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Running Head: Social Media and Effects on Self-Esteem 1

Social Media and Its Effects On Self-esteem

Ashley Ward

University of Southern Mississippi 2 April 2013

Running head: Social Media and Effects on Self-Esteem2

Introduction

Can you remember the last time you went a full day without using the Internet?

For those who have daily access to the Internet there is hardly ever a day where it

isn’t accessed. We live in a digital era with information spouting out from every

direction via television, cell phones, radio, Internet, etc. The use of social media

networking sites in our world has become a global phenomenon connecting people

from all over the world. It is not unusual to know more people who are members on

Facebook than those who aren’t. The popularity of social media has increased

drastically at the start of the 21st century with the rise of Internet revolution.

Facebook and Twitter are currently the top most accessed social networking sites in

the world, with Facebook in the lead by about 500 million members

(socialnomics.org).

Engaging in social media has become such a normal daily activity in society

that it can be easy to get lost in the networking world filled with information of

other peoples lives, thoughts, and activities on constant display. Information

surrounding your friends, family, or coworkers consistently updating on your news

feed like a 24 hour Broadcasting channel on Television. The term “social media” is

used so interchangeably that the true meaning of the definition has become

misunderstood. According to Webster, the definition of social media is as follows,

“Forms of electronic communication through which users create online


communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content”

(http://www.merriam-webster.com).

The website SocialNomics.org just released some current mind-blowing facts

regarding the top social networking sites in 2013. It is reported that Twitter has

reached 500 million users with the average user spending 36 minutes on the site

per day. Facebook recently reached 1 billion followers, which is more than triple the

amount of the population in the United States. The large number of members on

Facebook makes it the third largest country in the world with China and India in the

lead. Pintrest, a more recent social networking site currently has 10.4 million users

that spend an estimated 1 hour and 17 minutes on the site each day.

According to MediaBistro, Lady Gaga, Justin Bieber, and Katy Perry have

strikingly more Twitter followers than the entire populations of Germany, Turkey,

South Africa, Canada, Argentina, and Egypt. One misconception surrounding social

media is that it’s only for the younger generations that grew up in the technological

era. This is actually a hasty generalization, according to social media analytical data

website, Social Bakers reports that 55% of Americans ages 45-54 now have a profile

on a social networking site. The biggest growth of any age cohort from 2011 to 2012

was 45-54 year old (SocialBakers.com). About 23% of the online time is spent on

social networks in the United States (Nielson 2010). These staggering facts help put

into perspective the impact and influence that social media has had on our world.

The “Social Media Revolution” continues to grow and affect our society in ways that

haven’t even been discovered yet.

http://www.merriam-webster.com/


Literature Review

Such a large amount of people joining and interacting on social networking

sites has triggered many psychologists, sociologists, educators, and parents around

the world to ask questions about whether social media use is healthy or not. Many

ponder, myself included, how this new form of interaction is altering traditional

communication around the world and how it is affecting frequent users. Which led

to the focus of my research study being social media use and effects on self-esteem.

The level of our self-esteem is fundamental to how we operate and interact with

others such as a spouse, children, friends, and strangers. It determines our goals and

what we strive for, our achievements, and our satisfaction and happiness in life.

Social media networks offer a straightforward way to converse with peers

and get peer feedback, as well, which may influence a young adult’s self esteem

(Pempek et al., 2008). Previous studies have revealed that social media has a

negative impact on a persons self-esteem. However, there were also studies that

reported social media positively affected self-esteem. According to the study Envy on

Facebook: A Hidden Threat to Users’ Life Satisfaction?, researchers from two German

universities reported skimming through photos of friend’s life achievements could

trigger feelings of envy, misery and loneliness (Krasnova & Wenninger & Widjaja,

2013). Over–exposure to social information on Social Networking Sites (SNS)

triggers feelings of envy can causing significant damage to users’ well being and

impact their life satisfaction. Past research from social psychology reveals that envy


may lead to frustration, mental suffering, and even depression (Krasnova &

Wenninger & Widjaja, 2013). According to Simply psychology, feelings of jealousy

and envious of others is a sign of low self-esteem. Social and psychological experts

believe that having access to other people’s lives that appear more enriching than

one’s own on social platforms only works against a person’s self-esteem rather than

working with it. Social media sites give power to users to create their own

socialization process and construct their own self-identity (Urista et al.2009).

Although, not all users take advantage of that power and it results in people

comparing themselves to the users who are taking advantage of that power.

One study found that the most common cause of Facebook frustration came

from users comparing themselves socially to their peers, while the second most

common source of dissatisfaction was “lack of attention” from having fewer

comments, likes, and general feedback compared to friends. In 2012, Researchers at

University of Salford in the United Kingdom conducted a study on the effect of social

media on the personal well being of a group of users. The study indicated that online

social media sites such as Twitter, or Facebook might be doing more harm than

good on the personal lives of users. The Telegraph reported that about half of the

298 social media users that participated in the study say there behavior had

negatively changed from using Facebook and Twitter. A study conducted in 2012

called Are Close Friends the Enemy? Online Social Networks, Self-Esteem, and Self-

Control found that an increase in self-esteem emerges primarily when people are

more focused on strong ties while browsing their social network (Wilcox & Stephen


2008). When the users are focusing on strong ties they are more aware that the

images being presented are observed by their close friends (Wilcox & Stephen

2008).

Perhaps different results would have emerged if the participants were active

on social media site by posting pictures, commenting, liking and so forth. In another

study, researchers at University of Houston surveyed college students and found

that spending time on Facebook was linked to depressive symptoms signifying a

relation between the two(Kneff & Vonk 2009). Self-Esteem varies between different

individuals in the amount or magnitude from low to high. In other words, some

people have a higher self-esteem and some people have a lower self-esteem

depending on the person. Comparing individual’s thoughts and feelings regarding

their self worth is the only way to detect a difference in esteem level. Previous

studies have reported a relation between self-esteem levels and amount of time on

Facebook.

The study Relationships Between Facebook Intensity, Friendship Contingent

Self-Esteem, and Personality in U.S College Students found that in certain cases,

excessive Facebook use might be related to lower general self-esteem (Horting,

Pettijohn, LaPience, 2012). Does this mean that Facebook is responsible for

lowering individual’s self-esteem? Or do depressed people just gravitate to it more

so then vibrant individuals. The study Effects of Exposure to Facebook on Self-Esteem

reported that exposure to ones own Facebook profile can serve as a form of self

awareness and can also enhance over all feelings of self esteem (Gonzales &


Hancock, 2011). Another discovery using Walther’s Hyper-personal Model from

computer-mediated communication found that participants who updated their

profiles and viewed their own profiles during the experiment also reported greater

self-esteem (Gonzales & Hancock 2011). These findings show that the process of

selective self-presentation, which allows people to select aspects they would like to

emphasize on their profile, make Facebook a unique awareness-enhancing stimuli.

Before introducing the research study, I am going to clarify the definition of

self-esteem. The problem with conducting research that involves self-esteem occurs

because it is multidimensional; therefore it can be defined in many ways, which can

make it difficult for the researcher. Most commonly, self-esteem is defined on the

basis of two psychological processes: evaluation and affect (Mruk 2006). Evaluation

accentuates the role of cognition, while affect emphasizes the role of feelings as they

pertain to self-esteem (Mruk 2006). Mruk(2006) defines four ways self-esteem is

defined: as a certain attitude, based on discrepancy, as a psychological response a

person holds toward himself or herself, and as a function of personality. Self- esteem

is viewed as a fluctuating self-attitude that most often resembles a baseline or

standard self-evaluation, but that also encounters situational fluctuations from this

baseline as a function of changing roles, expectations, performances, responses from

others, and other situational characteristics (Demo 1985). According to subsequent

views, however, self-esteem can be viewed as a “state” as well as a trait (Heatherton

& Polivy, 1991). Fluctuations in state self-esteem are associated with increased


sensitivity to and reliance on social evaluations, increased concern about how one

views the self, and even anger and hostility (Kernis, 1993).

My dependent variable is self-esteem. My main independent variables were

social media sites, purpose of use, amount of use, and age . After sifting through

numerous amounts of previous studies regarding social media and self-esteem I

found mixed results. Some studies reported a positive effect and others reported a

negative correlation between the self-esteem and social media. Basing of the

previous research I decided I would create a survey and also use the Rosenberg’s

self-esteem scale to gather data into a new study. The Rosenberg’s scale has been

used for decades in measuring self-esteem. The results that I would gather from

both surveys would be compared to help discover more in depth factors that lead to

an effect on self-esteem from social media use. I also will be taking the studies

further and looking into the different age groups as opposed to just undergraduate

college students.

RQ1- Is there a relationship between social media use and a persons self-

esteem?

RQ2- Which age group spends more time using social media?

RQ3- Does the individuals who spends less time on social media have higher

self-esteem ratings?

Method

There were a total of 21 people participants in my research study involving

self-esteem and social media. However, 20 people were the minimum amount


required to conduct a study. I chose samples from three different age groups to

include for research. The first sample group was ages 14-17. I sought out seven high

school students to participate in the study. The second group consisted of seven

college students ages 18-26. The third and final age group consisted of seven

individuals over the age of 26. I ensured that I included about an even amount of

females and males for my study although gender wasn’t playing a huge role in my

analysis. The participants were chosen through friends and family who fell under

the right age group for study. The instrument I used to measure variables in my

research study consisted of a questionnaire and the Rosenberg self-esteem

measuring scale. The survey consisted of 15 questions to help gather the basic data

essential to the study. The first two questions ask the persons age and gender.

Questions 3 through 6 asked the individual about social media sites, amount of use,

and reason for participation. These questions are related to my independent

variables. The remaining questions were related to self-esteem and were asked to

reveal the individuals opinion regarding self-esteem and social media use. The

questionnaire was generated online using e-survey creator. Distribution of the

questionnaire was solely through electronic means. I provided a convenient link to

the survey online and sent it to the participants through Facebook and email.

Feedback from the survey was directly sent to my esurvey account for further

analysis. The Rosenberg scale is similar to a survey questionnaire, but it is a 10-item

scale that measures global self-worth by measuring both positive and negative

feelings about the self. The scale uses a 4 point Likert scale format ranging from


strongly agree to strongly disagree. The scores range from 0-30. Scores between 15-

25 are in normal range. Scores lower than 15 suggest low self-esteem. Scores of the

Rosenberg Scale are calculated as follows:

For items 1, 3, 4, 7, and 10:Strongly agree = 3Agree = 2Disagree = 1Strongly disagree = 0

For items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9 (which are reversed in valence):Strongly agree = 0Agree = 1Disagree = 2Strongly disagree = 3

The Rosenberg has proven to be valid and reliable throughout the years,

which is one of the reasons for its widespread use as a universal self-esteem scale.

Table 1 below proves that there is an internal consistency or coefficient of reliability

within the variables. A reality coefficient of .70 or higher is considered acceptable.

The data collected from the questionnaires was entered into IBM’s computer

statistical data modeling software for accurate analysis. The scores from each

participants Rosenberg self-esteem survey was calculated and entered in under the

dependent variable self-esteem. A statistical mean was conducted in the depended

variable against the independent variables age, gender, purpose of use, and amount

of use. This reveals the average self-esteem level of the participants depending on

the choice they made during the questionnaire. The results will help answer some of

the research questions previously asked. Another data analysis method was the use

of the Pearson Correlation to show the linear relationship between the variables.

Other data analysis methods consisted of simple computing percentages of answers

on the questionnaire and comparing the different demographic groups.


Table 1 Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's

Alpha

N of Items

.215 4

Results Beginning with the tables below, the average self-esteem ratings on the

Rosenberg scale for the female participants were almost 3 points higher then the

male participants. Participants who use social media for work related tasks showed

the highest average self esteem ratings. While those who use social media just to

pass time showed the lowest average self-esteem rating. The three participants who

use social media 30 minutes a day or less reported the highest self-esteem ratings

with a 29.67, which is an above average score on the Rosenberg scale. Individuals

who used social media more than 2 hours a day showed the lowest average self-

esteem rating. These results answer RQ3 regarding individuals who spend less time

on social media have a higher self-esteem rating. As far as age goes, the youngest

participant age 14 revealed the lowest self-esteem score and the highest self-esteem

score came from the oldest participant 49 years of age. On the Rosenberg self-

esteem scale, scores from 15 to 25 are considered a healthy level of self-esteem.

Even the lowest average score was only 24, which is actually significantly high. No

participants were suffering from low-self esteem in this research study.

I added up the self-esteem scores for each of the three age groups in the

study to reveal which one had the lowest average self-esteem mean and it was the


high school age group, followed by the college and then the adult. The high school

total was 24.6, the college total was 26.4, and the oldest group total was 28.2. RQ2

asks which age group spent more time on social media and my results revealed the

high school age group, which showed more participants who chose 2 hours or more

on a daily basis. However, the college age group came in close second, but more

participant answers 1 to hours as opposed to 2 hours or more.

Table 2 SELFesteem * Gender

SELFesteem

Gender Mean N Std. Deviation

female 27.36 11 2.730

male 25.70 10 1.767

Total 26.57 21 2.420

Table 3

SELFesteem * PURPofUSE

SELFesteem

PURPofUSE Mean N Std. Deviation

Pass time 25.25 4 1.258

Entertainment 25.75 4 3.096

connect with friends 27.20 10 2.700

work related 27.33 3 1.155

Total 26.57 21 2.420

Table 4

SELFesteem * AmountofUse

SELFesteem

AmountofUse Mean N Std. Deviation

30 minutes 29.67 3 .577

30 minutes-1 hour 26.14 7 2.545

1-2 hours 26.17 6 2.639

moret than 2 hours 25.80 5 1.483

Total 26.57 21 2.420


Table 5

SELFesteem* Age

SELFesteem

Age Mean N Std. Deviation

14 24.00 1 .

15 24.00 3 2.646

16 26.00 2 1.414

17 26.00 1 .

20 28.00 1 .

21 25.67 3 3.786

22 26.00 1 .

23 27.50 2 3.536

28 29.00 1 .

29 28.00 1 .

38 28.00 1 .

39 28.00 1 .

40 28.00 1 .

43 27.00 1 .

49 30.00 1 .

Total 26.57 21 2.420

The Pearson correlation coefficient below on table 5 measured the linear

relationship between the variables self esteem, purpose of use, amount of use, social

sites and age. The results revealed a positive correlation between age, and self-

esteem. The significance (2-tailed) is .009 and the Pearson Correlation is .555. There

was also a finding between age and social sites used. The sig. (2-tailed) was .002 and

the Pearson correlation was -.631. These findings suggest that the variables are

highly related to one another and are coefficient. The other correlations did not turn

up significant, which means that there is a weak tie between the variables.

Table 6

Correlations


SELFesteem PURPofUSE AmountofUse SocialSites Age

SELFesteemPearson Correlation 1 .341 -.392 -.153 .555**

Sig. (2-tailed) .130 .079 .508 .009

PURPofUSEPearson Correlation .341 1 -.021 .021 .361

Sig. (2-tailed) .130 .927 .927 .108

AmountofUsePearson Correlation -.392 -.021 1 .336 -.410

Sig. (2-tailed) .079 .927 .136 .065

SocialSitesPearson Correlation -.153 .021 .336 1 -.631**

Sig. (2-tailed) .508 .927 .136 .002

AgePearson Correlation .555** .361 -.410 -.631** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .009 .108 .065 .002

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

b. Listwise N=21

RQ1 asks whether or not social media use affects self-esteem and the results

of my data answer yes. There is a noticeably higher rating of self-esteem for those

who use social media less compared to those who use it more. This would suggest

social media effecting self-esteem in a negative way as opposed to a positive way.

Further differences among the age groups were seen through the survey

distributed. The high school age group responded to questions regarding self-

esteem that signified a relationship between social media use and its affect on their

mood and feelings. 4 out of the 7 respondents answered yes on the question asking

whether social media effects people’s self-esteem. Compared to the other two age

groups, the college students answered 2 out of 7 agreeing that it can affect self-

esteem, and the seven participants from the older group responded with “No.” The

older groups answers appeared to be more positive regarding the use of social

media and its effects on people. The age group rated social media an average of 8 on

a 10-point scale regarding the positive affects it has on them. The high school


students had an average score of 5 on the question regarding the their opinion of

how positive social media effects them as well as a 5 on the negative effect question.

Discussion

Social Media use has become a global phenomenon with people from all ages,

and backgrounds joining in on the activity. As an avid Social Media user I wondered

whether there was a relationship between Social Media and self-esteem. The

purpose of this study was to dive into the use of social media and the possible

effects it has on an individual’s self-esteem. Previous research studies revealed a

positive effect and a negative effect on a person’s self-esteem. Studies that found a

negative correlation reported that social media use could lead people to self-

comparison of those on social media leading to feelings of inadequacy and low self

worth. Studies that reported a positive effect focused on individuals communicating

with their friends and viewing their own person profiles triggering happiness.

Majority of the studies focused on undergraduate students. This led me to focus on a

wider range of age groups and compare their self-esteem to one another and their

person views regarding self-esteem. Using a survey that I created along with the

universal Rosenberg self-esteem scale I was able to gather data for analysis

The results I found were quite interesting. The limitations of the studies I

examined consisted of only conducting studies based off of 21 participants in a

questionnaire. Another limitation was actually using the questionnaire. This study

could be further investigated and taken to another level of experimentation. To the

future researcher looking into a similar study I would suggest taking it further and


actually observing participants interacting on the social media sites instead of just

asking the participants what their typical social media habits are. Previous studies

focus on the use of Facebook and its effect on self-esteem. Perhaps future studies

could peer more into Twitter and YouTube.

A problem with my study revolves around RQ1 asking whether there was a

relationship between social media use and self-esteem. It does appear from my data

that there is a relationship however I cannot prove whether it was a positive or

negative one. If I was to monitor the participant’s self-esteem level and see if social

media triggers a change then I would be able to tell if it was increasing or

decreasing. None of the participants had an unhealthy self-esteem level. Therefore, I

conclude that social media does not have a negative effect on the participants self-

esteem level. The high school students reported the lowest self-esteem levels, and

the most social media activity. There are other factors that can be taken into account

when considering the participants self-esteem. They are at an important stage in

their life of growth, and their emotions could influence their self-esteem.

Self-esteem can be difficult to research and it is hard to measure because it is

a psychological process. Self-esteem is also multidimensional; therefore it has

multiple meanings attached to it, which can hinder research. However, it is possible

to achieve reliable and valid results. The Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale has been

used for this since the 1960’s. All three research questions proposed at the

beginning of the speech were answered to the extent that they could have been

giving the limitations of the study. I feel that this research study is a stepping-stone


for other studies in the future. This study looks at social media use in different age

groups as well as their self-esteem ranking according to Rosenberg’s global self-

esteem scale. It is important to note that many things can affect an individual’s self-

esteem, but this study focuses solely on social media’s role. I hope to see future

studies surrounding this topic to obtain a more insightful understanding of the

relationship between social media and self-esteem.

Works Cited

1. "Are Close Friends the Enemy? Online Social Networks, Self-Esteem, and Self-

Control." By Keith Wilcox, Andrew Stephen. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2013.

<http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2155864>.

2. "Facebook and Twitter Feed Anxiety, Study Finds." The Telegraph. Telegraph Media

Group, 08 July 2012. Web. 30 Apr. 2013.


<http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/9383609/Facebook-and-Twitter-feed-

anxiety-study-finds.html>.

3. "Facebook Statistics by Country." Socialbakers.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2013.

<http://www.socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/>.

4. "Low Self Esteem." Low Self Esteem. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2013.

<http://www.simplypsychology.org/self-esteem.html>.

5. "Mashable." Mashable. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2013. ‘

<http://mashable.com/2012/07/08/social-media-anxiety-study/>.

6. Neff, Kristin D., and Roos Vonk. "Self-Compassion Versus Global Self-Esteem: Two

Different Ways of Relating to Oneself." Journal of Personality 77.1 (2009): 23-50.

Print.

7. "Posts Tagged ‘social Media Infographic’." Social Media Infographic. N.p., n.d. Web.

30 Apr. 2013. <http://www.mediabistro.com/alltwitter/tag/social-media-

infographic>.

8. Qualman, Erik. Http://www.socialnomics.net. Digital Services, n.d. Web. 30 Apr.

2013.

9. Relationships between Facebook Intensity, Friendship Contingent Self-Esteem, and

Personality in U.S. College Students. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2013.

<http://cyberpsychology.eu/view.php?cisloclanku=2012042901>.


10. Sifferlin, Alexandra, and Alexandra Sifferlin. "Why Facebook Makes You Feel Bad

About Yourself | TIME.com." Time. Time, n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2013.

<http://healthland.time.com/2013/01/24/why-facebook-makes-you-feel-bad-

about-yourself/>.

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ashleybwardblog.files.wordpress.com · Web viewThe website SocialNomics.org just released some current mind-blowing facts regarding the top social networking sites in 2013. It is