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EDC1015UNIT 1Thinking clearly and learning from experience: the beginning of our new worldKEY CONCEPTS. Linguistic analysis – claims that almost all phil probs can be dispensed with once their underlying linguistic basis is exposed i.e. LA claims that if, no matter how hard we try to solve a prob, we fail, then we are dealing with a false prob or with a meaningless set of words.

. Empiricism – claims that science gives us the most reliable form of truth. If we ignore E, we will fail to learn from our experiences and in the process make ourselves vulnerable to anything that is false.

INTRODUCTIONWe are going to look at logical empiricism (logical positivism) in this unit. Consists of three branches, namely linguistic analysis, logical symbolism and empiricism.

Logical empiricism→two basic ideas: Logic and Empiricism.

A logical idea →an idea that can be defined precisely. Empiricism claims that a statement is empirically true if the truth can be determined through sense experience.

OVERVIEWLogical positivism/empiricism - The main objective →practise science as objectively as possible, and to try and verify all statements. Values →regarded as meaningless, →t one cannot verify them. If the research object cannot be proved to be right or wrong, it is not researchable. Emotions like hope, fear, love, religious beliefs and political commitment →not important, because →cannot be measured and checked in the same way scientific statements can be checked. Plato →first philosopher who tried to get people to think clearly. (p 7)

Three main divisions of logical empiricism/positivism.

Linguistic analysis - (RW pp 9±11)The history of linguistic analysis is discussed on p 10 of RW. The main aim → to clear our minds of all words that muddle us and confuse the scientific enterprise. An example of a statement that would be usable in linguistic analysis could be: ``Metal expands when heated''.

The general advantages and disadvantages of using linguistic analysis:

Adv – ● Think more clearly● Be precise in what we mean

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● Spot hidden assumptions in arguments● Be aware of manipulation and dishonesty in all forms of

propaganda, incl mass media

Disadv –

● Moral probs● Life choices● Facing own mortality● Seeing ppl we love suffer● Our own suffering

Logical symbolism (RW pp 11±13)

Factual and logical statements →important in logical symbolism. A factual statement →``It is raining outside''. This statement can be proved right or wrong. Factual statements →different from value statements →they cannot be proved right or wrong (see pages 12±13 in RW). Values are something important to you personally. However, values do not fit thethinking paradigm of logical positivism, →there is no scientific clarification for values. Objective truth is of importance in this frame of ref, and subjective truth is seen as less significant. Mathematical statements are logical statements, eg 2 + 2 = 4.Empiricism - (RW pp 13±16)Empiricism refers to the belief→only real knowledge one has comes from experience - either one's own or those of others.Empiricists propose that knowledge gained from our senses (eg seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, tasting) →most reliable kind of knowledge.

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED BY LOGICAL POSITIVISTS OR EMPIRICISTS

Would be from the natural sciences or in mathematics or language analysis. If we want to research the question: ``Why is the divorce rate so high in South Africa?'' we will probably follow some of these steps:. Set hypotheses. Define precisely what the different cultural/religious groups in the country see as divorce. Find statistics already done on the subject. Get a sample from the population to study. Draw up carefully worded questionnaires

APPLICATION IN PRACTICEThis way of thinking often reduces human beings to purely physical organisms (a bit like plants and rats in a laboratory). Researchers who study human beings through the theoretical framework mentioned above are convinced that they can find out why people behave in a certain

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manner. They believe →can control human behaviour. This way of thinking is especially part of the theory of behaviourism. The theory of behaviourism claims that human beings →entirely physical; that our minds are no more than our brains and that our brains are simply complex electronic devices like computers. This ``computer'' receives input from the world around us and then responds to this input - its response is our behaviour. The theory of behaviourism →associated with three people in particular→IP Pavlov, BF Skinner and J Watson. Pavlov → researcher who performed the well-known experiments with dogs, studying stimulus and response reactions known as ``unconditioned behaviour''.With positive (reward) and negative (``punishment'') reinforcement, one gets results. Objectives →important in order to get results.

UNIT 2Asking questions: Challenging what the world tells usKEY CONCEPTS. Critical rationalism – encourages us to question everything we are told. If we ignore CR, we will almost become very gullible ppl who can be manipulated by others.

INTRODUCTIONLike logical empiricists, critical rationalists emphasise that scientists must be objective. Scientists espousing this philosophy are prepared to have their views criticised and challenged by other scientists. But, unlike logical empiricists, critical rationalists say that values should not be ignored, because values and meaning are important.

Critical rationalism emphasises the importance of clear thinking and the asking of questions. The driving force behind critical thinking →rationality, that is, the readiness to learn from mistakes and false theories.

OVERVIEWSocrates was one of the first philosophers who challenged ideas and beliefs, and he encouraged his students →same. The history of critical rationalism is on p 22 of RW.

Karl Popper was the most important supporter of critical rationalism in the 20th century. Critical rationalists believe that nobody starts scientific research with a blank mind. One always starts off with theories or ideas in mind that one needs to test for falsity.According to Popper, we can find that a statement is definitely false, but not that it is definitely true→known as the ``principle of falsification''. We usually try to prove something wrong in critical rationalism by using the trial and error method.

Read pp 22±23 in RW for a summary of critical rationalism.

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- The method of enquiry in phil that encourages questioning is called critical rationalism. Another name → scientific rationalism. Socrates encouraged us to challenge existing ideas and beliefs by questioning them. CR encourages open-mindedness. Another way of saying this →anti-dogmatic and anti-authoritarian. CR is essential for the future of true democracy. The whole aim of CR →make sure that we don’t come to believe in an idea that is false. C Rationalists emphasise that scientists must be objective→ means that scientists tell other scientists what they think is true and then find out what other scientists say. CR is completely against societies where ppl cant speak their minds freely and discuss things openly.

The aim of critical rationalism →make sure we do not come to believe in an idea that is false. According to critical rationalists, it is only by testing our ideas using the most stringent tests that we can begin to progress in our knowledge. The principle of asking questions and of falsification makes critical rationalism a very open-minded, antidogmatic and anti-authoritarian philosophy. It is only in open societies that problems →discussed and solved through the free exchange of ideas.Critical rationalists claim that values, like scientific discoveries, must be open to debate. We must be prepared to have our values challenged. If we are not preparedto respond to these kinds of challenges, we do not support the principle of an open society and democracy. Critical rationalists are bitterly opposed to regimes →silence and intimidate people. Values →important in scientific research would be honesty, reliability and truthfulness. If the people doing the research are not honest and reliable, the research results will be meaningless and often even untrue.Advantages and disadvantages of espousing critical rationalism – are given on p 27 of RW.

Adv – ● Question what ppl in authority tell us● Be more open to what other ppl think● Examine our own opinions more carefully● Be more tolerant and understanding ● Solve probs

Disadv – ● Make quick decisions● Find the meaning of life● Deal with ppl who are dishonest● It can make us feel insecure● Solve problem of suffering

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PROBLEMS RESEARCHED IN CRITICAL RATIONALISMScientists, in critical rationalism, are said to start their research by trying to prove existing theories or research false. Most of us, including scientists, find things out by trial and error. In science we will talk about a hypothesis that we check against reality to find out whether it is wrong.The difference between scientific statements and nonscientific statements→is that scientific statements can be proved wrong; nonscientific statementscannot be proved wrong.If scientists start asking ``why?'' then they start searching for the answer totheir question. According to critical rationalism, the aim of science →find satisfactory explanations →do this by trying to reject that which is false and then find a moreacceptable explanation. People often do not argue in a rational way, and so their explanations will be unacceptable/unsatisfactory.

The classification of various types of false arguments – can be found on pp 27±29 in RW.

● Name-calling – attacking the person and not the opinion he or she has. In phil, this is called the fallacy of the ad hominem argument.

● False cause and effect – falsely claiming that an action has or will have a certain effect.

● Falsely representing an opinion in order to discredit it – in phil this is known as the ‘straw man argument’

● Appeal to emotion (usually fear) – appeals to emotion are prob the easiest type of false argument to spot.

● Falsely claiming that becoz o point of view is popular, it must be true – the fact that a group of society has lots of members doesn’t mean that its teachings are true. Throughout history, many ppl have believed things that have turned out to be completely false.

UNIT 3How in the world can we give our lives meaning?INTRODUCTION

Existentialism asks the question ``what is the meaning of life?'' or ``why do I exist?'' Individuals need to find meaning for their own existence. The way people respond to this question will depend on factors →their cultures and belief systems. Existentialists believe →people should not be told what their unique lives mean.Freedom of choice/decision is very important.

OVERVIEWRead more about existentialism and its proponents –

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on pp 34±37, 40 and 42

Nihilism is the opposite of existentialism→ means the ‘phil of nothing’. Acc to nihilists, there is no purpose in life and there is no such thing as the soul. It can lead to violence, chaos but can also free ppl part ppl who have grown up in very repressive religious environments.

The general advantages and disadvantages of espousing existentialism are –

Adv –● Question other ppl’s ideas and values● Be more open about ourselves● Trust our instincts● Spot fakes● Enjoy life more

Disavd – ● May make us too trusting● Can be confusing● May lead to despair● May leave us feeling helpless and angry● May be seriously disruptive

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED IN EXISTENTIALISM

On the same page, Foucault argues that ``human beings are essentially free and unformed''. Another philosopher who advocated the freedom of human beings is John Locke. He argues that ``we are all by nature free and equal''. But how valid are these claims about freedom and equality? In what ways do you feel that you are human, free and equal?

Perhaps the questions asked in 3d are a bit depressing, more like nihilism, which is described on p 39. How would you respond to the following question: ``What is the purpose of your existence?''

Read the section, ``Existentialism in a nutshell'', on p 42 (RW). If you were to follow Socrates and examine your life, within your culture and belief system of course, how would you describe it?

Existentialists do believe that there is purpose and meaning to life, and that we should try to discover them for ourselves (p 40 RW).

- Existentialists believe that the most imp thing we should do is discover ourselves, the meaning of life. They to not believe that

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there is one meaning to life (eg. to live for god or the church) – far from it. modern E believe that ‘our duty’ is to decide, for ourselves what life is about.

UNIT 4What of an African world?

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INTRODUCTIONAfrican philosophy has its roots in oral tradition. Its written form dates back to the pharaohs in Egypt. In Africa south of the Sahara, written African philosophy emerged as a response to the way colonialism and imperialism subjugated (controlled or dominated) the cultural, scientific, economic and political lives of Africans. African philosophy developed because African intellectuals sought to disprove the belief held by western philosophers that Africans cannot develop a fully-fledged philosophy. African traditional thought was concerned →nature of the cosmos, conceptions of deity, the philosophy of the mind, a communalist and humanistic notion of moral responsibility and a consensual philosophy of politics. The four types/strands of African philosophy:

OVERVIEWThe most important aspect of African philosophy →unlike western philosophy, which regards the individual as the centre of life, it puts the community first. This is evident in Julius Nyerere's idea of ujamaa; Kenneth Kaunda's humanism; Kwame Nkrumah and Sekou Toure's scientific socialism; Leopold Senghor's negritude, and Steve Biko's black consciousness.read pp 44±46. In these pages you will read about the different types/strands of African philosophy. These include: sage, ethnic, political and pure philosophy.

Sage (wisdom) phil – focuses on those indivs in society who are known to be wise and farsighted and who can think critically. These are the ppl whose views challenge the authority of the comm’s decision.

Ethnic phil – can be defined as ‘the phil of africa’. It is distinctive and consists of the religious and moral beliefs of the continent of Africa. Given the vastness of this continent and the diversity of the ppls of Africa, this phil should not be simplified. This phil contains ppls view of life and africa’s ability to criticise its own traditions.

Political – africa’s political phil is unique. Kwame Nrumah, Kulius Nyerere, Amilcar Cabral, Leopold Senghor and Frantz Fanon →regarded as the main reps of African political phil. The assumption underlying this phil →it must be perculiarly African phil, diff from capitalist, socialist or communist political philosophies.

Pure – is phil done by African philosophers in the areas we looked at earlier: empiricism, critical rationalism and existentialism. Kwasi Wiredu, peter Bodunrin, henry odera oruka, kwame Anthony appiah and paulin hountondji represent this type of phil.

African philosophy emphasises →community and the sense of communalism that we as human beings should have. Tradition and culture →mayor role in this way of thinking. Ubuntu →considered as the central ethical idea of traditional Africanthought.

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The idea of ubuntu is related to human happiness and well being. Ubuntu recognises that the human self exists and dev only in relat with other ppl. There are many African egs of ubuntu, of caring and sharing and forgiveness and reconciliation.

In most traditional African cultures the political and social decisions are made by a gathering of senior men known as the Lekgotla (national assembly). In modern-day democracies the Lekgotla is likely to come under heavy criticism. Can you think of any reasons why this might be the case?

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED BY AFRICAN PHILOSOPHYA central component of African philosophy is generally referred to as indigenous African knowledge systems (IKS). This encompasses a broad range of issues, eg indigenous technologies, indigenous medicines, indigenous games, etc.

APPLICATION IN PRACTICEThere is a lot of talk about ``Africanisation of the curriculum'' in education and training. This is a call for an African-centred approach to educational discourse, for it is argued that all education in Africa must have Africa as its central point and focus, or else such education becomes alien, oppressive and irrelevant.

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UNIT 5Can we change our world?

OVERVIEWSystems theory

Bertalanffy (see p 64 RW) attempted to develop a new way of doing science by looking at everything (including human beings) in a system. A short summary of systems theory is on p 64 of RW.

The first thing of note →that systems theory sees things as wholes. It does not believe that one would understand something better by splitting it up into parts. Modern systems theory →based on the idea →all systems share certain concepts.The following essentials are mentioned:. The parts of the system work together in some way.. The system is a whole.. All systems have goals.. All systems have inputs and outputs.. All systems take inputs and turn them into outputs.. All systems absorb and generate some form of energy.. Systems work in a certain order.In many ways systems theory is problem-centred. It sees the world and human activity largely as a process of problem solving.

Systems theory is not social critique - it is not idealistic in the sense that it criticises, for example, the capitalist system in the way critical theory would. Systems theory merely says →different ways of looking at a problem. It also emphasises that problems →very complex and that our understanding of these problems is always incomplete. Although systems theory does not set out to reform the world, itsquestioning approach often reveals inconsistencies. It claims that social reformers often take an overly simplistic approach to society and the workings of society.Any system is part of the wider world. The education system, for instance, is a good example. It does not exist by itself; it takes place in a society.

Education and training are carried out within a certain social system, as well as a particular education system. The purpose of education and training →change and improve individual students' own systems. What makes it so difficult is that these systems always feed on each other and the effect of this is impossible to predict. The learner's own system contains so many possibilities that the education system cannot cater for all the needs of any one student. Then the whole class still needs to be taken into consideration and that makes it an almost impossible task.

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Furthermore, training and education → carried out deliberately and one cannot predict how a learner will react to the compulsory learning input. No amount ofgood teaching guarantees any results.

ACTIVITY 5bPeople are also systems. Explain how a person can be a system.

We are all made up of different elements which form systems. For instance, our minds and personalities have evolved in response to the problems we encounter in the greater environment around us. We are in constant interaction with other systems →community around us, the bigger society, our friends and our family.

The advantages of using systems theory are the following:. It is a simple philosophy in the sense that everything can be described as a system with a function.. It encourages openness →scientists from different fields of research talk to each other.. Systems theory can be applied to observe anything and everything. It reveals blind spots in people's thinking.

The disadvantages could be:. It often uses difficult language to say something very simple.. It is sometimes vague and impractical. It is often too abstract to be practical.. It ignores problems of power and prefers things to stay as they are, instead of considering change.

Critical theory

Critical theory started in Germany in the 1930s. Since the 1960s it has developed from a German-based philosophy to a powerful influence throughout the world.Critical theorists →lot to say about power structures in society and their influence on society. They say that all forms of domination stop people from being free.They believe they can offer us a comprehensive account of society and the production of knowledge. Their aim →total emancipation (empowerment) of each and every human being from all forms of oppression.

Critical theory is about society and the way in which we are all dominated by society, the social structures and the power structures at a certain time. Read about power structures on pp 75±79 in RW.

Critical theorists believe that all of us are trapped by modern society. This is because modern society is run by technology →developing too fast and which has become complex and alien to most people. Critical theorists feel that the mass media make people passive and resigned about the problems created by authorities, and that they brainwash people to adopt a particular point of view.

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Critical theorists believe that all societies have inequalities of wealth and status. This happens, because modern democratic societies →dominated and driven by the global money market and the mass media. We should look at what ``enslaves'' people. Then we should try to alter social reality by the way we participate in it.

According to critical theorists, knowledge should not be manipulated by the powerful in society. Knowledge →part of everyday life. Knowledge, including scientific knowledge, is part of human existence and our need to know is a human need.

Science is a human activity carried out only by humans. Wants, desires, emotions and personal convictions guide all human beings and therefore also their scientific endeavour. Science cannot be totally neutral and objective. Knowledge cannot beseen separately from everyday practice. Critical theorists talk about praxis= theory-in-practice.

Advantages and disadvantages of critical theory on pp 79±80 of RW.Adv –

● Realistically assess power● Identify those →have power and those who don’t● Identify weaknesses in existing power relations● Define our own, personal power and weaknesses● Re-examine our priorities● Re-assess our lives

Disav –● It can become fanatical● It is sometimes too simplistic in its analysis of power● It can be too idealistic● It may lead to despair and violence● It tends to ignore human emotions and desires● It can be a very grim phil.

APPLICATION IN PRACTICEThe most valuable contribution of critical theory to education has been the notion of questioning what is meant by ``knowledge''.Critical pedagogy is the term used to describe critical theories in education. One of the basic beliefs of critical pedagogy →educational institutions and teaching do not educate people at all. They merely teach people to accept power structures in society.

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UNIT 6Rethinking a woman's worldINTRODUCTIONFeminism is a cluster of philosophies (see different kinds/strands of feminism on p 88 in RW) whose focus is on sexual stereotyping, in particular the rejection of the assumption that women are inferior to men. It lobbies for the recognition and acknowledgement of the worth of women in society. Feminist theory advocates that women, just like men, have rights that ought to be respected and not violated; that women have valuable talents and strengths; and that they are equally capable of doing anything men can do.

Diff kinds of feminism● African F →deals with whole questions of western colonisation,

gender and white male domination in Africa● British and American F→ divided into first and second wave F

● European F→ tends to be more Marxist and/or existentialist than british and American F

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● Islamic f→ focuses on the place of women in islam and contends that islam gives moral and spiritual equality to men and women.

OVERVIEW

African feminism is discussed on pp 90±91 (RW)

- Patriarchy is seen as being deeply embedded in the societal structures of the African continent→contributes to the oppression of African women. As a women’s movememtn, AF can be described as a political, pragmatic, reflexive and group-orientated form of F, also →’sisterhood of africa’. This form of a peculiarly AF focuses on struggles of African women to create a space of indep and dignity out of a triple layer of oppression i.e. the oppressions created by colonial, western patriarchal and African patriarchal cultures. It criticises western and European feminists for trying to speak for African women, thus denying them the ability to voice their own thots. AF also focuses on politics of gender, i.e. the power relations bet men and women which are structured around opposing notions of masculinity and feminity.

British and American feminism (First and Second Wave feminism) on pp 91±97. FWF→the belief that women should be given the right to vote and that women should be equal before the law is →FWF. In the west and in countries influenced by western thinking like SA, this is the oldest form of F.

There is also a very concise discussion of Islamic feminism on pp 96±97 (RW).In some countries, Islamic Fundamentalism has taken away rights that women did have eg. Afghanistan, iran, Pakistan and some parts of Egypt.

Read your prescribed textbook (RW) from pp 88±96 to find out why feminism came into being and how it proposes to eradicate the issues dealt with in the activities above.

UNIT 7Who in the world am I?INTRODUCTIONOne of many ways people try to discover their true being is by using the philosophy called phenomenology.The word ``phenomenon'' in this philosophy is an indication of how phenomenologists work. They concentrate on one thing (phenomenon) at a time, by putting all prejudices, emotional reactions and labels to one side for the moment.Phenomenology and logical empiricism →same → both are concerned with real experience. Phenomenology is different from empiricism →that the

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researchers concentrate on the essential uniqueness of the individual or the essence of what is being researched.

We get a description of phenomenology on pp 106±107 and pp 109 and 115.The concern about what is going on inside us in relation to who we are, and how we as ppl relate to our world, is the focus of attn of that method of enquiry in phil→ called Phen.P→ concerned with what it is that makes us who we are as human beings. As a method of enquiry in phil, P encourages us to ‘wonder anew’ at who we are, at who we long to be.

P→ believes that theories about ourselves and about life and the universe can be very misleading and may lead to falsehood and deep unhappiness.

We also read about the different categories of phenomenology on p 107.

● P of the self (who am i)● Social P (who and what is my comm.)● Cosmic P (our place in the universe)

Phenomenology started off as a study of human consciousness (in other words, what is going on inside our heads/minds). The experience of ``awakening'' is athinking experience, or an experience in our consciousness. We actively participate in things when we are awake - we are not passive spectators. To be awake →to have the possibility of being change agents. Social phenomenology focuses on the individual in society. Cosmic phenomenology focuses on the individual's place in the universe.

The advantages and disadvantages of phenomenology in general are givenon p 113 of RW.

Adv● Examine our lives closely● Reject false value systems● Slow down and lead less stressful livs● Resist other ppls demands and expectations● Find happiness

Disad● It can accept social evil

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● It leads to mental confusion● Cn be very morally demanding● Has been criticised for not being a prob-solving phil● Tends to be too uncritical of authority

APPLICATION IN PRACTICEEducators →believe in phenomenology need to take into account learners themselves and their experience of the world. They should focus on individual's conscious experience of the educational situation i.e. on the learner's/student's inner, mental experience of education/training. If educators ignore the inner experiences of their learners/students, → make it impossible to enter into meaningful dialogue with the students. Educators need to see every individual in their class as he or she really is. Educators need to be concerned with helping students explore the world and develop their own conscious experience - that is, their being.

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UNIT 8Is there a world that speaks to us?INTRODUCTIONHermeneutics means `the science of interpretation' or `science of communication'. When we study history we are listening to the voices of the past, which are communicating with us through the documents and things people left behind. These may be things found by archaeologists, → pots and tools. Schleiermacher, and otherhermeneuticians such as Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer, believed → we could use hermeneutics to understand all forms of human behaviour.

Hermeneutics has critical implications for education because when educators and learners listen and communicate with each other, effective learning takes place.

Today hermeneutics is used in our understanding of text, art, music, science etc. Schleiermacher believed it should be used for all forms of human expression. Heidegger and Gadamer claimed →both culture and history are important in hermeneutics to understand other human beings.

Some of the history of hermeneutics and its main ideas are on p 123 (RW).

● H emphasises the imp of listening and observing● H claims that the indiv’s life-exp influences the way he understand

the world● H affirms the imp of dialogue in arriving at an understanding of any

issue● H is anti-authoritarian and encourages the indiv to create his own

meaning and understanding.

BY HERMENEUTICSRead the section ``Quick Summary'' on hermeneutics at the bottom of p 125.

The method of enquiry in phil that examines the symbols and the meaning of symbols is called Hermeneutics. This method of enquiry tends to focus on lit, art, film, poety, music and craft. Today, it increasingly confronts science and demands that scientists give us meaningful science rather than ‘cold, objective’ science.

ACTIVITY 8d

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On p 129 (RW) Steven Biko is quoted arguing that his movement rejects ``the power-based society of the Westerner that seems to be ever concerned with perfecting their technological know-how while losing out on their spiritual dimension''. Do you agree that commitment to science is detrimental to one's spiritual life? If your answer is yes, explain how this is the case.

List any similarities/differences between hermeneutics and existentialism.

Similarities or differences between postmodernism and hermeneutics.

UNIT 9Where in the world are we going?INTRODUCTIONPostmodernism → philosophical mode of inquiry that raises important questions and challenges our faith in modernism. Modernists have a very strong belief in the power of science and scientific discoveries. Technology →seen as the solution to most problems. They believe →human beings can master themselves and the world around them by careful, logical reasoning.Postmodernism invites us to rethink our belief in science and scientific progress. Postmodernism recognises that while these issues sound silly and trivial, and may not be scientifically explained, they do shed some light on what it means to be human.

OVERVIEWPostmodernism defies definition, therefore no single, definitive definition of the concept exists (see RW p 135).

The main ideas of postmodernism are summarised on p 135 (RW).● The way in which we see ourselves● The failure of science to solve many probs● The fact that reason may not be a good guide to solving certain

probs● The power of large, modern instit over the indiv● The need to exp al our emotions to the full, incl anger and sexuality● Our inner needs● Mental anguish and illness● Where we get our stds of right and wrong● Whether we can trust these stds

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● Criminality and delinquency● Who defines what it means to be a ‘normal human being’● Whether tech is morally neutral.

Read the description of the work and thoughts of French postmodernist writer Michel Foucault, on p 136 (RW). Foucault believed schools were based on ``military ideals of punctuality, discipline, neatness, submissiveness and authority''.

Died of aids in 1884 and prba the most famous of all postmodernists. He was traumatised by demand of French education system. His own innate homosex made him feel ‘abnormal’ for muc of his life. He asked, ‘where do we get our beliefs about normality’? he came to te conclusion → such beliefs were inculcated into us by modern instit (eg schools) who monitor us.

ACTIVITY 9eOn the same page, p 136 (RW), Jean Baudrillard, another French postmodernist, concludes that because of consumerism (excessive buying of commodities) ``human society is now in a deeply alienated state''.