UNIT-2

MOTIVATION

Define motivation: “A motive is any particular condition that tends to initiate and sustain activity.”Guilford.

C. W. Good ‘Motivation is the process of arousing, sustaining and regulating activity.

Hebb ‘The term motivation refers (i) to existence of an organised phase sequence (ii) to its direction and content and (iii) to its persistence in given direction or stability of content.’

What is motivation?

Motivation involves a chain reaction which starts from needs and ends at goal.

Needs Wants (Desire) Action Goal

Needs. Needs are created whenever there is a physiological imbalance, or it is the physiological state of tissue deprivation e.g., When a person is hungry, there is need for food.

Wants (Desire). It is a feeling to satisfy the need. During hunger stage, a person has desire to eat food.

Action. An activity performed by person to fulfill desire. In the previous example of hunger stage, person performed an action for searching food.

Goal. It is that stage, which satisfy the need. In this example food is goal. The person eat food and reached at the stage of satisfaction.

Motivation is a term referring to the regulation of need-satisfying and goal-seeking behavior.

Maslow theory of Motivation.

Hierarchy of need theory was propounded by Maslow and identified five levels of need.

Self-Actualization

Self-Esteem

Belongingnces Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs.

1. Physiological needs. The physiological needs, is the basic level in the hierarchy. It is also known as basic need. The need of hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex are some examples,

2. Safety needs. The second level of needs is safety need, which is equivalent to security need. Maslow stressed emotional as well as physical safety.

3. Belongingness need. This level of need corresponds to the affection and affiliation needs. . These include need for love, for acceptance and for giving and receiving friendship.

4. Esteem need. The esteem level represents the higher needs of humans. The need for power, achievement, and status can be considered part of this level.

5. Self-actualization. This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of humans. People who have become self actualized are self-fulfilled and have realized all their potential. It is the need for realizing one’s own potentialities into reality.

Importance of Maslow’s theory of motivation in context of an organizational framework.

When Maslow theory applied in industry it becomes as given in the following figure:

Self -Actualization

Esteem Needs :Status, Symbol, Promotion

Belongingness needs : Formal and informal work groups, Company Cafeterias,

Company sports programs

Safety NeedsSecurity plans, insurance, pension

Basic needs : Pay, Basic Working Conditions

Relationship among Maslow, Herzberg and Alderfer’s theory.

ERG groups of needs are closely related to Maslow and Herzberg categories, but Alderfer’s ERG needs do not have strict lines of demarcation. This relationship is evident in the following figure:

Fig. The relationship between Alderfer’s ERG needs, Maslow’s five-level hierarchy and Herzberg's two-factor theory.

McGregor’s X and Y theory.

Mc.Gregor’s gave two factors-X and Y. Theory X is anxiety producing and theory Y is anxiety reducing. X has negative aspect and Y has positive aspect.

Theory X. Assumption of theory X

(1) Average human being has an innate dislike for work and will avoid work.

(2) Because of the above mentioned characteristic most people direct their behavior towards their work due to punishment. This theory has negative approach of motivation and anxiety producing approach. The knowledge of punishment also works as a motivation.

Theory Y. Assumption of Theory Y.

(1) Average human being has an innate like to work.

(2) Here punishment has no works and no external stimulus is needed and is self-directed, self-controlled behavior.

(3) Reward is given on achievement basis. Capacity to exercise leads to high production in industry.

(4) Under conditions of modern industrial life the intellectual potentiality of the average human being are only partially utilized.

What is Job Enrichment?

Ans. Herzberg emphasized the job enrichment in two-factor theory. Job enrichment implies enriching contents of job. Job enrichment is a motivational technique which emphasizes the need for challenging and interesting work. Enrichment is the process through which something gets better, more pleasing, more satisfying etc. This expansion and change may take place in a number of ways:

Herzberg’s Two factors

MotivatorsEsteem

Self

Relatedness

Hygiene factors

Existence

Alderfer’ERG Needs

Maslow’sHierarchy of Needs

GrowthSelf Actualization

Love

Safety

Physiological

(a) Give more freedom to workers in deciding about work methods, pace sequence, etc.(b) Increase responsibility;(c) Encourage participation; (d) Provide feedback to the workers(e) Redistribute control and grant more authority to workers for making job-related decisions.(f) Create Autonomous Work Teams – This is job enrichment at the group level. Set a goal for a

team, and make team members free to determine work assignments, schedules, rest breaks, evaluation parameters, and the like.

Difference between ‘Job enrichment’ and ‘Job enlargement’. Job enlargement and job enrichment are tools for motivation and growth and both are useful for motivating workers to perform their tasks enthusiastically. Although job enlargement and enrichment have a relationship with each other, they also possess some distinct features that differentiate them, such as area of expansion, mutual reliance, allocation of duties and responsibilities, motivation and profundity.

Job enrichment means improvement, or an increase with the help of upgrading and development, whereas job enlargement means to add more duties, and an increased workload.

By job enrichment, an employee finds satisfaction in respect to their position and personal growth potential, whereas job enlargement refers to having additional duties and responsibilities in a current job description.

Job enrichment is dependent on job enlargement, whereas job enlargement is not dependent on enrichment.

Job enlargement means taking charge of more duties and responsibilities which are not mentioned in the job description.

Job enrichment gives more control and managerial access to perform tasks and responsibilities.

Job enlargement is horizontal, whereas job enrichment is vertical expansion.

How does performance relate to motivation ?

Motivation is necessary for work behavior because if people do not feel inclined to engage themselves in work behavior, they will not put in necessary efforts to perform well. Higher motivation leads to higher performance which in turn leads to higher satisfaction and motivation. According to Porter and Lawler, there is a complex relationship between motivation and performance. They studied the relationship between performance and satisfaction,

Valence of reward Abilities Intrinsic Reward

Satisfaction

Reward Probability

Role Perception

Extrinsic Reward

Effort Performance

(1)

(2)(3) (6)

(4)

(5)

(7)

(9)

(8)

Fig.: The Porter & Lawler motivation model.

Effort leads to performance and performance may lead to two kinds of reward, i.e. intrinsic reward, such as self satisfaction and extrinsic reward such as pay, bonus and status. Both type of

reward is necessary for satisfaction. This leads to further effort for performance, i.e. satisfaction will affect the effort. The satisfaction leads to more efforts for performance.

Expectancy Theory

Vroom gave expectancy theory. According to this theory an individual should be rewarded with what he or she perceives as important rather than what the manager perceives.

Example—One individual may value a salary increase, whereas another may value promotion. This theory contributes an insight into the study of employee motivation by explaining how individual goals influence individual performance. Expectancy theory suggests that work motivation is strongly affected by three factors : Expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. It can be expressed as :

Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence

M = E × I × V

It can be expressed as:

JOB SATISFACTION

What is job satisfaction?

According to Ghiselli & Brown “Job satisfaction is a specific set of attitude towards the job”.

According to Ghosh Job Satisfaction is a generalized attitude, resulting from special attitudes in three areas, (i) Specific job factor, (ii) individual adjustment and (iii) group relationship. These factors can never be isolated from each other.

Satisfaction of needs

Person Needs Expectations

(Tension)

Fulfilment

(Action)

Fig: The meaning of job satisfaction.

This figure shows that once person’s need and expectations are fulfilled he gets satisfaction. Thus, job satisfaction is an individual’s positive and negative attitudes towards their jobs. Job satisfaction is different from motivation. Motivation refers to the willingness to work. Job satisfaction implies a positive emotional state.

How does Job Satisfaction influencing Job Behavior?

Job satisfaction influences work behavior. Job satisfaction is an integral component of industrial relations. Job satisfaction has relation with various aspects of work behavior such as accidents, absenteeism, turnover and productivity. Several studies have revealed varying degrees of relationship between job satisfaction and work behavior.

Research on the relationship between job satisfaction and accidents generally shows that satisfied employees cause fewer accidents. Research reveals that employees of disturbed organizations (poor industrial relations) were less satisfied.

Satisfied employees are more productive. Herzberg et. al., analyzed the results of twenty six studies focusing on the relationship between job satisfaction and productivity. Fourteen of these studies revealed that workers with positive job attitudes were more productive than those with negative attitudes. Rajgopal (1965) analyzed the relationship between the two variables among workers in six textile mills. The results showed high productive mill workers were more satisfied with their job. Lawler and Porter have developed a model which suggest that productivity leads to satisfaction as shown in the following figure:

PerformanceRewards : Intrinsic extrinsic

Perception of Equity in

the Rewards Satisfaction

Fig.: Model of performance leading to job satisfaction.

Performance leads to rewards, and if these are perceived to be equitable it result in employee satisfaction.

Determinants of job satisfaction.

There are number of factors that influence job satisfaction. These factors can be classified into two categories :

Factors influencing job satisfaction

AgeSexEducation LevelMarital StatusExperience

Related to work environment

Related to Personal life

Work itselfPayPromotionSupervisionWork groupWorking Condition

Factors for enhancing job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction can be enhanced by considering following factors:

Factors

Factors related to Management

Factors related to Employees

Job EnrichmentMatch workers with workJob securityPromotion policiesJob DesignWork environment

Communication skillKnowledge related to Job CreativityTeam WorkValue of workFind out meaning in work

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

What do you mean by ‘Organization’? Explain various elements of Organization.

An organization is a social group which distributes tasks for a collective goal. According to Schien “an organization is the rational coordination of the activities of a number of people for the achievement of some explicit purpose or goal, through the division of labour and function, and through a hierarchy of authority and responsibility”.

Basically, an organization in its simplest form (and not necessarily a legal entity, e.g.,

corporation or LLC) is a person or group of people intentionally organized to accomplish an

overall, common goal or set of goals. Business organizations can range in size from one person

to tens of thousands. In other words it can be said that organization is a systematic arrangement

of people to accomplish some specific purpose. Every organization is composed of three

elements i.e. people, goals and system. Each organization has a distinct purpose. This purpose is

expressed as goals generally. Each organization is composed of people. Every organization has a

systematic structure that defines the limit of each member. Some members are managers and

some are operatives.

Elements of Organization: The elements are coordination,

common goals,

division of labor and

integration.

Coordination: An individual alone is unable to fulfill all of his needs and wishes. As several

people coordinate their efforts, they can do more than any of them could have singly. In

organization, it is possible through coordination of the activities of many individuals for all of its

member to fulfill their needs.

Common Goals: A second element is the idea of achieving a common goal through coordination

of activities. The common goals keep organizational members together.

Division of Labour: Division of labour refers to dividing work into operations that are narrow in

scope in order to increase efficiency with which each operation can be performed. Having

divided the work into operations, each operation is assigned to one individual who are more fit in

terms of education, skills and experience to do the job. This is the third element of organization.

The division of labour enables the organization to function more efficiently.

Integration: The fourth element is integration. Integration is achieved through hierarchy of

authority- some system for super-ordinate subgroups or individuals to ensure that there is

coordination among all through guiding, limiting, controlling, informing and in other ways

managing the activities of people.

Thus by combining the four elements, organization may be defined as the planned

coordination of the activities of a number of people for the achievement of some common goal,

through the division of labour and function, and through a hierarchy of authority and

responsibility.

How does Organizational Culture created? Organizational culture is a pattern of basic assumption that are taught to new personnel as the correct way to perceive, think and act on a day-do-day basis.

According to Robbins “Organizational Culture is a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the Organization from other organizations.”

Culture is created by shared experience, but it is the leader who initiates this process by imposing his or her beliefs, values and assumptions at the outset. Cultures basically spring from three sources

(1) the beliefs, values and assumptions of founders of organizations

(2) the learning experiences of group members as their organization involves and

(3) new beliefs, values and assumptions brought in by new members and leaders.

Each of these sources plays an important role and the most important role for cultural beginning is the impact of founders. Founders have a major effect on external adaptation and internal integration problems. Founder has their one nation, based on their own cultural history and personality, of how to fulfill the idea.

The founders of an organization traditionally have a major impact on that organization's early culture. They have a vision of what the organization should be.

Example: The culture of Hyundai, the giant Korean is a reflection of its founder Chung Ju Yung. Hyundai’s fierce, competitive style and its disciplined, authoritarian nature are the same characteristics often used to describe Chung.

Kroc founder of McDonald bought the rights to franchise McDonald’s units and eventually bought out the brothers. At the same time, he built the franchise on four basic concepts: quality, cleanliness, service, and price. In order to ensure that each unit offers the customer the best product at the best price, franchisees are required to attend McDonald University, where they are taught how to manage their business. Here they learn the McDonald cultural values and the proper way to run the franchise. This training ensures that franchisees all over the world are operating their units in the same way. Kroc died several years ago, but the culture he left behind is still very much alive in McDonald’s franchises across the globe.

How does employees learn culture?

Stories: Stories about past corporate incidents serve as powerful social prescriptions of the way things should be done. Stories give meaning and identity to organization members and are helpful in orienting new employees.

Rituals: Rituals are everyday organizational practice that repeated routinely. Examples are dress of organizational members, how visitors are greeted, how fellow employees are greeted, how much time employees take for lunch.

Material Symbols: The size, shape, location of buildings might reveal organization’s culture. Desks, chairs, cafeteria food, dress attire is the things that might convey cultural meaning.

Language: The language of the workplace speaks highly about the organization’s culture. By learning this language, members attest to their acceptance of the culture and in so doing, help preserve it.

STRESS

What is stress?

Stress is the process that occurs in response to events that disrupt or threaten to disrupt one physical or psychological functioning. The word stress is derived from the Latin term ‘Stringers’ which means “to draw tight” stress is a state of psychological tension produced by the kinds of forces or pressures. Stress is a pressure condition causing hardship.

Thus, stress is a mental, emotional or physical reaction resulting from an individual's response to environmental pressure and similar stimuli. Hans Selye, the father of stress, believes that stress is the spice of life and absence of stress is death. When person are exposed to chronic sources of stress, however, this reaction is only the first in a longer sequence of responses activated by human efforts to adapt to a stressor. This sequence, termed by Hans Selye (1976) the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), consists of three stages:

alarm stage, in which the body prepares itself for immediate action; arousal of the sympathetic nervous system releases hormones that help prepare our body to meet threats or dangers (Selye, 1979)

resistance begins, in which arousal is lower than during the alarm stage, but our bodies continue to draw on resources at an above-normal rate in order to cope effectively with the stressor.

exhaustion. During this stage capacity to resist is deleted, and susceptibility to illness increases. In severe cases of prolonged physical stress, the result can be death.

Normal level of resistance to stress

Resis

tanc

e to

Stre

ss

Time

Stage IAlarm

Stage 2Resistance

Stage 3Exhaustion

During the first stage, the body

mobilizes its resources

In the second stage, resistance levels off and eventually begins to decline In the third stage,

resistance is depleted, leading

to exhaustion

Fig.: Selye’s general adaptation syndrome.

Stressor at work or causes of stress.

A wide range of conditions and events are capable of generating stress. Such as stressful life events (e.g., death of love one or divorce), hazardous of daily life (too many things to do at once, traffic jam etc.), work related stress. Many factors contribute to stress at work. Several important sources of work related stress are summarized as follows :

Lack of Support from Coworkers

Work Related Stress

Role ambiguity (Uncertainty about

duties)

Lack of participation in decision making

Responsibility for

others

Conflict with other employees

Unpleasant Work Environment

Fig. : Sources of Work related stress.

Role Conflict :Role conflict arises where the individual is exposed to conflicting job demands or required to do things which he does not want to do.

Responsibility for Others :Responsibility for others act as a source of stress, or in other words it can be said that responsibility towards people is more stress generating.

Lack of Participation in decision making : Little participation or no participation of employees in decision making leads to stress.

Unpleasant Working condition : Unpleasant working condition also cause the stress. Such stressors include: crowded work area, noise, heat or cold, polluted air, strong odor, unsafe, dangerous conditions, poor lighting, etc.

Conflict with Employees: Conflict is associated with incompatible acts between intra-individual dimensions such as personal goals, between individuals within a group. Such type of conflict can lead to stress.

Lack of Support from Co-workers : Employees are affected by the support of members of group. By sharing their problems and joys with others, they are much better. If this type of social support is lacking for an individual, the situation can be stressful.

Meaning of Type A and Type B personality

The extreme type a personality is characterized by a feeling of chronic sense of time urgency and by an excessive competitive drive. The type A individual is aggressively involved in a chronic,

incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less time, and if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons.”

In contrast to type A personality, there is type B personality. Type B are rarely carried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or participate in an endless growing series of events in an even decreasing amount of time.

A simple division of preference or personality type is into Type A and Type B, which is based broadly on anxiety and stress levels.

Type A

The Type A personality generally lives at a higher stress level. This is driven by

They enjoy achievement of goals, with greater enjoyment in achieving of more difficult goals. They are thus constantly working hard to achieve these.

They find it difficult to stop, even when they have achieved goals. They feel the pressure of time, constantly working flat out. They are highly competitive and will, if necessary create competition. They hate failure and will work hard to avoid it. They are generally pretty fit and often well-educated (a result of their anxiety).

Type B

The Type B personality generally lives at a lower stress level and are typically:

They work steadily, enjoying achievements but not becoming stressed when they are not achieved.

When faced with competition, they do not mind losing and either enjoy the game or back down.

They may be creative and enjoy exploring ideas and concepts. They are often reflective, thinking about the outer and inner worlds.

Difference between Type A and Type B personality

Individuals belonging to the Type-A group are those more exposed to stress and present a higher chance of suffering from a physical or mental disorder on account of the pressure of stressful events. Type-A people are very vulnerable with respect to cardiovascular disease (heart attack, stroke, hypertension etc.). Those in the Type-B category on the other hand reveal a greater capacity to cope with potentially stressful situations, consequently reducing their risk of becoming ill. The difference between the two types does not depend on the fact they present two different and well-defined personality structures but rather on the way in which they organise their responses to stressful situations.

Type A Behavior Type B Behavior

- A high degree of competitiveness pervading every aspect of life. The tendency to seek and accept challenges and a desire to work hard to overcome difficulties or obstacles.

- Aggressiveness (often repressed) constantly present in all personal and social interaction.

- Impatience and an intolerance towards the different rhythms and faults of others.

- Muscular tension, explosive speech, hypervigilance, difficulty in relaxing.

- Tendency to want to perform and obtain an unlimited number of things in a limited period of time.

- A strong need to always have situations totally under control.

- A drive to acquire things, objects and assets and to be a consumer.

- Smoking, alcohol and repetitive oral activities often present.

- Very limited physical activity.

- Few interests apart from work.

Irregular and excessive eating habits.

- A form of competitiveness which is selective and proportionate to the real importance of planned objectives.

- ‘Physical’ aggressiveness induced by stimuli that are adequately frustrating. Limited basic aggressiveness.

- A capacity to adapt to and tolerate the differences of others and their different rhythms.

- Muscular relaxation, tranquil speech and “phasic” vigilance (normal rapid mobilization of resources to process an unexpected stimulus). No difficulty in relaxing.

- Tendency to plan things that have to be achieved and obtained in accordance with available time.

- Very little need to be constantly in control in all situations.

- Relatively indifferent towards ‘consuming’ and acquiring useless things.

- Very limited use of tobacco and alcohol.

- Physical activity.

- Interests in activities other than work.

- Controlled eating habits.

GROUP DYNAMICS

Why do Individual join informal groups ? Explain.

Individual joins informal groups for the following reasons:

1. Companionship: The need for relationship with other people one of the strongest and most constant of human drives. Elton Mayo observed that the employees in a textile plant who worked at isolated jobs were highly dissatisfied and consistently failed to meet production standards and staggered rest period helped a little. But when the company permitted these workers to take rest period as a group, production and satisfaction both increased.

2. Sense of Identification: Workers get more identified in small groups, and so small groups tend to enjoy high morale. Employees working in large departments where everybody does the same type of job, find it hard to form stable social groupings and so they have low morale.

3. Source of Information:Informal group is a source of information to its members. Psychological barriers to communication are also overcome by the group.

4. Job Satisfaction:The group's solution to a problem may be different from what management expects and it may even be more efficient. Red tapism is eliminated, short cuts are evolved and informal channels of communication are established to cut across department boundaries. By the same token, work groups may also facilitate job satisfaction.

5. Protection of Members:Groups help to protect their members from outside pressures. Groups often resist management's demands for additional output, increased working hours, a higher quality.

6. Outlet for Frustration:An individual may be faced with several problems relating to his family life and work life. At times, he feels tremendous stress in life and gets frustrated. If he shares his feelings and anxieties with someone, his tension is released to a great extent. The social relations provide an important outlet for frustration.

7. Perpetuation of Cultural Values: Sometimes, groups are formed by individuals belonging to a common cultural background. Such people can preserve their cultural identity and also feel a sense of security by associating with those pursuing the same cultural values and social norms. Maintenance of cultural values will also provide them psychological satisfaction.

8. Generation of New Ideas: Informal groups are a breeding ground for new ideas as they provide a supportive environment in which the members can engage themselves in creative thinking.

Meaning of formal group and informal group

There are a number of different groups, two of which are informal and formal groups.  An informal group is a great option that has a shorter lifetime, which ranges from a matter of minutes to the whole of the time within the class. They’re generally created on a whim, too, making them less structured and without a specific format. Informal groups might have new group members within them every day, and can be used during lectures, to help break the content

of the session down into more accessible chunks. Formal groups, however, are a little different. These kinds of group can have a lifespan of several days or weeks, and will obviously require much more planning, in terms of the context, and the people within the group. They will also come with a more specific purpose for learning, and will have the same people working within the group throughout its time. In the collegiate world, groups are able to provide an academic framework for people to learn, gain experience and make use of a conduit for achieving even more. These groups are able to provide a great support network, too. Outside of the world of academia, however, groups are there to provide a social structure that is able to enhance lifestyles, and help with problems and tragedies. They also create a sense of community, and provide religious contexts and perspectives to parts of peoples’ lives. If you are in an educational institution which uses this approach to educational development, make sure you get involved today!

A formal group is something that has structure and organisation.E.g. Work, clubs, school. Etc. :) A group with a leader and goals which are intended to be achieved A Formal group is a set of a motivated group for any organization. A formal group created by an organisation to achieve specific objectives laid down in the organisation goals. Informal groups develop naturally among an organization’s personnel without any direction from management.Formal groups are created by the organization and are intentionally designed to direct members toward some important organizational goal. Well informal groups are smaller organizations of people or groups for e.g. Mother's club........whereas formal groups are larger organizations that dont know each other e.g. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION.....Formal  group is made by organization and informal group is made by people it's ownFormal groups has a leader to guide them and they usually have rules, whereas informal groups have no leaders, no written rules controlling the behaviour of the members.

Difference between ‘Formal’ and ‘Informal’ groups.

Differences between Informal and Formal Organization

Basis of Informal Formal

Comparison Organization Organization

General nature Unofficial Official

Major concepts Power and politics Authority and responsibility

Primary focus Person Position

Source of leaders power Given by group Delegatedby management

Guidelines for behavior Norms Rules and policies

Sources of control Sanctions Rewards and penalties

LEADERSHIP

Determinants of leadership?

‘Leadership’ is a word that conjures up different images in different people. To some it means charisma; to others, it means power. Leadership can be defined as the process of influencing others to accomplish certain predetermined goods.

According to Blum & Naylor “Leadership can be defined in terms of position in an organisation or their personal qualities.”

A variety of constructs and predictors have been posited as determinants of leadership including general intelligence, personality, values, and even genetic factors. The factors which determine the nature of leadership are as follows:

Leader’s Traits : Successful Leaders are able to influence the attitudes, beliefs and behavior of their followers through their qualities or traits. The important leadership traits include intelligence, ability, attitudes, initiative, motivation etc.

Characteristics of Followers or subordinates: The style of leadership depends upon the nature of followers or subordinates and their needs and aspirations. For examples, if the followers are active, work loving and dependable, democratic style of leadership will be more suitable. But if the followers are passive, work shirker and dependent, autocratic style of leadership will be more suitable.

Leader-Follower relations: A leader having good relations with his subordinates is likely to be more effective than a leader having bad relations.

Nature of Situation: Leadership is always related to a particular situation, at a given point of time and under a specific set of circumstances. At one point of time, the subordinates may accept the autocratic behavior of the leader while at a different point of time and under a different situation, only participative leadership style may be successful. That is why, it is said that leadership is always particular and not general.

Leader’s Position Power: A leader enjoying higher position power in the organization is likely to be more effective. He can use his position to make subordinates obey his instructions.

What is leadership? How leadership is different from management?Ans. Leadership is the inter-personal influence exercised in a situation and directed through communication process towards the attainment of specified goals.The leader possess the following characteristics :

L—Listener

E—Empathy

A—Accomplishment (Complete Task)

D—Drive (desire for achievement)

E—Encourage

R—Receptive

The qualities and abilities of good leaders in industry as summarized by Ganguli are as follows.

(1) A good leader thinks in terms of employee needs and of production needs.

(2) A good leader is proved of his work-group and regards it as more efficient and well-behaved than others.

(3) A good leader (specially a factory supervisor) takes a positive attitude toward trade unionism and believes it to be useful both for improving the workers’ welfare as well as for facilitating production.

(4) A good leader is not punitive. He is not personal but objective in his criticism. He points out the defects in the subordinate’s work. Where he punishes, he does so without taking a revengeful attitude.

(5) A good leader tries to delegate as much as possible of his responsibility commensurate with authority to his subordinates.

(6) General rather than close supervision within the framework of goals and techniques laid down has often been found to be author effective leadership practice.

(7) An effective leader spends his time mostly in supervisory and guidance work rather than doing the same type of work as his subordinates .

(8) An effective leader should be flexible. He should be sensitive to changing conditions and new requirements of the group and adopt his behavior accordingly. He should try to find out what is the real situation and should adapt the appropriate leadership pattern. Leader should be reality centered.

Difference between Leadership and ManagementAbraham Zaleznik (1977), for example, delineated differences between leadership and

management. He saw leaders as inspiring visionaries concerned about substance while managers he views as planners who have concerns with process. Warren Bennis (1989) further explicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders. He drew twelve distinctions between the two groups:

Managers administer; leaders innovate. Managers ask how and when; leaders ask what and why. Managers focus on systems; leaders focus on people. Managers do things right; leaders do the right things. Managers maintain; leaders develop. Managers rely on control; leaders inspire trust. Managers have short-term perspective; leaders have long-term perspective. Managers accept the status-quo; leaders challenge the status-quo. Managers have an eye on the bottom line; leaders have an eye on the horizon. Managers imitate; leaders originate. Managers emulate the classic good soldier; leaders are their own person. Managers copy; leaders show originality.

Leadership styles.

(A) Transactional Leadership(B) Transformational Leadership

Transactional leadership: It consists various task oriented behaviours such as setting goals, monitoring performance and providing a consequence to success or failure. Transactional leadership have three dimensions: Contingent reward, management by exception-active and management by exception-passive.

(i) The contingent reward dimension refers to leader who reward followers for engaging in desired activity.

(ii) Management by exception-active refers to leaders who actively monitor performance and take corrective action when needed.

(iii) Management by exception-passive refers to leaders who do not actively monitor follower behavior and who take corrective action only when problems are serious and intervenes only if standards are not met.

Transformational Leadership: Transformational leadership focuses on changing or transforming the goals, values, ethics, standards and performance of others. Transformational leaders are often labeled as “visionary”, “charismatic” and “inspirational”. They lead by developing a vision and motivating employees to reach the vision. Here vision means long term goal. Transformational leaders are confident, have a need to influence others and hold a strong attitude that their beliefs and ideas are correct. There are three dimensions of transformational leadership: Charisma, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration.

(i) Charisma refers to leaders with high moral and ethical standards who have a strong vision of where they want their followers to go and who use enthusiasm to motivate their followers.

(ii) Intellectual stimulation refers to leaders who encourage change and open thinking and appreciate diversity.

(iii)Individual consideration refers to leaders who encourage individual growth and take the time to mentor and coach their followers.

How can a leader be more persuasive?

The basic skill needed by leaders is the ability to persuade others. Supervisors often need to persuade others. Supervisors often need to persuade upper level managers that a new program will work. There are two important aspects of persuasion, i.e. the communicator and the message. It can be expressed as :

Persuasion by Communication: People having certain characteristics (expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness).

(i) Expertise: Expertise means having a knowledge related to topic. For persuasion leader must have a knowledge about a topic. The person who are to be persuaded also knowledgeable about a topic.

(ii)Trustworthiness: trustworthiness is regarded an important characteristics for persuasion. For persuasion, a leader can communicate not only that he is similar to them but also that his goals are the same as theirs.

(iii) Attractiveness: Attractive people are more persuasive than unattractive people. Due to this factor television commercials use attractive people.

The Message: The type of message that is presented has important role in persuasion. There are three aspects of message, i.e.

(i) Message Discrepancy: The persuasion message discrepancy is one aspect, e.g. while negotiation ask for more than you want and back down.

(ii)One Sided Versus two-sided arguments- For persuasion, one sided as well as two sided arguments are necessary. For example if the person being persuaded already is positive about an idea, it is usually better to argue only one side of an issue. If the person disagrees with the reasoning, it is better to argue both sides.

(iii) Threats: Threat is another method of persuasion. For a threat to be effective, the person being persuaded must believe it will bw carried out.For example, a supervisor tells an employee that he will be fired if he does not work overtime. For the threat to be effective, the employee must believe the supervisor has both the authority and the willingness to fire him. Even then, the threat will be effective only if the employee values his job.

Importance of leadership in Organization.

Ans. In organization, leader functions in various ways :

Aspects of PersuasionCommunicationExpertiseTrustworthinessAttractivenessMessageMessage discrepancyOne sided versus two sided argumentsThreats

(i) Setting and Achieving of Goals. In organization leader is responsible for setting the goals and execute it. The leader is responsible for seeing that appropriate activities are carried out. Example—A foreman assigns tasks to workers and sees that those tasks are properly executed.

(ii) Policy Making. Leader performed the function of policy making. He may either establish organizational goals and objectives himself or he may participate with his supervisors or subordinates in establishing them.

(iii) Planning. Planning is immediate between the determination of policies and their execution. From this point leaders make decision concerning the ways and means the organizational goals can be achieved. Example—A foreman not only assigns tasks to his subordinates but he plan work schedules and devise operational procedures.

(iv) Group representative. The organization may be too large to function as an entity and it is desirable to have a single representative of an organization deal with outside individuals or groups.

(v) Administrator. Leader functions as administrator of rewards and punishments. As leaders, supervisors encourage, upgrade and promote deserving workers and fire poor workers.

(vi)Exemplar Model. The leader serves as an exemplar, a model for others to stimulate. For example : The foreman of a crew of power-lineman who always checks his safety equipment before climbing a pole.

(vii) Ideologist. The leader functions as an ideologist. By presentation of his ideas concerning the group he is a source of beliefs about it.

(viii) Father Figure. The leader may function as a father figure, fulfilling an emotional role for the member of the group. By identifying themselves with their leader, the members of a group draw strength and feelings of security.