1

Number 003www.curriculum-press.co.uk

Genre: Categorising texts

M tudiesSedia

Body TextGenre refers to the labelling of texts through the identification ofshared characteristics. Texts within certain genre categories willhave certain things in common that will enable the audience to seesimilarities between texts.

Genre categories are used outside Media Studies all the time. Forexample, DVD sellers use categories to group their products to helppurchasers locate what they want to buy. Many TV listingsdescriptions begin with an identification of the genre of the textGrouping and categorising enables the audience to have a broadgeneral idea as to what the content and style of a media text will be.

This Factsheet introduces the concept of genre by focussing on:1. How texts are categorised

a. The importance of visual iconographiesb. The links between genre and other media concepts such

as narrative, representation and ideology2. How Genre is used by audiences3. How Genre is used by media producers4. Why genres are subject to change

1. How Texts are Categorised

a) The importance of visual iconographiesGenres are categories or types of media text. Genres are recognisablethrough the repeated use of generic codes and conventions.

Generic codes and conventions are the aspects of a text which theaudience recognises as the shared characteristics of a genre. Filmwesterns will share codes and conventions with TV westerns.Although there are many differences between films and televisionprogrammes – they have different production values and often usedifferent narrative structures – there are certain elements within thegenre that are shared that enables the audience to recognise awestern regardless of the form.

Most commonly, codes and conventions are considered as comingfrom the iconographies (specific visual or aural media languagechoices). Sometimes these iconographies are enough to act alone,e.g. the mise en scene of deep space, usually indicates the genre ofsci-fi. Sometimes, however, the iconographies work together toindicate the genre. Someone sitting behind a desk is not genrespecific. However, add high key lighting, a modern mise en sceneand a screen behind the character at the desk and the combinationof media language choices creates an image we associate with anews broadcast.

ActivityGo to an on-line DVD retailer’s website (amazon.co.uk orplay.com for example) and look at the categorisation that isused to help find DVDs. Browse through some of these genrecategories and see if you can identify what aspects of thefilms are used to decide where they should be ‘filed’.

Newspaper GenresThe genre of a text is usually identifiable simply its appearanceby the way it looks. A tabloid newspaper looks a certain way andit is significantly different to the look of a broadsheet – evenwhen broadsheet newspapers are moving towards beingproduced using paper roughly the same size as a tabloid. It isnot, however, simply the look of these types of newspaper thatdefines their genre type. Tabloids and broadsheets also havemany other differences in the way they use language, selectstories that they will publish and have different attitudes andvalues. However, the visual clues are often the first things thatassist the audience when identifying the genre of a media text.

What are the visual differences between a tabloid and a broadsheet newspaper? Consider the use of colour, images, layout anddesign choices, as well as the use of text. What other differences are there that distinguish ‘tabloid’ and ‘broadsheet‘ newspapers?

2

003 - Genre: Categorising texts Media Studieswww.curriculum-press.co.uk

An Example: Science FictionBoth Star Wars and Star Trek use recognisable iconographies ofScience Fiction (see below) but they do not use them the same way.Star Trek tends to use a more futuristic setting which relates to anidealised (utopian) world of the future. The Star Wars universe isfar less ideal and is portrayed in some parts as more ‘rough andready’, however, they both share enough characteristics to beconsidered within the same genre.

Science Fiction Star Wars Star TrekSet in outer space? yes yesUse of space ships? yes yesUse of alien characters? yes yesLaser Guns? yes yesHigh Tech Devices? yes yes

Star Trek exists as both film and television texts and so genrecodes and conventions are not limited to one media form. Sci Ficomics share the same codes and conventions as Sci Fi radiofictions. Radio fictions have to imply the visual codes byhighlighting the aural codes. Comics need to make reference to theaural codes, often using text and illustrations to refer to the soundsthat are part of the generic codes of science fiction. Different forms,therefore, identify genre in different media language choices.

ActivityUsing one of the genres you identified on the DVD retailer’swebsite, construct a list of codes and conventions of a genreyou are familiar with. You could then construct a table similarto that above to identify how specific media texts select certaincodes and conventions in their construction.

b) The importance of narrativeVisual and aural iconographies are not the only way that genres canbe identified. Genre can also be indicated in the way the story istold via its narrative (the structure of the story telling) and plot (theevents and occurrences within the story).

When you are watching a film or the TV or reading anewspaper or magazine you will probably find it very easy toidentify genre. You will need to look in more detail and identifywhat media language options have been made to enable youto recognise the genre so easily. These choices will usually bethe ones that are shared by the majority of texts within thisgenre, even if they have their own specific ways of using thesechoices.

Some genres have particular types of story lines. For example, in asoap opera it would not be unusual to see one of the story-linesfollow a family having to deal with a domestic situation such as amember of the family having trouble with their boss at work. Thistype of story may also appear in a sit-com but the way the storydevelops and is dealt with will be different.

In a soap opera, the situation may be shown in a serious way andthe boss could be represented as a villain and act in a very abusivemanner. In a soap the story may take a long time to develop as it willbe one of many story-lines the soap opera will be dealing with at thesame time. In a sit-com, this may be an ongoing story or it may be aproblem that is solved within the thirty minute episode. Either way,the sit-com will deal with the humour in the situation and it is mostlikely that the boss will be represented as foolish rather thanvillainous.

The plot in these two genres my be very similar, but the narrativesof soap operas and sit-coms are very different. Both use differentnarrative codes: sit coms tend to be episodic narratives whilst thesoap opera convention is to use an open ended, multi-strandnarrative structure.

This plot is, however, unlikely to be used in an action film. Actionheroes usually have much bigger things to deal with than bullyingbosses – if they have one, the action hero’s bullying boss will belittle more than an irritation. The plot and narrative are often part ofthe generic codes of the texts.

c) Character RepresentationsCharacters, including the use of stereotypes and character roles,are also part of the narrative of texts. Certain stereotypes tend to belinked to specific genres. The ’lone wolf’ hero, for example is aconvention of an action text. Here the hero tends to be positionedoutside a supportive group and he works alone to fight the villainsor save the world. James Bond may be a member of MI6 but he isalways sent on missions alone and is often seen as beingunconventional.

Jack Bauer of 24 is another stereotypical ‘lone wolf’ action heroand he is often depicted making decisions that could be seen asimmoral. However his unconventional responses tend to enablehim to get the job done.

Where the action hero is isolated from other people, the disastermovie usually often places the heroic role within a group of people.Often they all have particular strengths which play a part in solvingthe problem through the collaboration of a group who workstogether.

Good examples of this are Independence Day (1996: dir. R. Emmerich),Deep Impact (1998: M. Leder) and, more recently, The Day AfterTomorrow (2004: dir. R. Emmerich). In The Day After Tomorrow afather has two goals: to persuade the government to act on hisadvice and then to rescue his son. In both plots he accepts the helpof others e.g. accepting information from other scientists or lettinghis colleagues accompany him as he travels to New York where hisson is trapped.

He is shown putting his trust in others and accepting the need forcooperation in order to solve the problems he faces.

The representation of heroes ia a part of the codes and conventionsof the genres.

3

003 - Genre: Categorising texts Media Studieswww.curriculum-press.co.uk

d) IdeologiesClosely related to the narrative is the fact that the themes, ideas andvalues (ideologies) of a text are often based on generic codes andconventions.

As shown, Action texts depend onideas of individual strength whereasdisaster movies value team work andcollaboration. In soap operas thevalue of families sticking together is ageneric code and in the various typesof story-lines that a soap opera canoffer the audience, this ideology tendsto be consistent – characters who do not value the family eventuallybeing punished, whilst there is reward for those that do.

In addition, media texts can be categorised in a number of differentways. Bordwell was considering film specifically and noted someof the ways that films are categorised.

He came up with many more potential methods of categorisation –these are just some examples:

••••• Period or Country, e.g. US films of the 1930s••••• Director / Star, e.g. Ben Stiller Films••••• Technical Process, e.g. Animation••••• Style, e.g. German Expressionism;••••• Series, e.g. Bond;••••• Audience, e.g. Family Films

Each of these methods of categorisation have their own ‘sharedcharacteristics’ in the media language, plots, narrative structures,characterisation and in the values and ideologies they conform to.

It is important to consider how it is we recognise genres and, Mostoften it is likely to be through a combination of media languagecodes, narrative codes and thematic codes.

2. How Genre is Used by AudiencesThere are number of ways that audiences use the concept ofgenre.

a) They use their prior knowledge of the genre to anticipatewhether or not they are likely to enjoy a text. This helps whenselecting a media text whether it is a lifestyle magazine, a filmor a television programme.

b) They are able to compare a text through its sharedcharacteristics with another. If you try to describe a TVprogramme to someone who has not seen it, you are likely todefine its genre and then clarify what other text it is similar to.

c) They also use their knowledge of genre to reject a text. Formany of us there will be genres we actively dislike and thereforewill avoid accessing texts we assume to hold thosecharacteristics.

d) In addition to this, the knowledge we have of genre preparesus when we start to access a media text. Chandler states thatGenre ‘frames the reader’s interpretation of a text.’ In otherwords, knowledge of a genre means we will have certainexpectations of the text that we expect to be fulfilled.

When watching a comedy the expectation is that it will amuseand, hopefully, generate laughter. It is through the recognition ofcodes and conventions that we create these expectations. If theyare fulfilled, the audience receives pleasure, if not they can bedisappointed. The audience may judge a text as unsuccessfulsimply because it did not meet their generic expectations.

3. How Genres are Used by Media Producersa) ProductionGenres are paradigms or templates media producers can follow.If a media producer wants to produce a new sit-com, there arecertain ’rules’ that must be followed. This actually makes lifeeasier for writers and producers as they don’t have to inventthings from scratch. They can also look to successful examplesof the genre and attempt to replicate what was popular and, ofcourse, avoid the mistakes made by texts which havedisappointed the audience.

b) Attracting an AudienceSome genres have loyal fan-bases. People will try out a new sit-com simply because it’s a new sit-com and this can help mediaproducers minimise the potential for failure.

c) Marketing TextsGood examples of this are film trailers which usually attempt toclearly define the genre of the film and then show as many of thecodes and conventions in the trailer. This acts to attract fans ofthe genre and set up the expectations of the film.

Other media producers do the same. As cable TV has developed,specialised channels, e.g. Paramount, The Horror Channel andSci Fi, have found that by broadcasting generic texts they areable to market solely through attracting interested audiences tovery specific programmes. On terrestrial television this occursin the way channels use scheduling. There are specific times ofthe day when certain genres tend to be shown – for example, 9p.m. and 10 p.m. are the conventional screening times for dramason British television.

Given the vast amount of choice now available on television,this makes the complicated job of finding a text easier for theaudience and also helps the channels market their programmeseffectively.

Exam Hint:Identifying genre codes is not going to be enough in anexamination response. You should consider whatgratifications the genre may provide for its audience andperhaps who that audience is assumed to be.

4

003 - Genre: Categorising texts Media Studieswww.curriculum-press.co.uk

4. Why Genres are Subject to ChangeKeeping the Audience InterestedAs genres rely on audiences' understanding of the codes andconventions, over-repetition of these codes means that genre textsrun the risk of becoming predictable.

However, moving too far away from conventions could causeaudience dissatisfaction as the text does not fulfil genericexpectations. Media producers have to try to balance ‘repetitionand difference’ (Neale). Too much repetition creates cliché, toomuch difference and the audience’s generic expectations are notmet.

The two images below show how much the iconographies of theGangster genre have altered over time.

Despite their differences, there are many similarities betweenconventional gangster films and the modern equivalents: the genrefocuses on groups of criminals, often romanticises the gangsterlifestyle and the texts within this genre are violent and deal withconflict between the police and the criminals.

They also focus on conflicts within the gangster community suchas rivalry between opposing gangs or internal power struggles. Thesethemes are the same whether the text is Scarface, Reservoir Dogs orThe Sopranos.

Over time, the iconographies have changed so the genre has notbecome stale and uninteresting for the audience. but the basicconventions of the genre remain. New gangster films share codeswith the traditional ones but create more modern approaches to thesubject matter to stay up to date with modern audience’s interestsand changes in culture.

One code of the traditional gangster movie was to have aTommy Gun hidden in a violin case.• The first time an audience member saw this is would be a

surprise,• after that it would be pleasurable when the expectation of a

gun being hidden this way was met. Eventually, the idea ofusing the violin case would be seen as unimaginative – ithad become a cliché

All of this seems to imply that it is easy to identify a genre and alltexts fit within one or other simple category. This is not the case.Genres can include sub-genres. Horror for example is a very broadterm but in film it can include• vampire movies (Blade (1998: dir. S. Norrington)),• psychological horrors (Saw (2004, dir. J. Wan)),• gothic horrors (Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1992: dir. F. Coppola)),• ghost stories (The Grudge (2004: dir. T. Shimuzu)),• the teen slasher (Scream (1996: dir. W. Craven)),• haunted-house movies (The Amityville Horror (2005: dir. A.

Douglas)).

Each one of these sub-genres has a whole host of codes andconventions of their own. Iconographies like crosses, holy water,graveyards and gothic mansions are part of the vampire sub-genre(and are within horror codes) but are not necessarily included inthe teen slasher film.

Add to this the fact that there are also hybrid genres. These aretexts which deliberately mix the codes and conventions of morethan one genre. Buffy the Vampire Slayer successfully blendedcodes of the gothic horror, comedy, romance and soap opera andso provided many different viewing pleasures for its audience.

AQA/OCR/WJEC?The different exam boards assess understanding of genre indifferent ways. For example, OCR will specify a genre that thestudents must study whereas other exam boards allow teachersand students to select which ones they look at. AQA expectstudents to respond to general questions on genre, makingreference to texts that have been studied. However anunderstanding of this concept is common to all boards in theassessment of textual analysis and practical production modules.

Images web referenceswww.informativostv.comwww.bris.ac.ukhttp://newsimg.bbc.co.ukhttp://media.fox50.comwww.ziyue.comwww.webstar.co.ukhttp://members.aol.com/bobbuttman

Acknowledgements: This Media Studies Factsheet was researched and writtenby Steph HendryCurriculum Press. Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, TF1 1NU. SociologyFactsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, providedthat their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may bereproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form orby any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN1351-5136