0236854 B68C5 Pedash e Stylistics

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Pedash E.

STYLISTICS

Lecture 1

INTRODUCTION

Stylistics, as the term implies, deals with styles. Style, for its part, can be roughlydefined as the peculiarity, the set of specific features of a text. By text we mean a

coherent sequence of signs (words) irrespective of whether it has been recorded on

paper or has been retained in our memory. Hence, while a person pronounces

(aloud or mentally) I live in this house, he or she accomplishes an act of speech,

but as soon as the act is completed, there is no more speech. What remains is the

sequence of signs – I + live + in + this + house - and that is what we call a text.

Style is just what differentiates a group of homogeneous texts (an individual text)

from all other groups (other text).

Let us compare several groups of isolated words:water, at, go, very, how;

chap, daddy, Nick, gee;

hereof, whereupon, aforecited;

sawbones, grub, oof, corking;

morn, sylvan, ne’er;

corroborate, commencement, proverbialism;

protoplasm, introvert, cosine, phonemic.

Not all the words may be familiar to a learner of English. The first group

comprises words that can be used in every type of communication. Group 2consists of colloquial words, i.e. words, which can be used in informal speech.

Group 3 is made up of words used in documents. Group 4 consists of words that

are still lower than colloquial; there is a tinge of familiarity about them. Group 5

exemplifies high-flown rarely used words. Group 6 consists of words, which are

generally called `bookish` or `learned`; they can be used not only in books but in

cultured speech and never in everyday oral intercourse. Group 7 is made up of

special scientific terms used in biology, psychology, trigonometry and phonology.

It follows that we can assume the existence of variegated special languages, or

rather sublanguages within the general system of a national language

Compare the following utterances referring to the same situation:

Never seen the chap, not I!

Me, I never clapped eyes on this here guy.

I deny the fact of ever having seen this person.

I have no association with the appearance of the individual I behold.

I have certainly never seen the man.

As we understand each utterance belongs to a special variety of English (except,

perhaps, utterance 5, which is neutral standard English). The colloquial character

of utterance 1 is seen in the choice of words (chap) and in syntax (absence of the

subject I and the auxiliary verb have, as well as the appended statement not I ).Utterance 2 is low colloquial: the word guy, the illiterate demonstrative this here,

the emphatic construction to clap eyes on somebody, the pronoun me as the subject



in extraposition. Utterance 3 represents an official bookish manner of speaking.

Finally, utterance 4 demonstrates a high – flown, pompous manner of speech.

Stylistics touches upon adjacent disciplines such as theory of information,

literature, grammar, lexicology, psychology, logic, and to some extent, statistics. It

is a common knowledge that phonetics deals with speech sounds, their meanings

and intonation. Lexicology treats separate words with their meanings and structureof the vocabulary. Grammar analyses forms of words ( morphology ) and forms of

word – combinations ( syntax ). Although scholars differ in their treatment of the

material, the general aims of the disciplines mentioned are more or less clear – cut.

This is not the case with stylistics. No one knows for sure what it is. The scope of

problems stylistics is to solve, its very object and its tasks are open to discussion

up to the present day, regardless of the fact that it goes back to ancient rhetoric and

poetics.

A lot of definitions, very ambiguous, you will find in I. R. Galperin’s Stylistics.

However, they all coincide in one thing, style (stylistics) is a set of characteristics by which we distinguish one author from another or members of one subclass from

members of other subclasses, or one text from ( texts ) another (others ).

Y. M. Screbnev also renounces all attempts to formulate a ‘ universal ‘ definition

of stylistics, providing a series of statements, each characterizing certain properties

of stylistics from different points of view.

1. Stylistics viewed in its relation to language as a system is based on the theory of

sub-languages (a sub-language is the set of lingual units actually used in a given

sphere ).

2. Viewed in its relation to language as a set of signs ( words ) and their sequence

patterns stylistics may be regarded as a linguistic discipline concentrating on

connotations.

3. Viewed in search for a general evaluation of the character of its object, stylistics

studies information often unaccounted for by an ordinary language user.

4. Viewed as a linguistic branch stylistics appears as a description of specific

lingual elements and combinations of elements – a description creating the system

of concepts to be used in analysis of material.

5. Viewed with the aim of establishing its ultimate goals or prospects, stylistics

maybe defined as a branch of linguistics elaborating a system of tests to ensure

correct text attribution6. Viewed pragmatically, i.e. as reflecting the interrelation between language and

its user’s behavior, stylistics investigates the highest stages of linguistic

competence, i.e. the ability to differentiate subsystems ( sub-languages ) in the

general structure of language.

7. Viewed as regards its place among other branches of linguistics ( describing a

national language in terms of phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, syntax, and

semantics ), stylistics turns out to be the most reliable description of the linguistic

object.

Y. Screbnev calls stylistic phenomena – regular constituents of a well arrangedlinguistic system of systems.

The information of one and the same fact of reality may acquire different forms,



depending on, for example, whether the information is done in an official,

businesslike or everyday situation; on what the emotional attitude of the speaker

towards an object of speech is and on how he appreciates the situation.

Information may be represented in two types: denotative and connotative.

Denotation is connected with intellectual and communicative function of the

language. Connotation, i.e. additional information, is connected with all the restfunctions:

1. An emotive function, i.e. with the presentation and expression of the speaker’s

feelings.

2. A voluntative function ( it is also called pragmatic ), i.e. compelling the

addressee to act.

3. An appealing function, i.e. compelling the listener to receive information.

4. A contact establishing function – in situations when the utterance is pronounced

only for the purpose of showing attention to the presence of another person (e.g. in

formulas of politeness )5. An aesthetic function, i.e. influencing aesthetic feelings.

The task of stylistic description and stylistic analysis is the study of the

interrelations between the subject-logical content of the utterance, i.e. information

of the first type, with the information of the second type, i.e. the manifestations of

all the five functions of the language. This demands to consider connections and

interrelations between connotative meanings of words and constructions and

denotative ones and their role in a literary whole.

We distinguish the two types of information only for the purpose of analysis, of

better understanding of the content, because thy actually constitute one whole.

Concentrating our attention on the interaction of chosen images, words,

morphological forms, syntactical structures in rendering the content, we may

deeper penetrate into the essence of the literary work.

In accordance with its various possibilities of its structural employment stylistics

represents a complex system of different branches. Besides the task of purely

theoretical plane, it has a great significance as the basis of an interpretation of the

text, literary criticism, translation theory, lexicography and so on.

In linguistics there are different means by which a writer obtains his effect.

Expressive means, stylistic devices tropes, figures of speech are all used

indiscriminately. For our purposes it is necessary to make a distinction betweenexpressive means and stylistic devices.

Expressive means of a language are those phonetic means, morphological forms,

means of word-building and lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, all of

which function in the language for emotional or logical intensification of the

utterance. These intensifying forms have been fixed in grammar books and

dictionaries.

e.g. The use of shall in the second and third person may be regarded as an

expressive means.

cf He shall do it = I shall make him do it.Among word-building we find a great many forms which help intensify it. The

diminutive suffixes such as -y ( ie ), -let dearie, streamlet.



We may also refer to what are called neologisms and nonce-words formed by

means of non-productive suffixes: mistressmanship, cleanorama, tellethone.

Stylistics observes not only the nature of an expressive means but also its capacity

of becoming a stylistic device.

What is then a stylistic device? It is a conscious and intentional, literary use of

some of the facts of the language ( excluding expressive means ) in which the mostessential features ( both structural and semantic ) of the language forms are raised

to a generalized level and thereby present a generative model.

As the subject of stylistic analysis is the language in the process of its use, it is

quite natural that the analysis touches upon all aspects of language i.e. its

phonetics, vocabulary and grammar system. Accordingly it falls into:

Lexical stylistics with two subgroups: a) lexicological stylistics and b)

semasiological stylisics.

a) Lexical stylistics studies different components of contextual meanings of words

in particular the expressive, evaluative and emotive potential of words belonging todifferent layers of the vocabulary: dialect words, terms, colloquial words, slang,

foreign words, neologisms etc. They are all studied with the view of their

interaction with different tasks of the context.

Of great importance is the stylistic analysis of proverbs and phraseology.

b) Semasiological stylistics studies functions of the transferred meanings of words

and word-combinations (metaphor, simile, metonymy etc.)Grammatical stylistics falls into a) morphological stylistics and b) syntactical

stylistics.

a) Morphological stylistics studies stylistic possibilities within different

grammatical categories adherent to this or that part of speech.

b) Syntactical stylistics investigates expressive possibilities of word-order, types of

sentences, types of syntactical constructions. The first place is given here to

Figures of Speech i.e. a deliberate deviation from the syntactical norm.

Phono-stylistics studies peculiarities of the sound organization of speech: rhythm,

alliteration, onomatopoeia etc if they are used in a stylistic function.

It also studies the use of non-standard pronunciation.

Functional styles is a part of linguistics which studies functional styles, i.e.

systems of means of expression depending on different spheres and situations of

communication.Lecture 2

Lexicological Stylistics

Lexicological stylistics deals with the principles of stylistic description of lexical

and phraseological units in abstraction from the context in which they function. It

studies possibilities of words belonging to different functional emotional groups of

words (e.g. archaisms, neologisms, jargons).

All the immeasurable richness of the vocabulary of any civilized language cannot

be memorized or even understood by an individual native speaker; it is only the

most common words that are widely used in actual communication. Nearly half amillion words have been registered in the famous New English Dictionary of 13

volumes as belonging to the English language, but not all of them fully deserve the



title of English words: many of them are never heard, or uttered, or written by the

average Englishman.

In accordance with the division of language into literal and colloquial we may

represent the whole vocabulary of the English languagey as being divided into

three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer.

The literary layer is marked by a bookish character; the colloquial layer by itslively, spoken character. The neutral layer has a universal character and can be

used in all spheres of human activities.

The following synonyms will illustrate the relations that exist between neutral,

literary and colloquial words.

Neutral colloquial literary

child kid infant

father daddy parent

fellow chap / guy associate

go away get out retirecontinue go on proceed

boy / girl teenager youth / maiden

Special Literary Vocabulary.

Now we shall examine, in a very general manner, word-groups singled out by

traditional lexicology and their stylistics functions.Poetic words form a rather insignificant layer of literary vocabulary. Their main

function is to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry.

e.g. Whilomen ( at some past time ) in Albion’s isle ( the oldest name of Britain )

there dwell a youth, …

Poetic tradition has kept alive such archaic words as quath ( p. t. ) to speak; eftsoon

– again, soon after – which are used even by modern ballad-mongers. Poetic words

in an ordinary environment may have a satirical effect.

Archaic words are rarely used highly literary words which are aimed at producing

an elevated effect. Lexical archaisms ( archaisms proper ) are obsolete words

replaced by new ones ( e.g. anon – at once; haply – perhaps; befall – happen etc;

historical words / material archaisms – they have gone out of use with the

disappearance of concepts and phenomena ( e.g. hauberk – кольчуга, yeoman –

иомен, свободный крестьянин, falconet – фальконет (лёгкая пушка), knight,

etc. ); morphological archaisms – thou, thee, ye etc.The function of archaisms is to recreate the atmosphere of antiquity; if used in an

inappropriate surrounding archaisms cause a humorous effect.

e.g. Prithee , do me the favour, as to inquire after my astrologer , Martinus Galioty,

and send him to me hither presently.

Archaisation of the text is achieved by insertion of separate words and not by the

use of the language of some past epoch.

e.g. The situation in which the archaism is not appropriate to the context. In B.

Shaw’s play ‘How he Lied to her Husband’ a youth of 18, speaking of his

feelings towards a female of 37, expresses himself in a language which is not inconformity with the situation.

“ Perfect love casteth off fear ”.



Archaisms may have other functions found in other styles. They are frequently

found in the style of official documents; and in all kinds of legal documents one

can find obsolescent ( obsolete ) words which would long have become obsolete if

it were not for that special use.

e.g. aforesaid, hereby, therewith, hereinafternamed.

The function of archaisms in official documents is terminological in character.Terms are mostly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch

of science. But they may as well appear in other styles; when used in fiction, they

may acquire a stylistic function – either to indicate stylistic peculiarities of the

subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of the character

whose speech would naturally contain special words and expressions.

e.g. Andrew Manson’s speech – ‘Citadel’ by Cronin.

Martin’s speech – ‘Martin Eden’ by J. London.

Foreign words and Barbarisms. Barbarisms are words originally borrowed from

a foreign language and usually assimilated into the native vocabulary, so as not todiffer from its units in appearance or in sound. Most of them have corresponding

English synonyms: chic – stylish; bon mot – a clever witty saying; en passant – in

passing.

We should distinguish between barbarisms and foreign words for purely stylistic

purposes. Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary, they are not

registered in English dictionaries. Barbarisms are.

Both barbarisms and foreign words are widely used in various styles with various

aims. One of these functions is to supply local colour.

e.g. ‘Vanity Fair’by Thakeray. (A German town where a boy with a good appetite

is made a focus of attention.)

‘The little boy, too, we observed had a famous appetite, and consumed schinken

( окорок ), and braten ( жаркое ), and kartoffeln, and cranberry jam … with a

gallantry that did honour to his nation’.

Foreign words may also have the function of conveying the idea of the foreign

origin or cultural and educational status of the personage.

Literary coinages . The coining of new words is dictated by the need to indicate

new concepts as a result of the development of science. It may also be the result of

a search for a more economical, brief form of utterance for expressiveness.

The first type of newly coined words may be named terminological coinages. Thesecond i.e. words coined for expressiveness, may be named stylistic coinages.

New words are usually coined according to productive models for word-building.

But new words of literary bookish type may be formed with the help of non-

productive affixes and they will be immediately recognized because of their

unexpectedness.

e.g. –ize moisturize, pedestrianize, villigize etc.

-ee interrodatee, enrollee, amputee etc.

-ship showmanship, supermanship

-ese translatese, JohnsoneseThere is still another means of word-building in English - blending of two words

into one.



e.g. avigation ( aviation + navigation )

brunch ( breakfast +lunch )

Usually newly coined words are heavily stylistically loaded, their major stylistic

function being the creation of the effect of laconism, terseness and implication of

witty humour and satire.

Lecture 3Special Colloquial Vocabulary.

The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English and American

dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or

confined to a special locality when it circulates. It falls into the following groups:

1. common colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professionalisms; 5.

dialect words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages. They all have a tinge of

informality or familiarity about them. There is nothing ethically improper in their

stylistic colouring, except that they cannot be used in formal speech.

Slang. Slang is part of the vocabulary consisting of commonly understood andwidely used words and expressions of humorous and derogatory character –

intentional substitutes for neutral or elevated words and expressions. Slang never

goes stale, it is replaced by a new slangism. The reason of appearance of slang is in

the aspiration of the speaker to novelty and concreteness. As soon as a slangish

word comes to be used because of its intrinsic merits, not because it is the wrong

word and therefore a funny word, it ceases to be slang – it becomes a colloquial

word, and later perhaps even an ordinary neutral word. Here are instances of words

which first appeared as slang, but are quite neutral today: skyscraper, cab, taxi,

movies, pub, .photo

Slang is not homogenious stylistically. There are many kinds of slang, e.g.

Cockney, public-house, commercial, military, theatrical, parliamentary and others.

There is also a standard slang, the slang common to all those who though using

received standard English in their writing and speech, also use an informal

language.

Here are more examples of slang. Due to its striving to novelty slang is rich in

synonyms.

FOOD: chuck, chow, grub, hash;

MONEY: jack, tin, brass, oof, slippery stuff.

Various figures of speech participate in slang formation.UPPER STOREY for ‘head’ – metonymy

KILLING for ‘astonishing’ – hyperbole

SOME for ‘excellent’ or ‘bad’ – understatement

CLEAR AS MUD – irony

Certain slang words are mere distortions of standard words: cripes ( instead of

‘Christ ! Abbriviation is also a widely used means of word-building in slang: math,

exam, prof, ( originally jargon words current among students and schoolchildren ).

Sometimes new words are just invented: shenanigans ( ‘tricks’, ‘pranks’).

The contrast between what is standard English and what is broken, non-literary has been achieved by means of setting common vocabulary ( also syntactical design)

against jargons, slang and all kinds of distortion of forms ( phonetic,



morphological, lexical and syntactical ) and this resulted in a tendency in some

contemporary dictionaries to replace the label ‘sl.’ by ‘inf.’ or ‘coll’. And this is

again due to the ambiguity of the term.

Jargonisms. Jargon words appear in professional or social groups as informal,

often humorous replacers of words already existing in neutral or superneutral

vocabulary. The use of jargon implies defiance, a kind of naughtiness in lingual behavior.

Jargon words can be roughly subdivided into two groups. One of them consists of

names of objects, phenomena, and processes characteristic of the given profession

– not the real denominations, but rather nicknames, as apposed to the official terms

used in this professional sphere.

The other group is made up of terms of the professional objects, phenomena, and

processes.

Thus we may say that jargon words are either non-terminological, unofficial

substitutes for professional terms (sometimes called ‘professionalisms’), or officialterms misused deliberately, to express disrespect.

Examples of the first group: in soldiers’ jargon picture show is battle; sewing

machine means machine-gun; put in a bag – killed in action.

Examples of the second group are: - big gun means an important person, GI

–‘ Government Issue; dug-out – a retired soldier returned to active service.

Every professional group has its own jargon. We distinguish students’ jargon,

musicians’ jargon, lawyers’ jargon, soldiers’ jargon and so on.

Many jargon words come to be used outside the professional sphere in which they

first appeared, thus becoming ‘slang words’.

A peculiar place is occupied by cant, a secret lingo of the underworld – of thieves

and robbers. The present-day function is to serve as a sign of recognition: he who

talks cant gives proof of being a professional criminal.

e.g. Ain’t a lifer, not him! Got a stretch in stir for pulling a leather up in Chi

means :” He was not sentenced to imprisonment for life: he only has to serve for

having stolen a purse up in Chicago’.

Many jargon words have entered the standard vocabulary: kid, queer, fun, bluff,

fib, humbug, they have become dejargonized.

Professionalisms . Professionalisms are words used in a definite trade, profession

or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home.They are close to terms. Professional words name anew already existing concepts,

tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of special code. The main

feature of a professionalism is its technicality. They circulate within a definite

community ( thus being different from terms ). The semantic structure of the term

is usually clear, that of a professionalism is dimmed by the image on which the

meaning of a professionalism is based. e.g. tin-fish – submarine; block-buster – a

film; a piper – a specialist who decorates pastry with the use of a cream-piper;

outer – a knockout blow. Professionalisms should not be mixed with jargons, they

are not aimed at secrecy. They fulfill a socially useful function in communication,facilitating a quick and adequate grasp of the message.

Professionalisms are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of



characters. The skillful use of a professional word will show not only the vocation

of the character, but also his education, breeding, environment and sometimes even

his psychology.

Dialectal words. Dialectal words are those which in the process of the intergration

of the English language remained beyond its literary boundaries and their use is

generally confined to a definite locality.There is sometimes a difficulty in distinguishing between dialectal words and

colloquial words. Some dialectal words have become so familiar in good colloquial

or standard colloquial English that they are universally recognized as units of

standard colloquial English. To these belong: lass – a girl or a beloved girl; a lad –

a boy or a young man; daft from the Scottish and the Northern dialect – of unsound

mind, silly; fash (Scottish) – trouble, cares. Still they have not lost their dialectal

associations.

Of quite a different nature are dialect words which are easily recognized as

corruption of Standard English words. E.g. hinny from ‘honey’; titty from ‘sister’( being a childish corruption of words ); cutty – a naughty girl or woman.

All above mentioned examples come from the Scottish and Northern dialects.

Among other dialects used for stylistic purposes in literature is the southern

dialect. It has a phonetic peculiarity that distinguishes it from other dialects: initial

[s] and [f] are voiced and are written in the direct speech of characters as ‘z’ and

‘v’; e.g. volk (folk), vound (found), vox (fox); zee (see), zinking (sinking).

Dialect words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose very rarely in

other styles, and only in the function of characterization of personages through

their speech.Vulgar words or vulgarisms. This stylistically lowest group consists of words

which are considered too offensive for polite usage. Objectionable words may be

divided into two groups: lexical vulgarisms and stylistic vulgarisms.

To the first group belong words expressing ideas considered unmentionable in

civilized society. Among lexical vulgarisms are various oaths. Quite

unmentionable are the so called ‘four-letter words’ (practically every word

denoting the most intimate spheres of human anatomy physiology consists of four

letters).

The ousting of objectionable words by norms of ethics is inevitably followed by

the creation of all sorts of substitutes. The word bloody is replaced by words beginning with the same sound combination: blooming, blasted, blessed, blamed,

etc.

The second group – stylistic vulgarisms – are words and phrases the lexical

meaning of which has nothing indecent about them. Their impropriety in civilized

life is due to their stylistic value – to stylistic connotations expressing a derogatory

attitude of the speaker towards the object of speech.

Vulgarisms are often used in conversation out of habit, without any thought of

what they mean, in imitation of those who use them in order not to seem old-

fashioned or prudish. Unfortunately in modern fiction they have gained legitimacy.However, they will never acquire the status of Standard English vocabulary.

Their function is that of interjections, to express strong emotions, mainly,



annoyance, anger, vexation and the like.

Colloquial coinages. Colloquial coinages ( nonce-words ), unlike those of a

bookish character, are spontaneous and elusive. Not all of them are fixed in

dictionaries or even in writing and therefore disappear from the language, leaving

no trace in it. There is nothing ethically improper in their stylistic colouring, except

that they cannot be used in formal speech. Colloquilialisms include:a) colloquial words proper ( colloquial synonyms of neutral words ): chap

(‘fellow’), chunc (‘lump’), sniffy’( disdainful’), or such that have no counterpart in

the neutral or literary sphere: molly-doddle (‘an effeminate man or boy’), drifter (‘ a

person without a steady job’). To this group belong ‘nursery’ words: mummy

( ‘mother’), dad (‘ father’), tummy (‘stomach’), gee-gee (‘horse’).

b) phonetic variants of neutral words: gaffer (‘grandfather’), baccy (‘tobacco’),

feller (‘fellow’); a special place is taken by phonetic contractions of auxiliary and

modal verbs: shan’t, won’t, don’t, ‘ve, ‘d,’ll, etc. c) diminutives of neutral ( or

colloquial ) words: granny, daddy, lassie, piggy; of proper names: Bobby, Polly, Becky, Johnny, etc. d) colloquial meanings of polysemantic words: spoon (‘a man

of low mentality’), a hedgehog ( ‘an unmanageable person’). Pretty (‘good-

looking’) is neutral; pretty ‘fairly’ ( pretty good, pretty quick) is colloquial. e) most

of interjections: gee! , eh! , well, why. Oh is a universal signal of emotion, used

both in low and high spheres of communication.Phraseology and its stylistic use.

What was said above concerning the vocabulary is more or less applicable to the

English phraseology: set phrases possess properties of individual words. Some of

them are elevated: an earthly paradise; to breath one’s last; the sword of

Damocles. Some are below neutral: to rain cats and dogs; to be in one’s cups (to

be drunk); big bug ( ‘important official’); small fry (‘unimportant people’). Even

what might be called neutral phrases produce a certain stylistic effect. Idioms and

set expressions impart local colouring to the text; besides, they have not lost their

metaphoric essence, hence they are more expressive than unidiomatic statements.

A very effective stylistic device often used by writers consists in violating the

traditional norms of the use of set phrases. E.g. He had been standing there nearly

two hours, shifting from foot to unaccustomed foot . (Galsworthy). The phrase

‘shifting from foot to foot’ is altered by inserting an additional component.

Another way of violation of the phraseological unit is its prolongation: ‘Little Jonhad been born with a silver spoon in his mouth which was rather curly and

large.’(Galsworthy) Adding the attributive clause to ‘mouth’, Galsworthy revives

the primary meaning of the word and freshens up the whole expression.

On the basis of the ancient admonition, spare the rod and spoil the child (= if you

do not punish your offspring, you will spoil him) the view point of the educational

trend at the beginning of the twentieth century is thus summarized by Galsworthy:

‘Parents had exalted notions of giving their offspring a good time. They spoiled

their rods, spared their children, and anticipated the results with enthusiasm.’ As

we have seen, the violation of phraseological units is in achieving humourouseffect. This stylistic device is used not only in belles-lettres style. Here are some

instances from newspapers illustrating the stylistic use of proverbs, sayings and



word-combinations. A newspaper editorial once had the following headline:

‘Proof of the Pudding’ (from ‘The proof of the pudding is in the eating’). Here is a

recast of a well known proverb used by an advertising agency: ’Early to bed and

early to rise, No use – unless you advertise.’ (From ‘Early to bed and early to rise

makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise’). A dealer in the window blinds slightly

alters the well known saying – ‘Love is blind’, advertising his merchandise thus:‘Our Love is Blinds’.All similar cases of using phraseology, which disclose the

inner form of speech clichés, render the speech vividness and expressiveness.

EXERCISES

Literary Stratum of words

State the type and functions of:

Archaisms

Anon she murmured, “Guido” – and bewhiles a deep sigh rent her brest… She

was begirt with a flowing kirtle of deep blue, bebound with a belt, bebuckled

with a silvern clasp, while about her waste a stomacher of point lace endedin a ruffled farthingale at her throat. On her head she bore a sugar-loaf hat

shaped like an extinguisher and pointing backward at an angle of 45 degrees.

“Guido,” she murmured, “Guido”.

And erstwhile she would wring her hands as one distraught and mutter “He

cometh not”.

If manners maketh man, then manner and grooming maketh poodle.

Barbarisms and foreign words

1.”Tyree, you got half of the profits!” Dr. Bruce shouted. “You are my de facto

partner.”

“Papa, it means you are a partner in fact and in law,”Fishbelly told him.

2.Yates remained serous. “We have time, Herr Zippmann to try your schnapps.

Are there any German troops in Neustadt?”

“No, Herr Offizier, that’s just what I to tell you. This morning, four gentlemen in

all, we went out of Neustadt to meet the Herren Amerikaner.”

3. “I never sent any telegram. What did it say”?

“I believe it’s still on the table la-bas.”

Elise retired, pounced upon it, and brought it to her mistress in triumph.

The nature and role of terms

1.Philip drew the girl’s form towards him till he had it close to his own form, both remaining perpendicular, and then bending the upper verterbrae of his

spinal column forwards and sideways he introduced his face into a close

proximity with hers. In this attitude, difficult to sustain for a long period, he

brought his upper and lower lips together, protruded them forward, and plased

them softly agaist hers in a movement seen also in the orang-outang but never

in the hippopotamus.

“They are real!” he murmured. “My God, they are absolutely real!”

Erik turned. “Didn’t you believe that the neutron existed?”

“Oh, I believed,” Fabermacher shrugged away the phrased. “To me neutronswere symbols, n with a mass of mn=1.008. But until now I never saw them.”

Neologisms



1. She was doing duty of her waitresshood (T.W.)

2. But Miss Golightly, a fragile eyeful, …. Appeared relatively unconcerned.

(T.C.)

3.For a heedful of reasons I refused. (T.C.)

4. “I love you mucher.”

“Plenty mucher? Me tooer.” (J.Br.)5. Mrs. Tribute “my deared” everybody, even things intimate, such as the pump

in the dairy. (W.D.)

Vulgarisms

1.”Look at the son of a bitch down there: pretending he’s one of the boys today.”

(J.)

2. “How are you, Cartwright? This is the very devil of a business, you know. The

very devil of a business.”

Jargonisms

1.“I didn’t know you knew each other,” I said. “A long time ago it was,” Jean said.We did History and Final at Coll.”

2. The arrangement was to keep in touch by runners and by walkie-talkie.

3. “ So you’ll both come to dinner? Eight fifteen. Dinny, we must be back to lunch.

Swallows!”

Lecture 4

Semaseological Stylistics.

Whenever we name an object or characterize a situation, we either follow theusual, collectively accepted, rules of naming, or deviate from them. If we are

guided by the rules (saying what everyone would say), there is no transfer, there is

nothing for stylistics to analyse in our speech act. If we deviate from accepted

standards, and when this deviation is of such a degree that it causes

unexpectedness, we deal with a specific variety of tropes (figures of speech).

Stylistic figures of speech fall into two types as to their concrete aims and will be

considered accordingly as figures of quality and figures of relations.Figures of Quality.

Here belong 3 groups: metaphoric group, metonymic group, and mixed group.They all give qualitative characteristics of the object of speech.

Metaphoric Group.

In the basis of the metaphoric group lies the principle of identification of two

objects. It includes simile, metaphor, epithet and personification.

1. Simile – a figure of speech, which draws comparison between two different

objects in one or more aspects (an imaginative comparison). We should distinguish

between two words: ‘comparison’ and ‘simile’, both are translated ‘сравнение’.

Comparison means juxtaposition of two objects belonging to one class of things

for the purpose of establishing the degree of their likeness or difference. To use a

simile is to characterize one object by bringing it into contact with another object

belonging to an entirely different class of things.



Similes have formal elements in their structure: like, as, such as, as if as though,

seem, the semantic nature of the last three is such that they only remotedly suggest

resemblance. E.g. ‘It was that moment of the year when the countryside seems to

faint from its own loveliness, from the intoxication of its scents and sounds’.

(Galsworthy). Simile may be also introduced by lexical means indicating likeness

between compared objects.E.g. ‘ He reminded James, as he said afterwards, of a hungry cat .’ (Galsworhty)

‘She had a strange resemblance to a captive owl’ . (G.) Possible are structural

variations of simile:

1. The sign of comparison of two objects is directly mentioned. E.g. ‘ He is as

beautiful as a weathercock’ . (O.W.)

2.The character of resemblance is only meant.

E.g. My heart is like a singing bird .

Look at the moon. How strange the moon seems: She is like a woman, rising from

a tomb. She is like a dead woman. (O.W.)3. The image suggested by the simile is not quite clear and the author gives an

explanation.

E.g. ‘He had a face like a choir-boy’s – but a choir-boy suddenly overwhelmed by

middle age; chubby, pretty doll-like, but withered’.

The three epithets are a kind of the key to the simile. The simile usually serves as

means to a clearer meaning. By comparing the object or phenomenon, the writer

describes, with a concrete and familiar thing, he makes his description clearer and

more picturesque. Besides making a narrative more concrete and definite, the

simile helps the author to reveal feelings of his own as well.

In the English language as in any other there is a long list of traditional similes

which must be regarded as phraseological units. In them the names of animals,

plants, natural phenomena are often used. E.g. sly as a fox as weak as a cat as bold

as brass as good as gold

as dead as a door nail to swim like a duck

They are often used in the direct speech of characters, thus individualizing their

speech; and rather seldom are used in the author’s narrative.

2. Metaphor. The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two

objects is called metaphor. It is the interaction between the logical and contextual-

logical meanings of a word which is based on a likeness between objects andimplies analogy and comparison between them.

Metaphor can be embodied in all meaningful parts of speech: nouns, verbs,

adjectives, adverbs. E.g. n. The machine sitting at the desk was no longer a man; it

was a busy New York broker. (O.H.)

v. In the slanting beams that streamed through the open window, the dust danced

and was golden. (O. W.)

adv. The leaves fell sorrowfully.

adj. The pillow remained sleepless. Metaphors expressed by adverbs and adjectives

are called metaphoric epithets and will be dealt with later on.Metaphors, like all stylistic devices can be classified according to their

unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected are called



genuine metaphors. Those which are constantly used in speech and therefore are

often fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite (dead,

traditional) metaphors. Examples of trite metaphors – a ray of hope, floods of tears,

a flight of imagination. Sometimes a metaphor is not confined in one image. The

writer finds it necessary to prolong the image. He does so by adding a number of

other images, but all these additional images are linked with the main, centralimage. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged metaphors.

e.g. … any dispassionate spectator would have been induced to wonder that the

indignant fire which flashed from his eyes, did not melt the glasses of his

spectacles – so majestic was his wrath. (Dickens).

The metaphors ‘flashed’ and ‘melt’ are connected with the main image, expressed

by the word ‘fire’. This prolonged image helps the author to achieve exaggeration

and to give a touch of humour to the description of Mr. Pickwick’s indignation.

The stylistic function is twofold: by evoking images and suggesting analogies it

makes the author’s thought more concrete, definite and clear and at the same itreveals the author’s emotional attitude towards what is said.

3. Epithet. Epithet is a stylistic device showing the purely individual emotional

attitude of the writer or the speaker towards the object mentioned. e.g. Shining

serenely as some immeasurable mirror beneath the smiling face of the heaven, the

solitary ocean lay in unrippled silence. (Fr. Bullen). Epithets can be classified

from the point of view of their compositional structure. They may be divided into

simple, compound, and phrase epithets. Simple epithets are ordinary adjectives or

adverbs (see ex. above).

Compound epithets are built like compound adjectives, e.g. heart-burning sight,

cloud-shapen giant. The tendency to cram into one language unit as much

information as possible has led to new compositional models for epithets which are

called phrase epithets.

e.g. ‘So think first of her, but not in the ‘I love you so that nothing will induce me

to marry you’ fashion. (Galsworhty). e.g. ‘There is something about evening

service in a country church that makes a fellow feel drowsy and peaceful. Sort of

end-of-a-perfect-day feeling .’ (P.G. Wodehouse). Another structural variety of the

epithet is the one that is called reversed. It is based on the illogical relations

between the modifier and the modified. e.g. the shadow of a smile, a devil of a job,

a dog of a fellow, a long nightshirt of mackintosh etc.In all the examples it is the second word (a smile, a job, a fellow, a mackintosh)

that is modified but it is formally placed in the position of a modifier, while the

actual modifier is given the place of the modified word. From the viewpoint of

their expressive power epithets can be regarded as those transferring the quality of

one object to its closest neighbour. e.g. ‘ He was a thin, wiry man with a tobacco-

stained smile. (Steinbeck) ‘Tobacco-stained’ teeth present an objective description

of teeth, but when the same definition is given to a smile it becomes an individual

evaluation of the same, and is classified as a transferred epithet. A new feature is

revealed by a metaphoric epithet, which presents a metaphor within an epithet.e.g. ‘ A spasm of high-voltage nervousness ran through him’ . (Howard) In most

cases metaphoric epithet is expressed by adjectives and adverbs: ‘frowning walls,



whispering streams’ (London); ‘The morning looked lovely’. (Lawrence)

Variability and flexibility make it one of the most widely and frequently used

stylistic device.

4. Personification. Personification is another variety of metaphor.

Personification is attributing human properties to lifeless objects – mostly to

abstract notions, such as thoughts, actions, intentions, emotions, seasons of theyear, etc.

The stylistic purposes of personification are varied. In poetry and fiction the

purpose of personification is to help to visualize the description, to impart dynamic

force to it or to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer. In his ballad ‘John

Barleycorn’ R. Burns personifies barleycorn by ascribing such notions as die, his

head , was dead , bending joints and drooping head . Personification is often

effected by direct address. The object addressed is thus treated as if it could really

perceive the author’s appeal: O stretch thy reign, fair Peace! From shore to shore

Till conquest cease, and slavery be nor more. (Pope)Another formal device of personification is capitalization of the word which

expresses a personified notion:

If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster To chase the glowing Hours with

flying feet. (Byron)

Lecture 5 Metonymic Group The metonymic group includes such figures of

speech in which the transfer of the name from one object to another is based on

definite relations between them (the object implied and the object named). To this

group belong metonymy and synecdoche. Metonymy. If instead directly naming

an object of speech we use the name of some other object which is closely

connected with it as a condition of its existence, or as its constant belonging, or as

a result characteristic of it, the notion has a vivid expression. And this is the

essence of metonymy as a stylistic device. In metonymy relations between the

object named and the object implied are various and numerous: 1) Names of tools (

or an organ of the body ) instead of names of actions - ‘As the sword is the worst

argument that can be used, so should it be the last’.( Byron). ‘Give every man thine

ear and a few thy voice’. 2) Consequence instead of cause - … ‘the fish desperately

takes the death’ (instead of it snaps at the fish-hook). 3) Characteristic feature of

the object - ‘Blue suit greened, might have even winked. But big nose in the grey

suit still stared’. (Priestly) 4) Symbol instead of object symbolized – crown for king or queen. 5) The container instead of the thing contained – The hall

applauded.

6) The material instead of the thing it is made of – “The marble spoke’. Metonymy

as a stylistic device (a genuine stylistic device) is used to achieve concreteness of

description. By giving a specific detail connected with the phenomenon, the author

evokes a concrete and life-like image and reveals certain feelings of his own.

Synecdoche. The term denotes the simplest kind of metonymy: using the name of

a part to denote the whole or vice versa. A typical example of traditional

synecdoche is the word hands used instead of the word worker (s) ( Hands wanted )or sailors ( All hands on deck !). Or a hundred head of cattle, here a part stands for

the whole. The same in the use of the singular (the so called generic singular) when



the plural (the whole class) is meant – A student is expected to know… (or: The

student…) The opposite type of synecdoche (‘the whole for the part’) occurs when

the name of the species, as in Stop torturing the poor animal ! (instead of… the

poor dog !); or ‘when the plural of disapprobation’ is resorted to: Reading books

when I am talking to you! (actually, one cannot read more than one book at a time).

Mixed Group. To this group belong figures having double nature. Metaphoric aswell as metonymic transfer is in their basis. They are Allegory and antonomasia.

1.Allegory. Allegory is an expression of abstract ideas through concrete pictures.

The term is mostly employed with reference to more or less complete texts. The

purpose of allegory as a stylistic device is to intensify the influence of logical

contents of speech by adding to it an element of emotional character.

Proverbs may serve as simplest examples of allegory. Thus in the proverb All is

not gold that glitters the question is not about the gold and its glitter , but about the

fact that not always outer beauty speaks of inner value. (=Appearances are

deceptive).The above mentioned proverb is metaphoric allegory as it is based on similarity of

abstract and generalized notions to concrete things and phenomena.

In metonymic allegory the name of some object which is a traditional material sign

of some idea, i.e. its symbol, is used instead of its direct expression.

When, for instance, we hear the words It is time to beat your swords into

ploughshares, we understand it as an appeal to stop hostilities in favour of peace.

Certain genres of literature are allegorical throughout: thus, fairy stories and,

especially, fables always imply something different, something more important for

human problems than what they seem to denote literarily. Allegory is found in

philosophical or satirical novels. In his allegorical satire ‘Gulliver’s Travels’ Swift

depicts contemporary England with her vices, political intrigues, and religious

strife. 2.Antonomasia. Using a proper name as a common noun and vice versa

using a descriptive word-combination instead of a proper noun is called

antonomasia.To the first group of antonomasia we shall refer those cases in which

a proper noun is used for a common noun. It can be on the basis of metaphoric as

well as on metonymic transfer. Proper noun in this type of antonomasia expresses

some quality, which was the leading passion with the character whose name is

used. This is metaphoric antonomasia. Thus, a traitor may be referred to as Brutus,

a ladies’ man deserves the name of Don Juan. This type of antonomasia is alwaystrite for the writer repeats the well known, often mentioned facts.

Metonymic antonomasia is observed in cases when a personal name stands for

something connected with the bearer of that name who really once existed. e.g. He

has sold his Vandykes. (Hurst) This is my real Goya. (Galsworthy) In the second

type of antonomasia we observe the following: practically any common noun can

be used as a proper noun. It is always original. In such cases the person’s name

serves his first characteristics. Thus Dickens names the talkative and boastful

adventurer from the ‘Pickwick Papers’ Mr. Jingle, creating the association with the

sound produced by constant shaking of the tongue of the bell. Most often thesename-characteristics are used by humourists and satirists. Here are some

Sheridan’s personages: Mr. Credulous, Mr.Backbite, Mr. Snake, Mr. Carefree,



Miss Languish; Byron’s: Miss Reading, Miss Raw, Miss Showman. Such names

present certain difficulties for translators who are to convey the logical meaning

carried by them and at the same time to preserve their English nature. Her are some

successful translations the names mentioned: Мистер Гад, Мистер Доверч,

Мистер Клеветаун Мистер Легкомыслинг, Мисс Томней. But to characterize a

person through his name is not the only function of antonomasia. Very often ithelps to give concrete expression for abstract notion: Lady Teazle: ‘Oh! I am quite

undone! Now, Mr. Logic – Oh! What will become of me?....(Sheridan) The context

in such cases is indispensable. Interesting are the cases when instead of a proper

noun a word-combination or a whole phrase characteristic of a person is used. Here

we deal with a kind of periphrasis, e.g. ‘Your Mrs. What’s- her - name sounds very

English’. (B. Nickols) The stylistic effect of such antonomasia very much depends

on the unexpectedness of a name being expressed by a word combination.

Exercises

Simile

Classify the following into traditional and original similes.

1. She was obstinate as a mule, always had been, from a child.

2. When my missus gets sore she is as hot as an oven.

3. The air was hot and felt like a kiss as we stepped off the plane.

4. Like a sigh, the breath of a living thing, the smoke rose.

5. He felt like an old book: spine defective, covers dull, slight foxing, fly

missing, rather shaken copy.

Metaphor

Discuss the structure, grammatical category and syntactical functions of metaphors.

The clock has struck, time was bleeding away.

Dance music was bellowing from the open door of the Cardogan’s cottage.

Money burns a hole in my pocket.

In November a cold unseen stranger, whom the doctors called Pneumonia,

stalked about the colony. Touching one here and there with ice fingers.

Differentiate between genuine and trite metaphors.

1. Swan had taught him much. The great kindly Sweed had taken him under his

wing.Then would come six or seven good years when there might be 20 to 25 years

of rain, and the land would shout with grass.

It was a ladylike yawn, a closed mouth yawn, but you couldn’t miss it; her

nostril-wings gave her away.

Speak about the role of the context in creation of the image.

England had two eyes, Oxford and Cambridge. They are the two intellectual

eyes.

The waters have closed above your head, and the world has closed upon your

miseries and misfortunes for ever. Epithet

Discuss the structure of epithets.



1. “Thief,” Pilon shouted. “Dirty pig of an untrue friend.”

2. A breeze …. Blue curtains in and out like pale flags, twisting them up toward

the frosted wedding-cake of the ceiling.

He was a thin wiry man with a tobacco-stained smile.

The only place he left was the deck strewn with nervous cigarette buts and

sprawled legs. Neologisms

The face of London was now strangely altered … the voice of mourning was

heard in a every street.

Mother Nature always blushes before disrobing.

Metonymy

Differentiate between trite and original metonymies. 1. “ … he had a stinking

childhood.” “If it was so stinking why does he cling to it?” “Use your head. Can’t

you see it’s just that Rusty fees safer in diapers than he would in skirts?”

2. I get my living by the sweat of my brow.She was a sunny, happy sort of a creature. Too fond of the bottle.

The man looked a rather old forty-five, for he was already going grey

Antonomasia

… we sat down at a table with two girls in yellow and three men, each

one introduced to us as Mr. Mumble.

2. Then there’s that appointment with Mrs. What’s- her- name for her bloody

awful wardrobe.

3. (The actress is all in tears). Her manager: “Now what’s all this Tosca stuff

about?”

Lecture 6

Figures of relations.

Figures of relations are based on particular, intentionally organized relations

between meanings of words and word-combinations in one context; or between

meanings of words of the given linguistic unit and words which are meant and

replaced by them. They are relations of identity (тождества) with special use of

synonyms, euphemisms, and periphrasis; relations of contrast

(противоположности) with antithesis, oxymoron, and irony; relations of inequality with climax and anticlimax, hyperbole and litotes. Relations of Identity

1. Synonyms. WE shall speak of a simultaneous use of two or more synonyms of

one and the same synonymous group within one narrative and not about the choice

of synonyms which is the subject of lexicology. The simultaneous use and not the

choice of synonyms is a figure of speech (a stylistic device). Their are two ways of

using synonyms simultaneously: paired synonyms and synonymic variations.

Paired synonyms: two synonyms are used together to fully express the notion.

The use of the second synonym does not mean the repetition of one and the same

idea, the second synonym adds some quality to the given notion, and bothsynonyms, placed together, achieve greater expressiveness than each used

separately. WE shall call these additional synonyms specifiers (уточнители).



Thus, if W. Scott says ‘the wild and unrestrained joy’, he uses the words not as

absolute synonyms, joy may be wild but still restrained, thus ‘unrestrained’ adds

some new quality to the notion ‘wild joy’. Such synonyms as lord and master,

really and truly turned into clichés. Most often one of them is native the other –

foreign by origin. Synonymic variations. Often within one narrative we find two

or more synonyms expressing analogous or identical thought. Such variations helpto avoid monotony of speech. We shall call them replacers . e.g. He brought home

numberless prizes. He told his mother countless stories every night about his

school companions. (Thackeray) Some words are synonyms only for the given

context, they may be called contextual synonyms. e.g. She told his name to the

trees. She whispered it to the flowers. She breathed it to the birds. (Leacock) The

mentioned ways of using synonyms may serve a really expressive means provided

their dosage and purpose in the narrative are carefully thought out.

2) Periphrasis is the renaming of an object that brings out some particular feature

of the object. The essence of the device is that it is decipherable only in thecontext. If a periphrasis is understandable outside the context, it is not a stylistic

device but merely a synonymous expression. Such easily decipherable periphrases

are also called traditional: the cap and gown (student body); a gentleman of the

long robe ( a lawyer); the fair/better sex ( women); my better half (my wife); a man

about town (a London society idler); the man in the street (an ordinary person).

Periphrasis as a stylistic device is a new nomination of an object by disclosing

some quality of the object and making it alone represent the object, but at the same

time preserving in the mind the ordinary name of the concept. E.g. ‘You are my

true and honourable wife as dear to me as are the ruddy drops that visit my sad

heart.‘ (blood)

Periphrasis may be logical and figurative. Logical periphrases are based on logical

notions: a certain feature of an object is taken to denote the whole object, or a

wider notion is substituted for the concrete notion. e.g. Mr. Snodgrass bore under

his arm the instrument of the destruction. (Dickens) Figurative periphrasis may be

based on metaphor (metaphoric periphrasis) or on metonymy (metonymic

periphrasis). e.g. ‘Back foolish tears, back to your native spring’ . (eyes)

(Shakespeare) It is a metaphoric periphrasis. e.g. A tremendous whack came down

on Tom’s shoulder and its duplicate on Joe’s; and for the space of two minutes the

dust continued to fly from the two jackets and the whole school to enjoy it. (M.Twain) It is a metonymic periphrasis and means to fight.

3.Euphemisms. There is a variety of periphrasis which is called euphemistic.

Euphemisms, as is known, is a word or a phrase used to replace an unpleasant

word or a phrase by a conventionally more acceptable one, for example: the word

to die has bred the following euphemisms, : to pass away to expire, to be no more,

to depart, to join the majority; and more facetious ones: to kick the bucket, to give

up the ghost, to go west.

Euphemisms exist in the language as synonyms for words regarded as rude or

indecent. In contrast to euphemisms euphemistic periphrasis is a stylistic device. Itis used for various stylistic purposes, usually to achieve a humorous or satirical

effect.



Relations of contrast

1. Antithesis is such an arrangement of ideas or terms as emphasizes a contrast. It

denotes any active confrontation. The two opposed notions may refer to the same

object of thought or to different objects. We may distinguish three varieties of

antithesis.

a. Within one speech unit (a word-combination, a sentence, or extended narrative)two, contrary as to their meaning words characterize one and the same object of

speech. The purpose of this device is to show complex and contradictory nature of

the object of speech, as in the following example:

‘It was the best of times , it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it

was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the era of incredulity;

it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness; it was the spring of

Hope, it was the winter of Despair; we had everything before us , we had nothing

before us on the right and in front and behind…’ (Dickens)

b. Two different objects of speech opposed to each other receive oppositecharacteristics. The device serves to underline their incompatibility: ‘ Large houses

are still occupied while weavers’ cottages stand empty.’ (Gaskell) ‘ His fees were

high; his lessons were light .’ (O. Henry) c.Two contrasting objects of speech

receive their peculiar characteristics as to quality, action etc.

‘For the old struggle – mere stagnation, and in place of danger and death, the dull

monotony of security and the horror of an unending decay!’ (Leacock)

Stylistic antithesis is not only an effective stylistic devise, but as all expressive

means it is an expression of inner, elevated contents of speech. 2. Oxymoron is a

combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an

adjective) in which the meaning of the two clashes, being opposite in sense: ‘His

honour rooted in dishonour stood And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.’

(Tennyson) The oxymoron reveals the contradictory nature of one and the same

phenomenon. One of its components discloses some objectively existing feature or

quality while the other serves to convey the author’s individual attitude towards the

same.

e.g. …’the houses filled with guests and all of them plastered in diamonds and

stinking of titles , not one of them less than an earl!’ (Du Maurier) The contextual

meanings of ‘diamonds’ and ‘titles’ do not differ from their logical meanings,

whereas the contextual meaning of ‘stinking ‘ and plastered is emotive and showsthe speaker’s personal view of the bejewelled and betitled assembly. Two opposite

ideas very naturally repulse each other so that a once created oxymoron is

practically never repeated in different contexts and so does not become trite.

3. Irony. (Greek eironeia – ‘ mockery concealed’)

It denotes a trope / figure based on direct opposition of the meaning to the sense. It

is the use of words, word-combinations and sentences in the meanings opposite to

those directly expressed by them (i.e. opposite to their logical meaning) for

purpose of ridicule. Thus in the sentence: ‘It must be delightful to find oneself in a

foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.’ The word “delightful’ acquires ameaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning, that is ‘unpleasant’,

‘not delightful’.



Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning. The effect of irony largely

depends on the unexpectedness and seeming lack of logic of a word used by the

author in an incompatible context. The reader is fully aware of the contrast

between what is logically expected and what is said. This contrast of meanings

very often produces a humorous effect.

Sometimes irony is not pointed out at all: its presence in the text is deduced only by reasoning. The reader cannot possibly believe that the author can be praising the

object of speech in earnest. Sometimes the whole of the narrative is ironical, as the

case is with the description the matrimonial schemes of Becky Sharp. (Thackeray)

Lecture7

Relations of Inequality

1.Climax presents a structure in which every consecutive sentence or phrase is

emotionally stronger or logically more important than the preceding one.e.g. ‘For

that instant there was no one else in the room, in the house, in the world , besides

themselves…’ (Wilson) Such an organization of the utterance creates a gradualintensification of its significance, both logical and emotive, and absorbs the

reader’s attention more completely: ‘It must be a warm pursuit in such a climate,’

observed Mr. Pickwick. ‘Warm! – red-hot! – scorching! – glowing!’

A peculiar variety is observed in those cases when a negative structure undergoes

intensification: ‘ No tree, no shrub, no blade of grass … that was not owned’.

(Galsworthy) ‘Be careful’, said Mr. Jingle – not a look, not a wink,’ said Mr .

Tupman. ‘Not a syllable – not a whisper’. (Dickens)

As we sea every consecutive part of the climax is expressed by a word presenting a

less significant concept, so that instead of an increase there is a certain decrease of

logical importance and emotion:

cf. warm – red -hot – scorching – glowing and tree - - shrub – blade of grass But on

closer observation it appears that the idea of some decrease is premature, because

the negative particle attached to the ‘decreasing’ members of the climax, changes

the whole picture. The smaller becomes the quantity or importance of a concept,

the stronger is the negation, i.e. the more efficient and to the point is the climax.

2. Anticlimax. A real anticlimax is a sudden deception of the recipient: it consists

in adding one weaker element to one or several stronger ones, mentioned before.

The recipient is disappointed in his expectations: he predicted a stronger element to

follow; instead, some insignificant idea follows the significant one (ones). Thisusually brings forth a humorous effect.

The majority of famous O. Wilde’s and B. Shaw’s paradoxes are based on

anticlimax: ‘Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover

everything except the obvious.’ (O,W.) ‘ Harris never weeps, he knows not why. If

Harris’ eyes fill with tears, you can bet it is because Harris has been eating raw

onions… (J. K. J.)

3. Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration, the aim of which is to

intensify one of the features of the object in question to such a degree as will show

its utter absurdity: ‘God, I cried buckets. I saw it ten times.’Like many stylistic devises hyperbole may lose its quality as a stylistic device

through frequent repetition and become a unit of the language- as-a-system,



(language expressive means): a thousand pardons, scared to death etc.

Word-combinations of the type: a drop of water=not much water, a cat size pony=a

very small pony - present a kind of hyperbole – exaggeration of insignificance –

(small quality, small size).

4. Litotes. The stylistic device of litotes is used to diminish the positive

characteristics of a thing or a phenomenon. It is based on discrepancy between thesyntactical form, which is negative, and the meaning, which is positive.

e.g. She said it ,but not impatiently. (with patience).

The obligatory presence of the particle not makes the statement less categorical

and conveys certain doubts of the speaker.

Cf. ‘It was not unnatural if Gilbert felt a certain embarrassment.’(Maugham) and

‘It was natural if…’ and you will see that the peculiar structure of litotes interferes

into the semantic field and influences it, supplying an additional emotive shade to

the idea expressed.

The structure of litotes is rather rigid: its first element is always the negative particle ‘not’ (or ‘no’) and its second component is, too, always negative in

meaning if not in form: not without doubt; He is no fool.

Exercises (Figures of Relations)

Relation of identity.

Synonyms

Comment on the type and function of synonyms.

With wild cries and desperate energy, she lipped to another and still another

cake – stumbling – leaping – skipping – springing upwards again.

“Yes, yes,” he said; “ except in your case you told me to get a position. The

homely word job, like much that I have written, offends you….”

Every man has somewhere in the back of

Periphrasis

State the nature and function of the following periphrasis.

1. His arm about her, he led her in and balled, “LADIES AND THE WORSER

HALVES, the bride!”

2. The nose was anything but Grecian – that was a certainty, for it pointed to

heaven.

3. “I expect you like a wash,” Mrs. Thompson said. “The bathroom’s to the right

and the usual offices next to it”.4. The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of the fighting

in Africa.

4. He would make some money and then he would come back and marry his dream

from Blackwood.

5. She was still fat; the destoyer of his figure sat at the head of the table.

Relations of contrast.

Antithesis

Give morphological and syntactical characteristics of the following cases of

antithesis.Three bold and experienced men – cool confident and dry when they began;

white quivering and wet when they finished…



Mrs. Nork had a large home and a small husband.

He… ordered a bottle of the worst possible port wine , at the highest possible

price.

Oxymoron

Discuss the structure of the following oxymorons.

They looked courteous curses at me. … he was certain the whites could easily detect his adoring hatred of them.

He … caught a ride home to the crowded loneliness of the barracks.

Irony

Contentedly Sam Clark drove off, in the heavy traffic of three Fords and the

Minniemachie House Free Buss.

Stoney smiled the sweet smile of an alligator.

Henry could gloriously tipsy on tea and conversation. Relations of inequality.

Climax | Anticlimax

“Say yes. If you don’t, I’ll break into tears. I’ll sob. I’LL moan. I’ll growl.” I don’t attach any value to money. I don’t care about it, I don’t know about it, I

don’t want it, I don’t keep it – it goes away from me directly

… they were absolutely quiet; eating no apples, cutting no names, inflicting no

pinches, and making no grimaces, for full tow minutes afterwards.

Hyperbole

God, I cried buckets. I saw it ten times.

Tom was conducted through a maze of rooms and labyrinths of passages

Litotes

“How slippery it is, Sam.”

“Not an uncommon thing upon ice, Sir,” replied Mr. Weller.

2. I am a vagabond of the harum- scarum order, and not of the mean sort…

Morphological Stylistics.

Now we shall consider the stylistic effect of using different parts of speech in an

unusual lexico-grammatical and grammatical meanings. Such a divergence

between what is traditionally denoted and what is situationally denoted on the level

of morphology is called transposition (транспозиция) or grammatical metaphor.

The rendering of emotions, evaluations and expressiveness, and sometimes

functional and stylistic connotations are achieved at the expense of the violation of usual grammatical connections. Every part of speech, depending on its particular

grammatical category and means of its expression, may be subjectedc to

transformation.

Let us begin with the noun. Expressive possibilities arise here, first of all, with the

unusual use of the number and case and also with the character of the pronoun

substitution.

The most widely known type of such transposition is the so called personification

when human feelings, thoughts, speech (antromorphism) are ascribed to natural

phenomena, objects, animals; and this is connected with the change of pronouns (it becomes he, she etc.)

e.g. Roll on, thou dark and blue Ocean – roll ! The common noun Ocean becomes



a proper noun, it is replaced by the pronoun thou, is written in a capital letter and is

used in the function of a rhetorical address (apostrophe). Possessive case of nouns

is another formal sign of personification which is also marked by expressiveness.

Even the use of the names of countries, cities in the possessive case renders them

some elevation. cf. London’s people and the people of London my country’s laws

and the laws of the country. It renders the text some loftiness. Another type of transposition are metaphors, when names of animals, birds, fantastic beings

receive metaphoric, emotional colour and not rarely have a derogatory meaning:

mule, pig, duck, shark, snake, swine, toad, wolf, worm, angel, tabby, devil etc. I

was not going to have all the old tabbies bossing her around, because she is not

what they call our class. The women are called here ‘старые кошки’.

Transposition of adjectives may acquire not only emotive and expressive but

functionally stylistic colouring, e.g. Listen, my sweet . Come on, my lovely!

Adjectives are converted into nouns. Transposition of abstract nouns ( refers to

people): cf. The chubby little eccentricity – a chubby eccentric child. He is a disgr ace to his family – He is a disgraceful son. The old oddity – an odd old person. In

other word-combinations substantivation may have a bookish colouring, i.e.

functionally stylistic connotation a flush of heat – a hot flush a man of intelligence

– an intelligent man the dark of the night – the dark night the dark of intensity – the

intense dark The substantivised adjective proves to be more abstract and bookish

than the derived noun. The plural number. Funny sounds the use of the plural

number when – s is added to the whole sentence. e.g. One I-am-sorry-for –you is

worth twenty I-told-you-so’s. Genitive also serves as a contextual indicator of

personification: ‘Holly Wood’s Studio Empty’ – ‘Holly Wood Studio Empty’.

These are titles. The article. The functioning of the article gives an illustrious

example of the fact that the code is a system of signs, rules of their functioning,

restrictions to these rules. The indefinite article may indicate belonging to a

famous family, in this case an evaluative component is always present, and the

connotation is rather complicated. For instance, ‘Elisabeth was a Tudor’. What is

meant here is that family features of nobility belong to this person. But with

another example of the occasional use of the indefinite article ‘She was a Dodson’

( ‘The Mill on the Floss’ D. Elliot) the name Dodson is far off being aristocratic.

The Dodsons are arrogant, rude philistines. The definite article, used before the

proper name, may indicate that the person is a celebrity in good or bad sense. For instance, ‘ Know my partner. Old Robinson. Yes, the Robinson. Don’t you know?

The notorious Robinson. (Conrad Lord Jim). The use of the article in enumeration

is of special interest. In attributive word combinations with a number of dependent

homogeneous members are usually placed between the first article and the noun.

And there is no need in repeating the article before each word, but it may be

needed for stylistic purposes. e.g. Under the low sky the grass shown with a

brilliant, an almost artificial sheen. (C.P. Snow) The appearance of the second

article is unexpected and drawing the attention to the following word, underlines

its importance and creates the impression of the appearance of a new wordcombination. The adjective. The category of comparison is the only grammar

category in contemporary English characteristic of adjectives. It renders the degree



of intensity expressed by the adjectival sign and as such is very close to the

category of stylistic expressiveness. It is especially true of elative whose

grammatical meaning is an irrelatively great measure of the sign: a most valuable

idea, the newest fashion of all . There are also syntactical means for rendering

elative: a foolish, foolish wife, a most foolish wife, the most foolish of wives, my

fool of a wife, my wife is foolishness herself, she is as foolish as can be, is she as foolish as that?

In low colloquial style or in popular speech possible is the intensification by means

of that : She is that foolish. In literary colloquial style emotional evaluative

component is introduced with evaluative words in pairs: nice and warm, good and

strong. Only qualitative and quantitative adjectives have the category of

comparison. But when other kinds of adjectives are used in comparative or

superlative degree of which it is not characteristic they acquire great

expressiveness. e.g. You cannot be deader than dead. (Hemingway) The verb. The

verb has much more developed system of word-building and a greater number of grammatical categories than any other part of speech. Thus we may assume that its

stylistic potential is considerable. And here again transposition is an important

expressive means. In lively emotional narrative about events in the past or

expected in the future ‘The Present Historical Tense’ is used. The continuous

forms (present, past or future) are used instead the indefinite forms. It is more

emotional, sometimes they can express a momentary irritation. e.g. One day I’m

no longer spending my days running a sweet stall, I may write a book about us all.

Sometimes the continuous form, due to its emotiveness, proves to be milder and

more polite than simple present. e.g. The kind Mrs. Eliot puts mildly: ‘I’d better

show you the way. He is not feeling so good to day.’ As to the perfect it is the

omission of the auxiliary verb: ‘You done this.

Lecture 8

Syntactical stylistics.

What is studied here is a set of parallel syntactical structures and their comparative

stylistic analysis. We shall consider special forms of syntactical organization of

English speech used as expressive means thus rendering the utterance additional

semantic shades. These forms are purposeful deviations from the neutral

syntactical norm of the English language. Under deviations of the norm we

understand, for instance, absence of expected members of the sentence, their repetition or unusual distribution in the sentence. They are apt to produce a certain

stylistic effect. And the analysis of such cases is the subject of syntactical

stylistics. Stylistic effect can be created not only within one sentence but within

larger and more complicated spans of utterance (sentences, paragraphs, chapters

and the whole work).

In accordance with syntactical stylistic expressive means can be classified as

follows: 1.From the point of view of quantitative characteristics of the syntactical

structure there are two possible varieties of deviations---a. the absence of elements

which are obligatory in a neutral construction; b. excess of non-essentialelements/redundancy of syntactical elements.

2. With regard to the distribution of the elements we should deal with various types



of inversion.

3. By analyzing the general syntactical meanings, communicative aims of

sentences, stylistic effect of shifts in syntactical means of changes in the use of

syntactical forms are established.

I.A. Absence of elements which are obligatory in a neutral construction.

1. Ellipsis (of Greek origin ‘ellipsis’ – недостаток, нехватка)The deliberate omission of one or more principal words (usually the subject, the

predicate). The missing parts are either present in the syntactical environment of

the sentence (context) or they are implied by the situation.

For example, ‘The ride did Ma good. Rested her .’ (D. Carter) The second sentence

is elliptical, as the subject of the sentence is missing.

The omission of some parts of the sentence is an ordinary and typical feature of the

oral type of speech. In belles-lettres style the peculiarities of the structure of the

oral type of speech are partially reflected in the speech of characters.

Ex. ‘ I’ll see nobody for half an hour, Marcey,’ said the boss. ‘Understand? Nobody at all.’ (Mansfield)

The omission of some parts of the sentence in the example given above reflects the

informal and careless character of speech.

Some parts of the sentence may be omitted due to the speaker’s excitement. Such

cases of omission reflecting the natural structure of the oral type of speech are not

a stylistic device.

The stylistic device of ellipsis is sometimes used in the author’s narrative, but more

frequently it is used in represented speech.

Ex. ‘Serve him right, he should arrange his affairs better!’ So any respectable

Forsyte’ (Galsworthy). The predicate is missing and the reader is to supply what is

omitted.

The stylistic device of ellipsis not only makes the sentence laconic and prominent

but creates the effect of implication forcing the reader to read between the lines.

The stylistic device of ellipsis used in inner represented speech creates a stylistic

effect of the natural abruptness and the fragmentary character of the process of

thinking.

Ex. ‘ It would have been a good idea to bring along one of Doc’s new capsules.

Could have gone into a drug store and asked for a glass of water and taken one. ’

(D. Carter).2. Nominative sentences/One-member sentences. The communicative function

of a nominative sentence is a mere statement of the existence of an object, a

phenomenon: ‘ London. Fog everywhere. Implacable November weather.’

Though syntactically different from elliptical sentences, nominative sentences

(which comprise only one principal part expressed by a noun or a noun equivalent)

resemble the former because of their brevity. Nominative sentences are especially

(important) suitable for preliminary descriptions introducing the reader to the

situation. They are often used to present the background of the action as in the

example:‘ Men, palms, red plush seats, white marble tables, waiters in aprons. Miss Moss

walked through them all .’ (Mansfield)



One-member sentences may be used to heighten the emotional tension of the

narrative or to single out the character or the author’s attitude towards what is

happening.

Absence of auxiliary elements.

Auxiliary verbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions as well as the link verb be are

very often dropped in informal oral communication.‘ I been waiting here all morning…’ (Robbins)

‘You feel like telling me?’ (Salinger)

‘She still writing poetry?’ (Miller)

‘That be enough?’ (Markus)

Articles, both the definite and indefinite are omitted in the following examples:

‘Third time lucky—that will be the idea.’ (Christie)

‘ Post here yet ?’ (Amis)

‘Chair comfortable?’ (Pinter)

‘ Beautiful woman, but no subtlety…’ (Christie)The articles are mostly dropped when the noun or the nominal group occupy the

initial position in the sentence.

Prepositions are absent mostly in adverbial modifiers of place and time:

‘Where was he born?’

‘ London.’ (Kanin)

‘What time did you get in?’ (Amis)

‘ I told you we’ll go Friday.’ (Hellman) Zeugma is use of a word in the same

grammatical relation to the adjacent word in the context, one metaphoric and the

other literal in sense. e. g. The boys took their books and places. (Dickens) At noon

Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and humour, put on kimano, airs, and the water

to boil for coffee.(O. Henry) Two cases of using zeugma – v. to get(out) is blended

with n. bed and humour forming a free word-combination with the first and a

phraseological unit with the second; v. to put on yokes with three words and in

each of the three combinations its semantics is different: надела кимоно,

напустила на себя важный вид, ставила воду. Stylistic effect caused by

zeugma lies entirely in the sphere of semantics. The use of zeugma serves, as a

rule, humouristic purposes; the comic is caused by contrariness between identity of

constructions and their semantic heterogeneity. Very often combinations forming

zeugma are syntactically homogeneous members of the sentence and from the view point of the formal structure of the sentence do not violate syntactical norm. e.g.

She dropped a tear and a handkerchief.(Dickens) She possessed two false teeth

and a sympathetic heart. ( O.H.) Zeugma is a stylistic device, as it is based on

intentional ‘economy’ of syntactical means with the aim of a certain stylistic result.

Lecture 9

IB. Excess of non-essential elements. (Redundancy of syntactical elements) The

redundancy, structural and material, occurs, first of all, in the increased number of

elements used. It must be borne in mind that all superfluous elements have a

stylistic feature in common: additional words and more complicated constructionsaim at emphasizing the thought (or part of the thought) expressed.

Repetition as a stylistic device is recurrence of the same word or phrase within the



sentence with the view of expressiveness. Examples of repetition are abundant in

colloquial speech; as well as in poetry, imaginative prose, and emotional public

speeches; and hardly ever occur in scientific, technological or legal texts.

Repetition within phrases (parts of the sentence) typical of colloquial speech

concerns mostly qualifying adverbs and adjectives: very, very good; for ever and

ever ; a little, little girl. e.g. They both looked hard, tough and ruthless, and they both looked very, ,very,

very lethal. (Chase) Scrooge went to bed again and thought and thought and

thought it over and over and over. (Dickens) The element (elements) attract the

reader’s attention as being the most important; in a way it imparts additional sense

to the whole utterance. Repetition as an expressive device, as a means of emphasis,

should be differentiated from cases of chance recurrence of the same word in an

unprepared, confused or stuttering colloquial speech: ‘I-I-I never met her before

here’.

Syntactical tautology (or prolepsis). The term implies recurrence of the nounsubject in the form of the corresponding personal pronoun. The stylistic function of

this construction is emphasis. The noun subject separated from the rest of the

sentence by the unstressed pronominal subject comes to be detached from the

sentence – made more prominent. e.g. Miss Tillie, she slept forty days and nights

without waking up. (O.H.) The use of the redundant pronominal subject is a typical

feature of popular speech. e.g. The widow Douglass, she took me for her son, and

allowed she would civilize me… (M. Twain) Sometimes prolepsis occurs in quite

an opposite form: the recurrence of the personal pronoun in the form of the noun

subject. e.g. She developed power, this woman – this wife of his. (Galsworthy)Parallelism. Repetition may also concern the syntactical structure of sentences.

Adjacent sentences are often identical or analogous by their syntactical structures.

Assimilation or even identity of two or more neighbouring sentences is called

parallelism (parallel constructions). Parallelism, as a matter of fact, is a variety of

repetition, but not a repetition of lexically identical sentences, only a repetition of

syntactical costructions: John kept silent; Mary was thinking. The two sentences

are identical structurally, but different lexically. Parallelism strongly affects the

rhythmical organization of the paragraph, so it is eminent in oratoric speech, in

pathetic extracts. More often it so happens that parallel sentences contain the same

lexical elements: Anaphora. This term implies identity of beginnings of one or several initial elements in adjacent sentences (stanzas, paragraphs). This device

serves the purpose of strengthening the element that recurs. e.g. Farewell to the

forests and wild hanging woods, Farewell to the torrents and loud-pouring

floods…(Burns) The anaphoric Farewell to the… is accompanied by complete

parallelism of the rest of each line. Epiphora. This stylistic figure is opposed to

anaphora. It is recurrence of one or several elements concluding two or more

syntactical units. e.g. The white washed room was pure white as of old, the

methodical book-keeping was in peaceful progress as of old, and some distant

howler was hanging against a cell door as of old. Epiphora, to a still greater extentthan anaphora, regulates the rhythm and makes prose resemble poetry.

Framing. This term is used to denote the recurrence of the initial segment at the



very end of a syntactictal unit (sentence, paragraph, stanza):

‘Money is what he’s after, money.’ (Galore)

‘Never wonder. By means of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division,

settle everything somehow, and never wonder.’ (Dickens)

Anadiplosis (from the Greek ‘doubling’): the final element or elements of a

sentence, paragraph, stanza, etc. recurs at the very beginning of the next sentence, paragraph, stanza.

‘With Bewick on my knee, I was then happy; happy at least in my own way.”

(Bronte)

Chiasmus (from the letter X—chi) means crossing. The term denotes what is

sometimes characterized as ‘parallelism reversed’: two syntactical constructions

(sentences or phrases) are parallel, but their members (words) change places, their

syntactical positions. What is the subject in the first becomes an object or a

predicative in the second (thus their functions change.)

e.g. The jail might have been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been the jail.’ (Dickens)

Polysyndeton. The term, as opposed to ‘syndeton,’ means excessive use

(repetition) of conjunctions—the conjunction ‘and’ in most cases. In poetry and

fiction, the repetition of ‘and’ either underlines the simultaneity of actions or close

connection of properties enumerated. A classical example of polysyndeton of this

kind is the famous poem by Robert Southey. A few lines will suffice:

Advancing and glancing and dancing, and prancing

Recoiling, toiling, and toiling and boiling,

And dashing, and flashing, and splashing, and clashing;

And so never ending, and always descending….

And in this way the water comes down at Lodore.

e.g. He put on coat and found his mug and plate and knife and went outside

(Aldridge).

It may also promote a high-flown tonality of narrative as in the example:

And only one thing really troubled him sitting there—the melancholy craving in

his heart—because the sun was like enchantment on his face and on the clouds and

on the golden birch leaves…. (Galsworthy).

On the other hand, excessive use of the conjunction ‘and’ often betrays the poverty

of the speaker’s syntax, showing the primitiveness of the character.e.g. It (the tent) is soaked and heavy, and it flops about, and tumbles down on you,

and clings around your head, and makes you mad. (J?)

II. Unusual distribution of Elements/Components of Speech. Change of Word

Order/Inversion

Every noticeable change in word order is called ‘inversion.’ It is important to

distinguish between grammatical inversion and syntactical inversion. Grammatical

inversion is that which brings about a cardinal change in the grammatical meaning

of the sentence (syntactical structure). E.g. You are here—Are you here? He has

come—Has he come?— a declarative sentence is transformed into an interrogativeone, and the result is grammatical inversion. Stylistic inversion does not change the

grammatical essence of the sentence: it consists of an unusual arrangement of



words for the purpose of making one of them more conspicuous, more important,

more emphatic. Cf. They slid down with its variant Down they slid . There is no

grammatical change, but the word ‘down’ sounds very strong in the second

sentence.

The unusual first place in the sentence may be occupied by a predicative:

‘Inexplicable was the astonishment of the little party when they returned to find out that Mr. Pickwick had disappeared.’ (Dickens)

Occasionally, the first place is occupied by a simple verbal predicate. Here are two

examples from Jack London:

‘Came a day when he dragged himself into the Enquirer alley, and there was no

Cheese-Face.’

‘Came frightful days of snow and rain.’

‘Came another tiny moment, while they waited laughing and talking.’ (Mansfield).

The object is placed before the predicate:

‘Yes, sir, that you can.’ (Pendleton)‘During that descent he could remember his father quite distinctly… , but his

mother he couldn’t see.’ (Galsworthy)

An adverbial modifier may not infrequently come to the foreground.

‘And doggedly along by the railings of the Grand Park towards his father’s

house, he went trying to tread on his shadow.’ (Galsworthy)

Lecture 10

III Communicative Aims of sentences.

Re-evaluation of syntactical meaning. Grammatical syntactical forms are

sometimes used not in a function which is not theirs originally. It turns out that the

affirmative, negative, interrogative, exhortative (i.e. order or request) sentences are

interchangeable. They may replace one another fulfilling the same (or nearly the

same) communicative intention, thus becoming stylistically relevant.

Quasi-affirmative sentences. They are negative in form but the implication of

such sentences is affirmative: ‘Isn’t it too bad?’ equals ‘That’s too bad.’ It is a

certain variety of rhetorical question (namely those with a negative predicate).

‘Don’t I remember!’ implies I do remember.

The interrogative form makes the statement that is implied much stronger than it

would be if expressed directly.

Quasi-negative sentences. Most of them are rhetorical questions with affirmative predicates:

‘Did I say a word about the money?’ (Shaw)

The implication is ‘I did not say….’

Negative implication is also typical of special questions.

‘What’s the good of a man behind a bit of glass ...? What use is he there and

what’s the good of their banks?’ (J.K.J.)

Affective negative is also expressed in colloquial speech by a clause of unreal

comparison beginning with as if and containing a predicate in the affirmative form:

‘As if I ever stopped thinking about the girl, and her confounded vowels and consonants.’ (Shaw)

Quasi-negatives are also set expressions (cf. and the like).



Pickering (slowly): I think I know what you mean, Mr. Higgins.

Higgins: Well, dash me if I do! (Shaw)

Quasi-imperative sentences are those which express inducement (order or request)

without imperative form of the verb. Some of them do not name the action, but

only mention the object or qualification of a self-evident action.

‘Tea. For two. Out here.’ (Shaw)‘Here! Quick!’ or with the adverb ‘Off with you!’

Types of Syntactical Connections Viewed Stylistically.

Words, phrases, clauses and sentences are connected with one another in speech.

Most often words and phrases are combined semantically, sometimes by auxiliary

elements (prepositions and conjunctions). Clauses and independent sentences can

be joined to one another asyndetically. Stylistically relevant are changes in the type

of connection. Detachment. One of the secondary parts of the sentence by some

specific considerations of the writer is placed so that it seems formally independentof the word it logically refers to. Such parts of structure are called detached or

isolated. In writing and in print they are separated by punctuation marks (mostly by

commas or dashes). The general stylistic effect of detachment is strengthening,

emphasizing the word (or phrase) in question. E.g. ‘How could John, with his

heart of gold. Leave his family?’ Any secondary part may be detached. ‘Very small

and child-like, he never looked more than fourteen’ (attribute), ‘ Brave boy, he

saved my life and shall not regret it’ (appositive), ‘Talent, Mr. Micawber has ,

capital, Mr. Micawber has not (direct object), ‘Bitterly, she complained of a pain

in her back’ ( adverbial modifier ). A variant of detached construction isparenthesis. One of most important stylistic functions of using a parenthetic

sentence is to create two parallel speech plans in the narrative. This stylistic device

may serve to convey the inner speech of the character. E.g. Here is a long passage

– what an enormous prospective I make of it! – leading from Peggoty’s kitchen to

the front door. (Dickens) The parenthetic form of the statement makes it more

conspicuous, more important than it would be if it had been the subordinate clause.

Subordination and coordination. Clauses and independent sentences are

combined by way of subordination or coordination. Besides they may be combined

asyndetically. The same semantic relations between two neighbouring utterancesmay be expressed in to different ways: When the clock struck twelve, he came –

subordination The clock struck twelve, and he came – coordination The clock

struck twelve, he came – asyndetic connection The use of complex sentences,

especially with complicated phrasal conjunctions, such as in view of the fact that or

with regard to… is a sign of formal written type of speech. Much simpler

conjunctions are preferred in everyday oral communication – when, where, if, and

the like. In oral speech we mostly find either asyndeton, or frequent use of the

universal conjunction and. E.g. You never can tell in these cases who they are

going to turn out and it’s best to be on the safe side. (Dreiser) The conjunction and evidently signalizes the relation of cause and consequence between the two

clauses. E.g. ‘Open that silly mouth of yours just once, and you find yourself in



jail…! (D.Usseau) This compound sentence is an equivalent of a complex sentence

with a subordinate clause of condition ( If you open…) Suspense – holding the

reader in tense anticipation is often realized through the separation of predicate

from subject or predicative by the deliberate introduction between them of a

phrase, clause or sentence (frequently parenthetic). Suspense is a deliberate

slowing down of the thought, postponing its completion to the very end of theutterance. E.g. All this Mrs. Snagsby, as an injured woman and the friend of Mrs.

Chadband, and the follower of Mr. Chadband and the mourner of the late Mr.

Talkingh

orn, is here to certify. (Dickens) Suspense always requires long stretches of

speech. The main purpose of the device is to prepare the reader for the only logical

conclusion. It is a psychological effect that is aimed in particular.

Reported, or Represented Speech.

The description of thoughts and feelings of characters by conveying them through

the presentation of inner speech, i.e. reflecting the process of their thinking, iscalled represented speech. Introducing the represented speech into the narrative the

author creates the effect of the character’s immediate presence and participation.

E.g. He saw men working and sleeping, towns succeeding one another. What a

great country America was! What a great thing to be an artist there! – these

simple dramatic things… If he could only do it! If he could only do it! If he could

only stir the whole country so that his name would be like that of Dore in France

or Verestchagin in Russia. If he could but get fire into his work, the fire he felt!

(Dreiser). The morphological structure of the given example is that of indirect

speech: the character is referred to in the third person singular, the verb and

pronouns are of the same form, too. But though the quotation marks are absent and

the structure of the passage does not indicate the author’s immediate presence ,

Still there are certain features which distinguish it from the author’s indirect speech

proper. They are the syntactical and lexical aspects of the passage which are close

to the norms and patterns of direct speech. See how many explanatory sentences

are there in the extract: they help to reflect the emotional state of the character.

Parallel constructions, repetitions – all take part in bringing in the character

himself with his ideas, dreams and sentiments. The writer does not eliminate

himself completely from the narrative as it happens with the introduction of direct

speech but coexists with the personage. What is characteristic of representedspeech? a)features in common with indirect speech: no inverted commas; the use

of the pronoun in the third person; observance of the rules of sequence of tenses; b)

features distinguishing represented speech from indirect speech: the use of typical

for a personage’s manner, words and expressions; the use of interjections,

exclamatory and interrogative sentences the words yes and no.

EXERCISES

Syntactical stylistic devices, based on the absence of logically required

components of speech.

…but her words, everybody’s words, were soon lost under the incessant flow of Miss Bates, who came in talking, and had not finished her speech under

many minutes after her being admitted into the circle at the fire…



“So very obliging of you! – No rain at all. Nothing to signify. I do not care for

myself. Quite thick shoes. And Jane declares – Well! – (as soon as she was

within the door) Well! This is brilliant, indeed! – This is admirable! –

Excellently contrived upon my word. Nothing wanting. Could not have imagine

it. – So well lighted up. – Jane, Jane – did you ever see any thing? ...” – She

was now met by Mrs. Weston.He was both out of pocket and out of spirits by that catastrophe.

All the next week Mrs. Glennie wore a martyred frown and Malcolm a new

checked waistcoat: price half a sovereign at the store.

Redundancy of syntactical components.

Classify the following cases of repetition according to the position occupied by the

repeated unit. State their functions.

Everything in Marseilles and about Marseilles had stared at the fervid sky and

been stared at in return until a staring habit had become universal there.

Strangers were stared out of countenance by staring white houses, staringwhite walls, staring white streets, staring tracks of arid roads, staring hills

from which verdure was burnt away. (Dickens)

It were better that he knew nothing. Better for common sense, better for him,

better for me.

I wake up and I’m alone, and I walk round Warley and I’m alone, and I talk

with people and I’m alone and I look at his face when I’m home and it’s

dead…( J. Braine)

He ran away from the battle. He was an ordinary human being that did not want

to kill or be killed, so he ran away from the battle.

I know the world and the world knows me.

And they wore their best and more colourful clothes. Red shirts and green shirts

and pink shirts. Unusual distribution of components of speech. Inversion.

Detachment.

Out came the chase – in went the horses – on sprang the boys – in got the

travelers.

Calm and quiet below me in the sun and shade lay the old house…

Then she said: “You think it so? She was mixed up in this lousy business?”

Only to the eyes of a Kennicott was it exceptional.

She narrowed her eyes a little at me and said I looked exactly Celia’s boy.Around the mouth.

I have to beg you for money. Dayly

Lecture 11

PHONETIC STYLISTICS.

Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devises are used for the purpose of

producing a certain acoustic effect, giving emphasis to the utterance and arousing

emotions in the reader or listener. This part of stylistics deals with prosody and

interaction of speech sound in sequences. The term prosody denotes general

supersegmental characteristics of speech (tonality, length, force, tempo, andespecially the alternation of stressed and unstressed elements – rhythm). The

number of prosodic variants (intonational treatment) is theoretically unlimited. As



for interaction of speech sounds, of considerable importance is the recurrence of

the same consonant (‘alliteration’) or the same vowel (‘assonance’). Alliteration –

recurrence of an initial consonant in two or more words which either follow one

another or appear close enough to be noticeable. We find it in poetry and in prose –

more often than in other languages – very often in titles of books, in slogans, and

in set phrases: ‘Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club’ (Dickens), ‘Sense andSensibility’, ‘Pride and Prejudice’ (Jane Austine), ‘The Last Leaf’, ‘Retrieved

Reformation’ (O.H.); set expressions: last but not least, now or never, forgive and

forget. House and home, good as gold, safe and sound…Alliteration is so favoured

in English that sometimes it is used to the detriment to the sense. For instance, the

demand of the unemployed Work or wages! Is absurd, if one does not know that

the alliterated word wages stands here for the dole (charitable gift of money

claimable by the unemployed). Assonance is a phonetic stylistic device, signifying

recurrence of stressed vowels. E.g. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I

pondered, weak and weary…(Poe). Onomotopeia is a combination of speechsounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder), by people (sighing, laughter, patter

of feet etc.) and by animals. There are two varieties of onomatopeia direct and

indirect. Direct onomotopeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as

ding-dong, buzz, cuckoo, tintinnabulation, mew, ping-pong, roar and the like. Such

words may by used in a transferred meaning, for instance, ding -dong (the sound of

bells sound continuously) may denote: noisy; strenuously contented. Examples are:

a ding-dong struggle, a ding-dong go on something . Indirect onomotopeia is a

combinations of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an

echo of its sense. E.g. And the silken, sad, uncertain, rustling of each purple

curtain…(Poe), where the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound

of the rustling of the curtain. Indirect onomotopeia, unlike alliteration, demands

some mention of what makes the sound as rustling (of curtains) in the example

above.

Euphony is such an effective combination of sounds and such an arrangement of

utterance which produce a pleasing acoustic effect. It is a kind of sound

instrumentation, in which the meaning of the word, or rather the general mood of

the verse or prose passage is supported by a sound image. Here is a strophe from

Byron’s ‘Parisine’.

It is the hour when from the boughsThe nightingale’s high note is heard;

It is the hour when lovers’ vows

Seem sweet in every whispered word;

And gentle winds, and waters near,

Make music to the lonely ear.

It is not difficult to notice that the euphone of this stanza is created on the

predominance of vowels, especially of long vowels and diphthongs; the sound [w],

the nasal sonants [m] [n] and lateral sonant [l] are also reiterated.

The selections of sounds is aimed not as much at the precise reproduction of realsounding of the described movements and phenomena as at arousing a certain

emotional state in the listener, analogous, to some extent, to that impression which



may be associated in the speaker’s mind to the sounds and sound combinations.

Phonetic peculiarities of speech may be reproduced in writing when writers resort

to ‘graphons’, i.e. unusual, non-standard spelling of words, showing either

deviation from Standard English or some peculiarity in pronouncing words or

phrases emphatically.

Purely individual pronunciation of certain sounds is observed in the graphon thwhich stands for the letter s, as does a personage of ‘Hard Times’ by Ch. Dickens:

‘Thquire!... Your thervan! Thith ith a bad pieth of bithnith, thith ith…’

In many cases, they show deviations from Standard English typical for whole

groups of English speakers. Typical in this respect the reproduction of cockney.

For instance, ‘the dropping of H-s’ –Enry Iggens; the substitution of the diphthong

[ai] for the diphthong [ei]. In writing it is usually y instead of a, ai, or ay. E.g. ‘Is

that my wife?... I see it is, from your fyce… I want the truth – I must ‘ave it!... If

that’s ‘er fyce there, then that’s ‘er body in the gallery - …(Galsworthy). Variants

of pronunciation are also of importance for stylistics. A speaker may strengthen,emphasize, make more prominent the word when he, for instance, intensifies its

initial consonants, which is shown in the graphon as doubling the letter: ‘ N-no!’

sounds more decisive more emphatic than a mere ‘ No!’ Another way of

intensifying a word or a phrase is uttering each syllable or, generally, part of a

word as a phonetically independent unit in retarded tempo. Graphically this

graphon is hyphenated: ‘Im-pos-sible!’ Sometimes part of the utterance is specially

modulated by the speaker (changing volume and pitch: rise-fall in monosyllabic

and disyllabic words and, possibly, rise-fall-rise in polysyllables). The

corresponding graphons in print are italics or capitalization: She was simply

beautiful. I’LL NEVER see him again. Sometimes curious instances of

combinations of graphic means can be found as in the example: ‘His wife,’ I said.

‘W-I-F-E. Homebody. Helpmate. Didn’t he tell you?’ (Myer) ‘Appeeee

Noooooyeeeeeerrr!’ (Idem) Here the reader may not at once recognize the well-

known phrase: Happy New Year!

Lecture 12

FUNCTIONAL STYLES

We have studied stylistic means and principles of their choice. We have also

considered their usage for the purpose of enriching the vocabulary. However, there

exist other principles of choosing stylistic means. And they are also the subject of stylistic analysis.

The question is about the choice of the whole totality of speech means, that present

a special form of speech activity which is called functional style of the language.

The choice of speech means depends not on the speaker’s aspiration for

strengthening expressiveness of speech, but on his estimation of the speech

situation itself.

This estimation comprises several aspects.

1. The definition of the character of the situation of the given speech act – whether

it is official or intimate, solemn or natural (free and easy going) and so on.2. The speaker’s attitude to the addressee of speech i.e. taking onto account the

degree of intimacy between the speaker and the listener as well as the number of



people to whom the speech is addressed.

3. The realization of purposes of communication, that may be different – business

information, scientific explanation, speaker’s emotional attitude towards the object

of speech, official agreement etc. At last the very mechanism of communication

may be different, it may be either in written or oral form.

According to T. Kuznets and Y. Scrennev the division of functional styles is asfollows: I Literary-bookish style and II Colloquial style. I. Arnold also speaks of

the two – Literary and Colloquial groups of style, distinguishing Neutral style as

opposed to the two main groups. Neutral style is possible in any speech situation of

any character. The literary style corresponds to a thought out speech, say, before a

large audience, i.e. public speech, usually called bookish. The colloquial style – to

an unprepared speech of every day communication.

Literary- bookish style.

It falls into:

Publicistic style (newspaper style, oratorical style) Scientific-prose style

The style of official documents

Poetic style (being of special interest if dealing with works of past

epochs, not existing now)

The main feature of these styles is strict conformity of all the forms of speech (the

use of words, syntactical structures, phonetic side of speech) to the norm of

standard English, striving to a precise expression of thought, removal of lowered

words.Publicistic Style. The general aim of publicistic style is to impact public opinion,

to cause the reader (listener) to accept the point of view expressed in the speech,

essay or article. Publicistic style may vary depending on the theme, on the cultural

level of the supposed reader an d never upon an individual temperament and

linguistic tastes of the author. But its main features are always the same. In a

particular way publicistic style is aspected in newspaper texts. Not all the printed

matter found in newspapers comes under newspaper style. One finds not only news

and comments on it, but stories and poems, crossword puzzles, chess problems and

the like. Of course, the latter cannot be considered specimens of publicistic

style.The orator’s speech may appear in an oral form of publicistic style.

Contemporary orator’s speech is less rhetoric (more simplified) but still tradition isvery strong. The orators enrich their speeches using vivid and variegated

expressive means.

Scientific-prose style. Its purpose is to inform some knowledge, pertaining to a

certain branch of science that accounts for abundance of scientific terminology. As

to grammar peculiarities it is syntactical precision, that is why no ellipsis is found

(as a rule), participial, gerundial constructions and infinitives as attributes are in

abundance and passive voice as well in branches of physics’ math, history, natural

sciences and technique. In some philosophic, pedagogical, linguistic works

scientific prose style is used side by side with publicistic style. The style of official documents. It is marked by its traditional nature. Definite

speech clichés, strict forms are characteristic of this style.Typical in this respect is



an extract from ‘The White Monkey’ (Galsworthy).The dying George Forsyte

dictates his will to Soames.‘My three screws to young Val Dartie, because he’s the

only Forsyte that knows a horse from a donkey.’ A throaty chuckle sounded

ghastly in the ears of Soames. ‘What have you said?’ Soames read: ‘I hereby leave

my three race horses to my kinsman, Valerius Dartie of Wandson, Sussex , because

he has special knowledge of horses’. So in lexis we find archaisms (kinsman, ilk,henceforth, hence, heritor…), specialized foreign words: status quo, persona grate,

entente cordiale…, commercial terms: aviso, acceptor, account current,

contractor…, judicial: acquittal, inhibition, manslaughter…. As to syntax – very

extended sentences embracing the whole content of the document.

Colloquial Style. The second of the main functional styles of Modern English may

be called ‘free’ as it contains more or less substantial deviations from the strict

literary norm. Oral form usually of dialogue character is the leading feature of this

style. ‘Free’ style is subdivided into two types: literary colloquial style and low

colloquial style.1. Literary-colloquial style. It is intermediate between literary elaborate style and

‘free’ style. It comprises features of both. However, as to its main features it stands

nearer to ‘free’ style. On the one hand it does not contain jargon words, dialect

words, vulgarisms; very often bookish and foreign words are used in it. Its syntax

is in accordance with strict rules of the literary pattern. This makes it related to

literary elaborate style. On the other hand, there are some peculiarities that make it

related to ‘free’ style. For instance, it admits words with suffixes of subjective

evaluation (Charlie, duckie, dearie) as well as epithets replacing them (dear, little,

sweet etc.) Interjections: oh, well, why, there and exclamations like: Dear me,

Good gracious are also widely used. As an exception lowered words are met as

well. Syntactical constructions are usually not complicated: simple sentences

though with wide use of participial and infinitival elements are characteristic of

this style. This style is usually used when speakers must confine themselves to the

forms of conventional ‘society’ rules or when they speak on serious or business

subjects. E.g. Two people, little acquainted, are speaking trying to stick to the tone

of underlined society correctness. Sartorius: I do not disturb you, I hope, Mr.

Cokane. Cokane: By no means. Our friend Trench has entrusted me with a difficult

and delicate task. He has requested me, as a friend of the family, to write to them

on a subject that concerns you. Sartorius: Indeed, Mr. Cokane. Well, thecommunication cannot be in better hands. The colour of the remarks is purposely

literal, no contracted forms (do not could not) but still there is a colloquial element

(well ).

2. Low-colloquial Style.

All numerous peculiarities of this style are deviations from the literary norm. In

lexis the most important of them are: wide usage of lowered words and slang, a

tendency to constant substitution of neutral or bookish words with post-position

elements. to land = to put down to remove (a stain) = to take out… to proceed, to

continue = to go on Interjections of the type: well, why, there, dear me, oh my, geeare most often met. Low- colloquial speech abounds in universal words: v. fix, get;

n. thing, business, affair; adj. nice, jolly, rotten, foul, swell ; the pronoun some –



порядочный, ничего себе). Syntax has the following specific features: In complex

sentences asyndetical connection prevails over syndetical. Coordination over

subordination; wide usage of the conjunction ‘and’; wide usage of ellipsis: ‘What

are you doing? – Trying to put on my coat.’ The tautological repetition (esp. of the

type, ‘You are crazy, you are’,) and the so called disjunctive question: ‘Nice

weather, isn’t it?’. The abundant use of parenthetical elements: indeed, sure, nodoubt, perhaps, maybe, which are turned into word-parasites: Really? Perhaps,

I’m rather. Is very old thing , you know. From phonetic point of view oral speech is

characterized by careless pronunciation: feller= fellow, dunno=don’t know,

attaboy=that’s a boy. Low colloquial speech is characterized by emotional

colouring which can be perceived in abundance of interjections and parenthetic

words, numerous hyperboles and repetitions. E.g.’Oh, Pete, did I tell you what that

dub of a cashier said when I came in late yesterday? Oh, it was perfectly

priceless!’‘Did you notice how Dotty was dancing? Gee, wasn’t she the limit!’ Low

colloquial style is used in a written form as well – in private correspondence,intimate diaries etc. In the newspaper or to be exact in columns dealing with

sensational trials it acquires, so to say, sort of a tradition. The style of headlines

and advertisements is peculiar in this respect. The headline must be at most brief,

loud, it must contain a hint at the theme of an article (or notice) not to clear to

interest the reader, skimming through multi-paged English papers: ‘Dies after

Locos Collide’; 87-th Congress Ends with Little for People; Boy Blue Slung his

Hook; -‘ Boy blue’ – evidently ‘in’ is missing – dressed in, the jargon expression

‘to sling one’s hook’ –сбежать its stylistic equivalent – смыться смотаться.

Advertisements also have their own peculiarities. Those who offer work usually

place ads of the type: ‘Cook wanted’ with enumeration of conditions of work.

Those who seek work usually give some information about themselves: Single

man, aged 30 no ties, seeks situation in any capacity, climate and conditions, main

qualifications: loyalty and initiative.

Laconism of private ads is caused not only by consideration of economy but by the

necessity to inform the main characteristics in such a form which might help find

what is needed at once.

In English newspapers there are columns of ads about engagements, marriages,

births, deaths, special commemoration of the dead. In journalistic jargon all such

ads are called in play – The catches, matches, hatches and dispatches.Such are, in general and in short, features of ‘Functional Styles’ in Modern English

EXCERPTS FOR COMPLEX STYLISTIC ANALYSIS.

In Arthur’s Calgary’s fatigued brain the word seemed to dance on the wall.

Money! Money! Money! Like a motive in an opera, he thought. Mrs.

Argyles’s money! Money put into trust! Money put into an annuity!

Residual estate left to her husband! Money got from the bank! Money in the

bureau drawer! Hester rushing to her car with no money in her purse…Money foud on Jacko, money that he swore his mother had given him. (A.

Christie)



In her father’s desk at the store was a revolver – a large, firm squarish

mechanism which as she had heard him say, fired eight shots. It was so

heavy, so blue, so called. She had seen it, touched it, lifted it once – but with

a kind of terror really. It was always so identified with death, anger – not life

–but now supposing, if she desired to punish Edward and herself – or just

herself alone. But no, that was not the way. What was the way anyhow?What was the way? (Th. Dreiser)

The mid-summer Louisiana sun a red blotch in the hazy sky. To the three men

in the touring car it felt like a blowtorch, suspended a foot above them. Two

of the men lay sprawled out on the back seat with their coats off, with soggy

handkerchiefs wrapped about their necks, and with their mouths sagging

open as though they were a pair of strangled fish. (A. Maltz).

Bibliography

1.Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного языка. Л 1981

Арнольд И. В. Cтилистика декодирования. Л 1974

Задорнова В.Я. Стилистика английского языка. МГУ 1986 4.Кухаренко

В.А. Интерпретация текста. М 1979

5. Кузнец М. Д. и Скребнев Ю. М. Стилистика английского языка М 60

6. L. V. Borisova Interpreting Fiction Minsk 1987

7. I. R. Galperin Stylistics M. 1977

8. V. A. Kukharenko Seminars in Style M 19719. Y. M. Skrebnev Fundamentals of English Stylistics M 2003

CONTENTS

Lecture 1 Introduction: the subject and tasks of stylistics. P.1

Lecture 2 Lexicological stylistics. Special Literary Vocabulary (Poetic words,

Archaisms, Foreign words and Barbarisms, Literary Coinages) p.5

Lecture 3 Special Colloquial Vocabulary (Slang, Jargonisms, Dialectal Words,

Vulgurar Words, Colloquial Coinages)

Phraseology and its Stylistic Use. p.8

EXCERCISES p.12Lecture 4 Semaseological Stylistics. Figures of Qualities: Metaphoric Group

(Simile, Metaphor, Epithet, Personification) p.15

Lecture 5 Metonymic group (Metonymy, Synecdoche) and Mixed Group (Allegory

and Antonomasia) p.18

EXCERCISES p.21

Lecture 6 Figures of Relation. Relations of Identity (Synonyms, Periphrasis,and

Euphemisms). Relations of Contrast (Antitnesis, Oxymoron, and Irony). p.23

Lecture 7 Relations of Inequality (Climax, Anticlimax, Hyperbole, and Litotes).

P.26EXCERCISES p.28

Morphological Stylistics. p.29



Lecture 8 Syntactical Stylistics. 1A Absence of Elements Obligatory in a Neutral

Construction (Ellipsis, One-member Sentences) Absence of Auxiliary

Elements…………………………………………………………………..p.32

Lecture 9 1B Excess of Non-essential Elements (Repetition

Syntactical,Parallelism). p.34 2. Unusual Distribution of Elements of Speech

(Inversion). p.37Lecture 10 Communicative Aims of Sentences.

Types of Syntactical Connection. p.38

Reported Speech. p.40

EXCERCISES p.41

Lecture 11 Phono-stylistics. P.42

Lecture 12 Functional Styles. P.44

Documents

0236854 B68C5 Pedash e Stylistics