauve
Write the mechanism for the formation of mauve from the diazonium salt of aniline
Diazonium Coupling Reactions
Azo Dyes
21/04/23 86
ALCOHOLS, PHENOL and ETHERS
21/04/23 87
Alcohols and Ethers
Alcohols and Ethers can be regarded as derivatives of water in which one or two of the H atoms has been replaced by an alkyl group
Electronegativity of oxygen causes an unsymmetrical distribution of charge
Saturated molecules are sp3
hybridized
OH H
104.5o
0.96 AoWater, H2OO
C H
108.5o
0.96 Ao
Methanol, CH3OH
HH
H
1.43 Ao
OC C
111.7o
Methoxymethane, CH3OCH3
HH
H
1.43 Ao
H
HH
109.5o1.10 Ao
OH3C H
- I (net dipole)
21/04/23 88
Alcohols are found to have much higher bpt than those of alkanes or haloalkanes of comparable size, e.g. Methanol (65 oC), Chloromethane and Methane are gases ; Ethanol (78.5 oC), Chloroethane (12 oC) and Ethane is a gas
Methanol and Ethanol are classed as Polar Molecules (Hydrophilic) – They are Infinitely Soluble in Water
Why? Answer – Hydrogen Bonding
H-bonds weaker than covalent bonds, although these bonds can be continually broken and reformed – a highly ordered structure results – H-Bonding to water can also occur
Water (mw = 18) is a liquid, bpt 100oC – otherwise a gas
R
OH
HO
R
R
OH
H
OH
HO
H
H
OH
21/04/23 89
As R-group increases in size, so does the solubility in non-polar solvents
As the number –OHs increases so does solubility in waterBpt increase with chain length and number of –OHs
Methanol, CH3OH
- Solvent in varnishes, paint- Racing Car Fuel (easy to put out flames)- Highly Toxic – “Blindness” - Formaldehyde
Ethanol, CH3OH
-Drinking Alcohol
- 50% Ethanol is flammable
C O
H
H
H
C
H
H
H C O
H
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
H
Hydrophobic end
Hydrophilic end1-PentanolEthanol
H3C OH
Alcohol Dehydrogenase
O
CH H
O
CH OH
[O]In the Liver
Alcohol Dehydrogenase
O
CH3C H
O
CH3C OH
[O]In the Liver
CH3CH2OH
AcetaldehydeAcetic Acid
Odour on your breath
Symptoms - Hang-over
21/04/23 90
Preparation of Ethanol
- Fermentation of Sugar – Break down of sugar to CO2 and Ethanol by Yeast Enzymes
- Industrial Process – Hydration of Ethene
CH3CH2OH
H
H
H
H
H3PO4 , 300C
H2O
Ethanol content; Beer, 3-9% ; Wine, 11-13% ; Whisky, 40-45% ; Vanilla Extracts, 35% ; Night Nurse, 25% ; Listerine, 25%
CH3 OH
hydroxy or alcohol group
CH2 OHCH3 CH2 OHCH2CH3
CH3 CH OH
CH3
CH2 CH CH2
CH2 OH
CH3CH3
Naming Alcohols
Methyl alcohol(methanol) Ethyl alcohol
(ethanol)Propyl alcohol (propanol)
Isopropyl alcohol 2-Ethyl-1-butanol
21/04/23 91
Naming Alcohols
Polyhydroxy alcohols are alcohols that possess more than one hydroxyl group
CH2 CH2
HO OH
1,2-Ethanediol (ethylene glycol)1,2-Propanediol (propylene glycol)
1,2,3-Propanetriol (glycerol)
CH CH2
OH
CH3
HO
CH CH2
OH
CH2
HOHO
Extremely ToxicCalcium Oxalate crystallises in the kidney leading to renal problems
Harmless
C OHC
OO
HOLiver Enzymes Oxalic acid
CH2 CH2
OHHO
CH CH2
OH
CH3 C OHC
OO
H3CLiver Enzymes Pyruvic acidHO
21/04/23 92
Alcohols are very weak Acids
H
C OHH3C
H
CH3
C OHH3C
H
CH3
C OHH3C
CH3
Primary (1o) AlcoholSecondary (2o) Alcohol
Tertiary (3o) Alcohol
R O H
H
O H R O +
H
O HH
AlcoholAlkoxide
Relative Acidity ; H2O > ROH > C CR H > RH
CH3CH2OH + Na CH3CH2 O Na + H2
Vigorous Reaction
2 2 2
21/04/23 93
STEREOCHEMISTRY
21/04/23 94
Isomers are different compounds that have the same molecular formula
Structural isomers are isomers that differ because their atoms are connected in a different order
Stereoisomers differ only in the arrangement of their atoms in space
Cl H
Cl H
Cl H
H Cl
cis-1,2-Dichloroethene trans-1,2-Dichloroethene
C2H2Cl2
Geometric Isomers
CH3OCH3 ---- dimethyl ether and CH3CH2OH ---- ethanol
21/04/23 95
Enantiomers are stereoisomers whose molecules are nonsuperimposable mirror images of one another
Objects that are superimposable on their mirror images are said to be achiral
CH3
CH2
CHHO
CH3
CH2
CH
CH3 CH3OH Interchanging any two groups at a
chiral centre (stereocentre) that
bears four different groups converts
one enantiomer into another
Involves a tetrahedral sp3 atom
CH3 C
OH
CH2 CH3
2-Butanol
H
Chiral Centre
21/04/23 96
One structure can be superimposed on another
If any of the groups attached to the tetrahedral atom are the same, the centre is achiral.
The ultimate way to test for
molecular chirality is to
construct models of the
molecule and its mirror image
and then determine whether
they are superimposable
A molecule will not be chiral if it possess a centre or plane of Symmetry
2-Propanol
CH3
C OHH
CH3
C
CH3HHO
CH3
Screwdriver is achiralSocks are achiralGolf club is chiralGloves are chiral
21/04/23 97
Properties of EnantiomersEnantiomers have identical melting points and boiling pointsEnantiomers have identical solubilities in solventsEnantiomers have identical spectra and refractive indexEnantiomers interact, and react with achiral molecules in the same mannerEnantiomers interact and react with other
chiral molecules at different ratesEnantiomers rotate plane-polarised light by equal amounts but in opposite directions
Plane-polarised light
Oscillation of electrical field of ordinary lightoccurs in all possible directions
Polarimeter is a devise used to measure the effect of plane-polarised light on an optically active compound
Chiral molecules are optically active
21/04/23 98
No Correlation between the direction of rotation of plane polarised light and the absolute configuration of a molecule
Clockwise Rotation (+) – dextrorotatoryAnti-Clockwise Rotation (-) – levorotatory
C
CH2CH3
H2CCH3
HHO
C
CH2CH3
H2CCH3
HCl
(R)-(+)-2-Methyl-1-butanol (R)-(-)-1-Chloro-2-methylbutanol
Same Configuration
An equimolar mixture of two enantiomers is called a Racemic Mixture It is Optically Inactive
21/04/23 99
H
O
S-(+)-Carvone
O
R-(-)-Carvone
H
Principle component of Caraway seed oil and responsible for the characteristic odour
Principle component of Spearmint oil and responsible for the characteristic odour
Receptor Sites in the Nose are Chiral
21/04/23 100
Nobel Prize 2001
For synthesis of optically active compounds – asymmetric synthesis
Professor William KnowlesProfessor Ryoji NoyoriProfessor K. Barry Sharpless
C Br
H3C
HC6H13HO
CHO
CH3
H C6H13
BrCH3
HO
C6H13
H
Transition StateR-(-)-2-BromooctaneS-(+)-2-Octanol
Inversion of Stereochemistry
SN2
21/04/23 101
SN2 – Substitution, Nucleophilic, Bimolecular
Backside Nucleophilic Attack – Inversion in Configuration
Concerted Mechanism
Optically ActiveEnantiomericaly Pure
C Br
H3C
HC6H13HO
CHO
CH3
H C6H13
BrCH3
HO
C6H13
H
Transition StateR-(-)-2-BromooctaneS-(+)-2-Octanol
Inversion of Stereochemistry
Rate = k2 [R-Br] [Nuc-]
21/04/23 102
SN1 – Substitution, Nucleophilic, Unimolecular
(CH3)3CCl + 2 H2O (CH3)3COH + 2 H3O+ + Cl -
Professor George OlahNobel Prize 1994
Carbocation is sp2-planar
CH3
CH3C
CH3
Cl
CH2
CH3H3C+ Cl
Slow Step (RDS)
Aided by polar Solvent Stable 3o Carbocation
ions are stabilized via solvation
CH2
CH3H3C
Fast Step
HO
HFront or Backside Attack
CH3
CH3C
CH3
O
tert-Butyl alcohol
H
H
CH3
CH3C
CH3
O H
- H+
CRR
RCR
R
HCR
H
H> >
R groups are electron releasing - delocalise the positive charge
more stable
21/04/23 103
H3CH2CH2C
C Br
H3CH2CH3C CH2CH2CH3
CHO
CH2CH3CH3
H3CH2CH2C
C OH
H3CH2CH3C
+
- HBr
S-3-Bromo-3-methylhexane
1:1 Mixture of R- and S-3-Methyl-3-hexanol
The Carbocation intermediate is attacked by water from either side by the same rate
21/04/23 104
Phenols are stronger acids than alcohols
O
CH3
H3CCH3
cyclohexene
phenol
cyclic ether
Tetrahydrocannabinol
OH
OH OH
pKa = 18 pKa = 10
OHO O O
Resonance Stabilised Phenoxide anion
21/04/23 105
ETHERS, RO-OR CH3CH2 O CH2CH3
CH3CH2 O
H3C O
Ethoxy group
Methoxy group
Diethyl Ether
1-Propoxypropane
Methoxybenzene“anisole”
Methoxycyclohexane
Bpt are similar to alkanes – No H-bonding to one anotherBut are soluble in water- H-bonding to water - PolarFlammable – Ether can cause flash firesLow Reactivity – Make Good Reaction Solvents
OTetrahydrofuran (THF) O
OFuran Pyran
Cyclic Ethers
Non-Flammable Anaesthetics
Cl
CH
F
C
F
F
O C H
F
FEnflurane
F
CF
F
C
H
Cl
O C H
F
FIsoflurane
H3CO O
OCH3
21/04/23 106
ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
21/04/23 107
Aldehydes and Ketones
O 1s2, 2s2 2p2 2p1 2p1
3 sp2 orbitals
CH
RO C
R
RO
Aldehyde Ketone
CH
HO
lone Pairs
bond - two overlapping 2p orbitals
bond
bond- overlapping 1s H-orbital and sp2 C-orbital
21/04/23 108
C O
H3C
H118o
121o
C C
H
H
H
H118o
121o
C O
H3C
HC O
H3C
H
Resonance Structures
Most Reactive Group –
electrons + polarisation
Useful in Synthesis
Names al – aldehydes, one - ketones
C O
H
HC O
H3C
H
C O
CH3CH2
H
C O
CH3CH2CH2CH2
H
Methanal(formaldehyde)
Ethanal(acetaldehyde)
Propanal Pentanal
21/04/23 109
O
H
H O
H
H
Benzaldehyde
trans-Cinnamaldehyde
Formalin, 35-40% formadehyde in waterPreservative that reacts with proteins causing them to resist decayCoelacanth, “prehistoric fish”
O
HAcrolein (2-propenal)
S
HThiopropionaldehyde (propanethiol)
- lachrymator from chopped onion- lachrymator and pleasant "odour" from barbacuing meat
21/04/23 110
Propanone(ACETONE)
Butanone
Acetophenone
Benzophenone
O
H3C CHCH2
CH3
CH3
3-Methyl-2-pentanone
O H
OCH3
OH
Vanillin
CH3
O
Carvone(spearmint flavour)
O O
H3C CH3
Butadione(butter flavour)
O
H3C CH3
O
CH3
O
O
H3C CH2
CH3
21/04/23 111
Carbonyls readily undergo Nucleophilic Attack
ANHYDROUS Conditions are required for imine formation
O
C
RNH2
O
C
NH
H
R
O
C
NH R
H
O
C
NH R
H
C
NR
- H2O
Imine
Reaction between an amine and a carbonyl compound
21/04/23 112
Condensation Reaction – Elimination of water
C OCH3
CH3
N N
H
H H
H
C NCH3
CH3
NH
H+
hydrazineacetone hydrazone of acetone
Emil Fischer, Nobel Prize 1902
C OCH3
CH3
N N
H H
H
O2N
O2NC N
CH3
CH3
NH
NO2
NO2
+
2,4-diphenylhydrazine
acetonehydrazone of acetone
DNP test for aldehydes & ketones gives crystalline hydrazones
- H2O
- H2O
21/04/23 113
Professor Victor Grignard (1912 Nobel Prize)Developed this chemistry with Professor P. A. Barbier
CR O
H
ProtonationH
H2OAlcohol
CR X
H
H
X = I or Br
C
H
H
MgXR RCH2
MgX
Grignard Reagent
Mg
Ether
CR X
H
H
X = I or Br
C
H
H
LiR RCH2
Li
Organolithium Reagent
Li
Ether
C O
R Li
CR O LiADDITION
21/04/23 114
MgBr
C O
H
H
EtherC
H
H
O MgBr
H3O+
C
H
H
O H
Benzylalcohol
C O MgBr+
Ether
C OH
Triphenylmethanol
Benzyl GroupPhenyl, Ph Group
Ph
2. H3O+
Organometallics add to carbonyls to give alcohols
21/04/23 115
O
CH H
O
CR H
O
CR R
MgIPh MgIPh MgIPh
O
CH H
H
Ph
O
CR H
H
Ph
O
CR R
H
Ph
+ + +
Primary alcohols Secondary alcohols tertiary alcohols
KetoneAldehydesFormaldehyde
Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
your adding Ph_
21/04/23 116
Mg Br
OCH2CH3CH3CH2
OCH2CH3CH3CH2
..
..
....
Ethers (Lewis base) stabilize the Grignard Reagent making it more reactive
Organometallic Reactions must always be done under anhydrous conditions
Mg Br
HO
H
H
OH_
+
Grignards are powerful bases and will deprotonate water
21/04/23 117
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS and ESTERS
21/04/23 118
Carboxylic Acids
O
CO H H2O+
O
CO H3O+
pKa = 4 - 5 , water = 16
We can distinguish a water-insoluble carboxylic acid and phenol from an alcohol
O
CO H NaOH+
O
CO
H2ONa
Benzoic acid Sodium Benzoate
Cl
CCl
Cl
C
OH
OH
CCl
Cl
C
OH
OH
CCl
H
C
OH
O H
CH
H
C
OH
O
pKa = 0.7 1.48 2.86 4.76
21/04/23 119
Highly PolarLow molecular weight acids show Appreciable Solubility in Water
High Bpt – Extensive H-bonds to themselves and water
Carboxylic Acids
NAMES
Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid Propanoic acid
4-Bromo-2-ethylpentanoic acid
O
H OH
O
CH3 OH
O
CH3CH2 OH
O
OH
Br
O
CC OH
HO
O
Ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid)
rhubarbRed ants
O
OH
O
HO ( )n
n = 1 = malonic acidn = 2 = succinic acidn = 3 = glutaric acid
HO2C CO2H CO2H
CO2HTerephthalic acidPhthalic acid
21/04/23 120
Esterification – condensation reaction, where H2O is lost
Alcohol part appears first in the name
O
CH3 OHCH3CH2 OH+
HCl or H2SO4
H+(catalyst)
O
CH3 O CH2 CH3
Acetic acid(ethanoic acid)
Ethyl acetate
O
Ph OHH3C OH+
H+(catalyst)
O
Ph O CH3
Benzoic acid Methyl benzoate
O
O
O
O
Ethyl propanoate vinyl acetate
O
H OMethyl formate
21/04/23 121
Ester molecules cannot H-bond to each other, because they do not have an –OHConsequently, B.pt is much lower than that of alcohols and acids of comparable massH-bonding to water is possible-low mw esters are soluble in waterSolubility rapidly decreases with carbon chain length.
O
H O
H
H O
HOR
R
21/04/23 122
OCR
O H OC R
OH........
........
Two hydrogen bondsOCR
O Rcannot H-bond to another ester molecule
Highest Boiling points and exceedingly water soluble
Hexane = 69 ºCDiethyl ether = 56 ºCEthanol = 78 ºCEthanoic acid = 118 ºCEthyl acetate = 77 ºC
Boiling points
21/04/23 123
Redox Reactions
Addition of Oxygen or Removal of Hydrogen is OXIDATION
Removal of Oxygen or Addition of Hydrogen is REDUCTION
CH4+ O
CH3OH- 2H
C O
H
H
C O
HO
H+ O - 2H O
C
O
C O
H
R H
CR
H
O
H
Reduction
Oxidation
C O
R
R H
CR
R
O
H
Reduction
Oxidation
Aldehydes Primary Alcohols
Secondary AlcoholsKetones
21/04/23 124
Examples of Reduction Reactions
O
H2 , PtO HH
Cyclohexanone Cyclohexanol
CH3
H3C
O
H
3-Methylbutanal
H2 , Pd-CCH3
H3C
OH
H
H3-Methylbutanol
Examples of Oxidation Reactions
OHH
OK2Cr2O7, H2SO4, H2OOveroxidation
OH
O
21/04/23 125
H N H
H
R N H
H
R N H
R
R N R
R
Ammonia Primary (1o) Amine
Secondary (2o) Amine Tertiary (3o) Amine
Organic bases are amines
Amines are derivatives of ammonia
N 1s2, 2s2 2p1 2p1 2p1----------- lone pair occupies an sp3 orbital
21/04/23 126
AMINES, AMIDES and ANILINE
21/04/23 127
Ammonia
3oAmine
Unshared lone pair of electrons in the fourth sp3 hybrid occupies slightly more space than the electrons in the bonds
N
HH
H N
RR
R
..
107O
..
107O
21/04/23 128
H2NEt HNEt2 NEt3
H2NMe HNMe2 NMe3
where Et = CH2CH3
ethylamine diethylamine triethylamineprimary secondary tertiary
where Me = CH3
methylamine dimethylamine trimethylamineprimary secondary tertiary
Naming amines
NHmethylpropyl amine
21/04/23 129
H2NNH2
Putrescine(found in decaying meat) NH2
Amphetamine(dangerous stimulant)
N
H Piperidine
N
Triethylamine NH2
Isopropylamine
1,4-butanediamine
Some Common Amines
Both upper amines are 1o
This amine is are 2o This amine is 3o
This amine is 1o
21/04/23 130
NH2
H Cl
N
H
H
H Cl
Base + Acid = Ammonium Salt
Amines are bases because of the lone pair on the Amines are bases because of the lone pair on the nitrogen atom - nitrogen atom - red litmus paper to bluered litmus paper to blue
O
O HO
OHN(CH2CH3)3
O
OO
O
HN(CH2CH3)3
+ 2 +2
oxalic acid triethylaminetriethylaminium oxalate
21/04/23 131= aniline
Aniline is useful in the synthesis of many other aromatic compounds
NO2
NO2NH2
HNO3, H2SO4
Sn, HCl
phenylamine
21/04/23 132
NH2 N NNaNO2, HCl
benzenediazonium chloride
+Cl-
0 C
Aniline can be converted into useful diazonium salt
N N
N N
Nuc+Cl- Nuc-
-
21/04/23 133
N N
N N
CN+Cl- CuCN
-+ KCN
N N
N N
I+Cl-NaI
-
Benzene nitrile
N N
N N
Br+Cl-HBr, CuBr
-
iodobenzene
bromobenzene
21/04/23 134
NC R
R'
O
NC R
R'
O
Amides
Features of a Peptide Bond;1. Usually inert2. Planar to allow delocalisation3. Restricted Rotation about the amide bond4. Rotation of Groups (R and R’) attached to the
amide bond is relatively free
------------- Not acids or bases
21/04/23 135
OC
CH3 NH2
OC
H NH2 NH2
O
OC
NH2 NH2
RCNH2
HCOOH
acetamide benzamide
urea
AMINO ACIDS
formamide
All are high melting point solids, only benzamide not soluble in water