04_Cereal Grain Quality

8/2/2019 04_Cereal Grain Quality

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Aspects of product quality in plant production / Cereal grain quality

Universitt fr Bodenkultur WienDepartment fr Nu tzpflanzenwissenschaften

Abteilung Pflanzenzchtung

AspectsAspects of of productproduct qualityquality in plantin plant productionproduction

CerealCereal graingrain qualityquality


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27 Oct 2011 2Aspects of product quality in plant production / Cereal grain quality

Wheatcommon ~, bread wheat

(Triticum aestivum L.)allohexaploid

(BBAADD, 2n=6x=42)

durum ~, hard wheat

(Triticum durum L.)

allotetraploid (BBAA,2n=4x=28)


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WheatWheat evolutionevolution

Sitopsis sp.(SS)

Aegilops speltoides(SS)

Triticum urartu (AuAu )

Triticum dicoccoides(BBA uAu)

Triticum aestivum(BBA uAuDD)

Aegilops squarrosa(DD)

TetraploidTetraploid emmer emmer seriesseriesT. durum T. dicoccumT. turgidum T. ispahanicumT. turanicum T. karamyschevii T. polonicum

HexaploidHexaploid speltspelt seriesseriesT. aestivum T. speltaT. compactum T. machaT. sphaerococcum T. vavilovii

DiploidDiploid einkorneinkorn seriesseriesT. sinskajae T. monococcum

(Am Am )

Cultivated formsFree threshing Hulled wheat


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BREAD WHEATS are classified as hard or soft according to their grainhardness as measured by chewing (not recommended), by their resistance to abrasion or crushing, or by the time taken to grind a fixedweight of grain.

At country silos, there are further categories (grades) according to theappearance, variety, screenings, protein content and falling number.

e.g. USA: Hard Red Winter, Soft Red Winter, North Dakota Hard Red Spring, North

Dakota Durum, Pacific North West Soft White, Soft White, Desert Durum,California HRW & HRe.g. Canada: Canadian Western Extra Strong, Canada Eastern Amber Durum, CE

Hard Red Winter, CE Hard White Spring, .


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HARD WHEATS are used for bread production. Thesewheats are low in yellow pigment, and for bread-making, should have grain protein levels greater than11.5%. Varieties giving particular combinations of dough strength and mixing times are favoured bybakers.Other major products of hard wheats include most

forms of Asian noodles and flat breads, as well asmanufactured starch and gluten. There are few marketsavailable for hard wheats with grain protein below 10%.


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SOFT WHEATS, with alow protein content,are used for cakes,

sweet biscuits andpastries. For cracker biscuits, hard wheatflours with a higher

protein level are used.The soft flour market ismuch smaller then themarket for hard wheatflours.


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(1) Fermented (leavened) bread quantity & quality of gluten

20% albumines, globulines80% gluten protein

40% gliadins (~ 35 kDa)40% glutenins32% LMW (~ 40 kDa)

8% HMW (~ 70 kDa)

~ 10-18% protein~ 2.6% minerals~ 2.2% lipids

~ 2.7% fibre


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Johan Kjeldahl (1849-1900)

Head of the Chemistry Department, Carlsberg Laboratory

developed in 1883 a method for the determination of the protein content of various grains used for brewing(less protein meant more beer!) by involving the digestion of the organic compound with sulphuric acid,distilling the ammonia produced and back titrating the solution with caustic soda


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Jean Baptiste Andr Dumas (1800 1884)

In 1833, Dumas developed a method for estimating the amount of nitrogen in anorganic compound. Dumas also showed that kidneys remove urea from theblood.

By the Dumas method a sample of known mass is combusted in a high temperature (~900C) chamber in the

presence of oxygen. This leads to the release of CO 2 , H 2O and nitrogen. The gases are then passed over specialcolumns that absorb CO 2 and H 2O. A column containing a thermal conductivity detector at the end is then used toseparate N from any residual CO 2 and H 2O and the remaining N content is measured. The instrument must first becalibrated by analyzing a material that is pure and has a known N concentration (e.g. EDTA). The measured signalfrom the thermal conductivity detector for the unknown sample can then be converted into N content. As with theKjeldahl method, conversion of the concentration of N to the crude protein content is performed using conversionfactors which depend on the particular amino acid sequence of the measured protein.

The Dumas method has the advantages of being easy to use and automate. It is also considerably faster than theKjeldahl method, taking a few minutes per measurement, as compared to the hour or more for Kjeldahl. It also doesnot make use of toxic chemicals or catalysts. One major disadvantage is its high initial cost. Also, as with Kjeldahl,it does not give a measure of true protein, as it registers non-protein N in addition. Also, as with Kjeldahl, differentcorrection factors are needed for different proteins because they have different amino acid sequences. Finally, thesmall sample size raises the risk of obtaining an unrepresentative sample.


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Wet gluten content (ICC 106/2, 137/1, 155, 158)

Protein quality Gluten index


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Zeleny sedimentation test (ICC 116/1)

SDS sedimentation test (ICC 151)

SDS-PAGEA-PAGE


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Pre-harvest sprouting


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Hagberg falling number (ICC 107/1)


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Amylograph


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Rapid Visco Analyzer


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Assessment of flour quality

(1) Mixing characteristics

(2) Fermentation characteristics

(3) End-product tests


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Farinographdough mixing properties

Extensographdough extension properties(uniaxial)


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Alveographdough extension properties (biaxial)France, Italy, S Europe


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Influence of mixing andfermentation time on loaf volume


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(2) Flat breads & crackers


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(3) Cookies, cakes etc.


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(4) Noodles

high flour yield - good bran separationbright endosperm & flour colour weak but extensible gluten

high amyloviscositylow amylose content

(5) Breakfast foods(6) Starch / Gluten

(7) Pasta


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Grain hardness / texture & grain colour

hard vs. soft

red vs. white


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PLANT METABOLITES

PRIMARY METABOLITES SECONDARY METABOLITES

ALKALOIDSPHENOLIC

COMPOUNDSISOPRENOIDS

PHENOLS

SULFIDS

POLYPHENOLS

HYDROXYCINNAMICACID

HYDROXYBENZOICACID FLAVONOIDS

STEROIDSCAROTENOIDS

CoffeinTheophyllinTheobromin

Solanin

ANTHOCYANINSISOFLAVONESFLAVONOLSFLAVANONSCHALCONES

Condensation products(Theaflavine and

Thearubigine )

TERPENESGLUCOSINOLATES

CATECHINS

P H Y T O

C H E M I C A L S

P H Y T O

C H E M I C A L S

P H Y T O

N U T R I E N T

S

P H Y T O

N U T R I E N T

S


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DURUM WHEATS are used for making Italian style pasta


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protein contentcarotinoid contentbrownessvitrousnessgrain hardnesspasta making ability

g y pproducts such as spaghetti, macaroni, etc. These wheatsare very hard, and are botanically different from breadwheats - they have a different number of chromosomes.For pasta production, durum varieties with high levels of

protein and yellow pigment are favoured. The grain ismilled to a much coarser texture than for bread and cakemanufacture, producing semolina.


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Important quality trait of durumImportant quality trait of durumwheatwheat

yellow pasta without additivesyellow pasta without additives

Yellow pigments Yellow pigments

d


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CarotenoidsCarotenoids HarvestPlusHarvestPlus (( rice, (sweet) potato, cassava)rice, (sweet) potato, cassava) antioxidative,antioxidative, anticancerogenicanticancerogenic , immune modulating, cholesterol, immune modulating, cholesterol

lowering (lowering ( --carotene,carotene, lycopenelycopene ), eye health (), eye health ( luteinlutein ,, zeaxanthinzeaxanthin ))

(1)(1) Oxygen freeOxygen free carotenoidscarotenoids

--,, --carotenecarotene yellow & orange vegetablesyellow & orange vegetableslykopenelykopene tomatotomato

(2)(2) oxygenoxygen conteiningconteining carotenoidscarotenoids (xanthophylls)(xanthophylls)

luteinlutein ,, zeaxanthinzeaxanthin green leafy vegetablesgreen leafy vegetables--cryptoxanthenecryptoxanthene provitaminprovitamin A activityA activity


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NoNo vitaminvitamin AA deficiencydeficiency inin ratsrats if if yellowyellow colouredcoloured maizemaize ,, carotscarots andand sweetsweetpotatopotato werewere feededfeeded ((vsvs whitewhite maizemaize ,, parsnipparsnip ,, potatopotato ,, sugar sugar beetbeet ))

Steenbock H (1919) WhiteSteenbock H (1919) White corncorn vs.vs. yellowyellow corncorn and aand a probableprobable relationrelation betweenbetween thethefatfat --solublesoluble vitaminevitamine andand yellowyellow plantplant pigmentspigments . Science 50: 352. Science 50: 352 --353.353.

Steenbock H,Steenbock H, GrossGross EG (1919)EG (1919) FatFat --solublesoluble vitaminevitamine . II.. II. TheThe fatfat --solublesoluble vitaminevitaminecontentcontent of of rootsroots ,, together together withwith somesome observationsobservations onon their their water water --solublesoluble vitaminevitaminecontentcontent . J. J BiolBiol ChemChem 40: 50140: 501 --531.531.

FirstFirst proof proof for for thethe relationshiprelationship betweenbetween pigmentspigments & health& health

CerealsCereals CarotenoidsCarotenoids // YellowYellow pigmentspigments


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CerealsCereals CarotenoidsCarotenoids / / Yellow Yellow pigmentspigments

AgeAge --relatedrelated maculamacula degenerationdegeneration (AMD) and(AMD) and cataractcataract

LuteinLutein andand zeaxanthinzeaxanthin are the major are the major pigments of the human macula and of pigments of the human macula and of cereals (wheat)cereals (wheat)

prevent the retina from oxidativeprevent the retina from oxidativedamagedamage

gg --carotinecarotine--equivalentsequivalents / 100 g / 100 g dbdb

T. monococcum T. monococcum 780780 18391839T. dicoccum T. dicoccum 333333T.T. carthlicum carthlicum 262262 494494T.T. timopheevi timopheevi 513513 537537T.T. aethiopicum aethiopicum 544544 678678T.T. durum durum 355355 10331033

T.T. turanicum turanicum 277277 714714T.T. aestivum aestivum 236236 905905T.T. spelta spelta 345345 393393H. vulgare H. vulgare 640640

CarotenoidsCarotenoids ((LuteinLutein ))


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CarotenoidsCarotenoids ((LuteinLutein ))

monococcummonococcum

durumdurum (improved varieties)(improved varieties)

aestivumaestivum (specialty varieties)(specialty varieties)

durumdurumaethiopicumaethiopicum / / turgidumturgidumturanicumturanicum

timopheevii timopheevii

aestivumaestivumcarthlicumcarthlicumsphaerococcumsphaerococcum

polonicum polonicumkaramyschevii karamyschevii dicoccumdicoccumspeltaspelta


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Yellow pigmentation in cereals Yellow pigmentation in cereals

ConcentrationConcentration11

BarleyBarley 55 12*12*OatsOats 44RyeRye 66BreadBread wheatwheat 44 1111

Durum/KhorasanDurum/Khorasan wheatwheat 55 1212EinkornEinkorn wheatwheat 55 222211 ppmppm --carotenecarotene --equivalentsequivalents (ICC(ICC methodmethod 152)152)* Black* Black hulledhulled barleybarley Yellow Yellow pigmentpigment specialtyspecialty wheatwheat BlueBlue grainedgrained einkorneinkorn wheatwheat


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Genetics of yellow pigmentationGenetics of yellow pigmentation

additivadditiv ,, 1 gene, transgression, high heritability1 gene, transgression, high heritability

QTLsQTLs ::T. durumT. durum :: 7B: 53% 7A: 13%7B: 53% 7A: 13% ElouafiElouafi et al. (2001)et al. (2001)T.T. aestivumaestivum :: 7A: 60% 3A: 13%7A: 60% 3A: 13% Parker et al. (1998)Parker et al. (1998)

7A: 27% 3B: 20%7A: 27% 3B: 20% Mares & Campbell (2001)Mares & Campbell (2001)

2D, 3A, 5B, 7B2D, 3A, 5B, 7B Mares & Campbell (2001)Mares & Campbell (2001)

endosperm yellow pigment endosperm yellow pigment genegene Y Y

alien genealien gene LophopyrumLophopyrum ponticum ponticum[syn.[syn. ThinopyrumThinopyrum ponticum ponticum ,, Agropyron Agropyron elongatumelongatum ]]

7DS7DS 7DL7DL --7EL chromosome translocation7EL chromosome translocation Zhang et al. (2005)Zhang et al. (2005)


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NutzungNutzung

GelbpigmentweizenGelbpigmentweizen f f r r spezspez .. BackwarenBackwaren / / TeigwarenTeigwaren

EinkornEinkorn alsals Rohstoff Rohstoff undund genetischegenetische RessourceRessource

LuteinLutein undund ZeaxanthinZeaxanthin imim gelbengelben FleckFleck der der NetzhautNetzhautschsch tzentzen vermutlichvermutlich diedie NetzhautNetzhaut vor vor durchdurch kurzwelligeskurzwelligesLichtLicht ausgelausgel steste oxidativeoxidative SchSch denden (AMD,(AMD, KataraktKatarakt ))

Problem: HitzeinstabilitProblem: Hitzeinstabilit t der t der XanthophylleXanthophylle

(60(60 --100% Abbau)100% Abbau)

Uses of yellow pigmented wheatUses of yellow pigmented wheat


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Uses of yellow pigmented wheaty p g

Specific baking products, noodles, pastaSpecific baking products, noodles, pasta

problemproblem :: heatheat sensitivitysensitivity of of xanthophyllsxanthophylls (60(60 --100%100%reductionreduction ))


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Einkorn wheat (Einkorn wheat ( T. monococcumT. monococcum ))

raw material with highraw material with high luteinlutein contentcontent valuable genetic resource for developing highvaluable genetic resource for developing high luteinlutein durum and commondurum and common wheatswheats heat sensitivity requires high contents in raw material and/or heat sensitivity requires high contents in raw material and/or new processingnew processing

technologiestechnologies

WholeWhole --mealmeal breadbread WholeWhole --mealmeal pastapasta PearledPearled graingrain

Einkorn wheat baking experimentsEinkorn wheat baking experiments


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YellowYellow pigmentpigment contentcontent 11 ofof einkorneinkorn wheatwheat flourflour

andand breadbreadwholemealwholemeal flourflour 20,220,2breadbread crumbcrumb 10,810,8breadbread crustcrust 9,89,811

ppmppm --carotenecarotene --equivalentsequivalents

43 and 48%43 and 48% reductionreduction inin crumbcrumb andand crustcrust ,, respectivelyrespectively


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Kernel vitrousness- Durum wheat

mycotoxins


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Fusarium spp.Fusarium head blight

Claviceps purpurea Ergot


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susceptible cultivars no crop rotation minimum tillage fungicides (eyespot) storage conditions

Barley


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Hordeum vulgare L. diploid (HH, 2n=2x=14)

winter / spring growth habit

2- / 6-rowed

hulled (covered) / hull-less (naked)

feed / malting / food

white / blue / purple / black caryopsis

Malting and distilling i f t h i t g f t ti b t


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conversion of starch into sugar fermentation by yeast malting (germination): cell walls and protein surrounding the starch

degraded by enzymes

problem: cleaving (splitting) / pre-harvest sprouting iodine staining(


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splitting of grain or husk: caused by a sudden drop in temperature followed by a rain event duringgrain filling

maturity: waxes outside grain and husk harden; starchy endosperm changes from milk dough to soft /hard dough stage; sudden drop in temperatures (~10C) and rain causes husk to rapidly harden;proceeding rain absorbed by plant roots and moved to filling grain; grain becomes swollen and the dry,non-expanding husk can split at the crease, back or the side of the grain

splitted / cleaved grain uneven germination; non-uniform malt, leakage of grain contents, invasion of microorganisms

Source: Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia

Barley grain quality tests


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Barley grain quality tests

(1(1 3),(13),(1 4)4) ----DD--GlucanGlucan


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solublesoluble fibrefibre ; major endosperm cell wall component of ; major endosperm cell wall component of PoaceaePoaceae major barrier to modification during maltingmajor barrier to modification during malting BGBG solubilisedsolubilised during hot water extraction contributes significantly to viscosduring hot water extraction contributes significantly to viscos ityity negative effects on brewing quality (e.g. filtration) and feedinegative effects on brewing quality (e.g. filtration) and feedi ng (e.g. poultry)ng (e.g. poultry) reduces LDLreduces LDL --cholesterol and controls blood glucose levelcholesterol and controls blood glucose level

--GlucanGlucan contentcontent (%(% dbdb ))

BarleyBarley 33 66WildWild barleybarley 1313OatsOats 33 66RyeRye 1.81.8 2.52.5

TriticaleTriticale 0.80.8 1.01.0WheatWheat 0.30.3 0.80.8

Genetic resources for highGenetic resources for high --glucanglucan contentcontent


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Genetic resources for highGenetic resources for high glucanglucan contentcontent hullhull --less, waxy, highless, waxy, high --amyloseamylose , zero, zero --amyloseamylose barleybarley 66 8%8% --glucanglucan


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Processing of highProcessing of high --glucanglucan hullhull --less food barleyless food barley lower yields (lower yields ( premium)premium) no pearling necessaryno pearling necessary % hull retention% hull retention no freight costs on hullsno freight costs on hulls

Source: Finney, Roman MealSource: Finney, Roman Meal

100% hull100% hull --less winter barleyless winter barley cvcv HibernaHiberna Source:Source: Kinner Kinner (2008)(2008)

wheat barleywheat barley barleybarley + oats+ oats oatsoats ++5% HPMC5% HPMC 5% HPMC5% HPMC

Source: Kim, USDASource: Kim, USDA --ARSARSHydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose


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1313 LabellingLabelling of of fibrefibre rich foodrich food

SOURCE OF FIBRESOURCE OF FIBRE 3 g3 g fibrefibre per 100 gper 100 g(or (or 1.5 g1.5 g fibrefibre per 100 kcal)per 100 kcal)

HIGH FIBREHIGH FIBRE 6 g6 g fibrefibre per 100 gper 100 g(or (or 3 g3 g fibrefibre per 100 kcal )per 100 kcal )

--GlucanGlucan contentcontent (%(% dbdb ) of ) of hullhull --lessless barleybarley genotypesgenotypes

WanubetWanubet ** 7.417.41 8.028.02HB 803 *HB 803 * 4.774.77 7.897.89WashonubetWashonubet ** 5.625.62 7.467.46

CDCCDC CandleCandle ** 6.336.33 6.846.84HOR 2172HOR 2172 5.855.85 6.426.42HOR 346HOR 346 5.645.64 6.246.24HOR 816HOR 816 5.525.52 6.066.06HOR 4024HOR 4024 5.105.10 6.066.06BVAL358163BVAL358163 4.664.66 6.066.06HibernaHiberna 4.344.34 5.975.97HOR 2199HOR 2199 5.075.07 5.965.96HOR 3647HOR 3647 5.685.68 5.895.89Merlin *Merlin * 5.455.45 5.885.88IPZ 824IPZ 824 5.095.09 5.665.66LawinaLawina 4.644.64 5.085.08IPZ 823IPZ 823 3.703.70 4.614.61TorrensTorrens 3.943.94 4.314.3100/900/19/3/1200/900/19/3/12 3.333.33 3.663.66** waxywaxy endospermendosperm

SourceSource :: Grausgruber Grausgruber et al. (2009)et al. (2009)


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Hot water extract (Extract yield)Hot water extract (Extract yield)

mostmost importantimportant qualityquality measuremeasure ((highesthighest weightingweighting in EBCin EBC qualityquality indexindex ))

percentagepercentage of of milledmilled maltmalt thatthat cancan bebe broughtbrought intointo aqueousaqueous solutionsolution ;; extractionextractionbetweenbetween 4040 C and 70C and 70 CC

WortWort viscosityviscosity


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yy

HighHigh viscosityviscosity causescauses processingprocessing ((especiallyespecially filtrationfiltration )) problemsproblems inin brewingbrewing(( --glucanglucan ))

KolbachKolbach indexindex

PercentagePercentage of total malt Nof total malt N solubilisedsolubilised duringduring extractionextraction (( KjeldahlKjeldahl )) indicator indicator of of thethe extentextent of maltof malt modificationmodificationSolubleSoluble NN contentcontent % N of total% N of total solublesoluble materialmaterial

Apparent attenuationApparent attenuation

MeasureMeasure of of alcoholalcohol producedproduced after after wortwort fermentationfermentation percentagepercentage of hotof hot water water extractextract thatthat isis mademade up of up of fermentablefermentable sugarssugars

DiastaticDiastatic power power

MeasureMeasure of totalof total starchstarch degradingdegrading enzymeenzyme activityactivity


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FermentabilityFermentability

MeasureMeasure of of thethe percentagepercentage of of thethe material,material, solubilisedsolubilised inin thethe wortwort ,, thatthat cancan bebefermentedfermented toto alcoholalcohol .. UnlikeUnlike brewingbrewing ,, thethe wortwort isis notnot boiledboiled andand cooledcooled prior prior totofermentationfermentation ,, hencehence ,, starchstarch --degradingdegrading activityactivity persistspersists intointo thethe fermentationfermentation stagestage ,,leadingleading toto higher higher levelslevels of of fermentabilityfermentability thanthan thosethose of of brewingbrewing wortsworts ..

Predicted spirit yieldPredicted spirit yield

Amount Amount of of alcoholalcohol obtainedobtained fromfrom aa givengiven quantityquantity of maltof malt predictedpredicted fromfrom thethefermentablefermentable extractextract ((productproduct of of extractextract yieldyield andand fermentabilityfermentability ))

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04_Cereal Grain Quality