ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

(Department of Science Education)

Course: General Science (6404)

Semester: Autumn, 2017

Level: ADE/B.Ed -04 Years

Assignment 1

Q.1 How science and technology affect each other? Also elaborate effect of science and technology on society.

Science and technology affect each other

Science, technology and innovation each represent a successively larger category of activities which are highly interdependent but distinct. Science contributes to technology in at least six ways:

(1)new knowledge which serves as a direct source of ideas for new technological possibilities;

(2) source of tools and techniques for more efficient engineering design and a knowledge base for evaluation of feasibility of designs;

(3) research instrumentation, laboratory techniques and analytical methods used in research that eventually find their way into design or industrial practices, often through intermediate disciplines;

(4) practice of research as a source for development and assimilation of new human skills and capabilities eventually useful for technology;

(5) creation of a knowledge base that becomes increasingly important in the assessment of technology in terms of its wider social and environmental impacts;

(6) knowledge base that enables more efficient strategies of applied research, development, and refinement of new technologies.

Middle school students struggle with differentiating between science and technology. "Engineers, architects, and others who engage in design and technology use scientific knowledge to solve practical problems. They also usually have to take human values and limitations into account."

This quote comes from Benchmarks, a publication of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and an inspiration for the National Science Education Standards (NSES). The NSESHYPERLINK "http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/6d.html#st" Science and Technology standard has two parts: abilities of technological design and understandings about science and technology. The following resources will help students understand the relationship between science and technology and the differences between the two.

Effect of science and technology on society

Our societies are dominated and even 'driven' by ideas and products from science and technology (S&T) and it is very likely that the influence of science and technology on our lives will continue to increase in the years to come. Scientific and technological knowledge, skills and artefacts 'invade' all realms of life in modern society: the workplace and the public sphere are increasingly dependent on new as well as upon more established technologies. So, too, are the private sphere and our leisure time. Scientific and technological knowledge and skills are crucial for most of our actions and decisions, as workers, as voters, as consumers, etc. Meaningful and independent participation in modern democracies assumes an ability to judge the evidence and arguments associated with the many socio-scientific issues that appear on the political agenda.

In short, modern societies need people with scientific and technological qualifications at the highest level as well as a general public which has a broad understanding of the contents and methods of science and technology, coupled with an insight into their role as social forces that shape the future. Science and technology are major cultural products of human history, and all citizens, independently of their occupational 'needs', should be acquainted with them as elements of human culture. While science and technology are obviously important for economic well-being, they must also seen from the perspective of a broadly based liberal education

One might expect the increasing significance of science and technology to be accompanied by a parallel growth in interest in these subjects and in an understanding of basic scientific ideas and ways of thinking. This does, however, not seem to be the case, especially in the more developed countries of Europe and the OECD.

The evidence for such claims is in part based on 'hard facts' (educational statistics relating to subject choice in schools, enrolment in tertiary education etc.), in part on recent large–scale comparative studies like TIMSS and PISA (described later in this chapter) and in part on research into, and analysis of, contemporary social trends. The situation is briefly described and analysed below.

Challenges and perspectives

Falling enrolment, increasing gender gap?

In many countries, recruitment to scientific and technological studies is falling, or at least not developing as fast as expected or planned for. This lack of interest in science often manifests itself at school level at the age where curricular choices are made. In many countries, there is a noticeable decrease in the numbers of students choosing (some of) the sciences. The trend is consolidated in admissions to tertiary education. A similar trend occurs in some areas of engineering and technology studies. It should, however, be noted that there are large (and interesting) differences between the various European countries and between the different disciplines within science and technology. The fall in recruitment has been particularly marked in physics and mathematics.

In many countries, there is also a growing gender gap in the choice of scientific and technological subjects at both school and tertiary level. Many countries have had a long period of steady growth in female participation in traditionally male fields of study, but this positive trend seems now to have been broken in some countries. It is a paradox that the break is most marked in some of the Nordic countries, where gender equity has been a prime educational aim for decades. For example, while the Nordic countries come out on top of all the countries in the world on the Gender Empowerment Measure, an indicator developed by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP 2001), the same countries have very low female participation rates in science- and technology-related occupations and studies.

Concern about unsatisfactory enrolment in science and technology is voiced by many interest groups. Industrial leaders are worried about the recruitment of a qualified work force. Universities and research institutions are anxious about the recruitment of new researchers, and education authorities are worried about the already visible lack of qualified teachers of the scientific and technological subjects. In some countries, the difficulty of recruiting sufficient numbers of new entrants to the teaching profession has become a matter of national concern, especially when the level of recruitment does not even allow for the replacement of those who are retiring. This concern is often based on comprehensive appraisals of the education and labour markets.

The concern is not confined to numbers. There is also a more or less identifiable fall in the quality of the newcomers. A lower quality may, of course, be a consequence of the fact that very few candidates compete for places at institutions where the entrance qualifications were previously very high. Many institutions of higher education are unable to fill their places in science and technology with students of a satisfactory quality.

The problems in recruitment are revealed by a range of objective and uncontroversial educational statistics. Cross-national data on a range of issues are now collected and published by UNESCO, the OECD, the European Union and other organisations, and the development of common descriptors and criteria has made its possible to make comparisons between different countries and regions. Evidence about pupils' achievements, quality, interests etc. is available from a number of research projects, notably large comparative surveys such as TIMSS and PISA. Some details are given below in Box 1.

Box 1. Statistical information and large-scale comparative studies

There are many excellent sources of up-t-date international information and analysis on education. Here are a few of them.

UNESCO is the body with a global responsibility in this field. It defines common indicators to facilitate valid international comparisons, and collects the relevant data. These are published in comprehensive published statistical reports that are also available via the web site http://www.unesco.org/

At regular intervals, UNESCO also publishes more analytical, global reports such as The World Education Report (UNESCO 2000), together with more targeted and specific reports on progress in the field of education.

The OECD has a large education sector, and it publishes an important annual report Education at a Glance (i.e. OECD 2001b). These, as well as other reports, including underlying statistical annexes are available online at http://www.oecd.org/ Although the focus is on the OECD countries, the data as well as the research cover other countries.

For science and technology (as well as for mathematics) education, the TIMSS study (Third International Mathematics and Science Study) has become very influential. TIMSS is one of many IEA studies (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement). Background information as well as downloadable reports and data files are available at http://timss.bc.edu/

TIMSS will be followed up in years to come (from 2002), although the acronym TIMSS will get a somewhat different meaning (e.g., T for 'Trends' instead of Third')

The OECD has recently developed its own set of studies of student achievement, under the acronym of PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment). PISA covers some 30 OECD countries together with some non-OECD countries. It aims at assessing how far students who are approaching the end of compulsory education (about the age of 15) have acquired some of the knowledge and skills that are essential for full participation in society. The first report

(OECD 2000a) presents evidence from the first round of data collection on the performance in reading, mathematical and scientific literacy of students, schools and countries. It reveals factors that influence the development of these skills at home and at school, and examines the implications for policy development. Other reports and rounds of data collection will follow, and these studies are likely to have a great political significance in the future. Reports, background material and statistical data are available at http://www.pisa.oecd.org/

Achievement studies – the critique

Large-scale comparative studies such as TIMSS and, to a lesser extent, PISA may have the (possibly unintended) side effect of harmonising or universalising science (and other) curricula across nations. Test format as well as curriculum content may come to provide standards, 'benchmarks' or norms for participating countries as well as for other countries not immediately involved in the research. In fact, the term 'benchmark' is frequently used in TIMSS. An example is the "TIMSS 1999 Benchmarking Study" that sets out to compare states and districts across the Untied States.

Furthermore, the international and cross-cultural nature of studies such as TIMSS has necessarily required the development of test items that can be used independently of educational or social context in an attempt to avoid ‘cultural bias’. As a result, these test items tend to become decontextualized and rather abstract. This approach runs contrary to recent thinking about teaching, learning and curriculum development, in which personal and contextual relevance is emerging as a key educational concern. The publication and availability of TIMSS items in many countries might even be said to provide an 'incentive' to use tests that, in both their closed multiple choice format and their lack of social context, run contrary to national or local traditions.

Comparative research in education is important, but there is an obvious need to complement the valuable data from TIMSS-like studies with more open and culturally sensitive information and perspectives (Atkin and Black 1997). The PISA study is an attempt to widen the scope of such large-scale studies, and the underlying framework for PISA is, in contrast to TIMSS, not bound to school curricula. The publication of the first results from PISA (OECD 2001a) suggests that the PISA studies will meet some of the criticisms raised against the IEA-based studies like TIMSS. PISA will continue to develop and produce new results for at least a decade.

Nonetheless, TIMSS and PISA do have some common characteristics. They are both high-level initiatives 'from the top' to monitor scholastic achievement, and the main results are published as rankings or league tables. The media coverage, assisted by the projects' own reporting, often trivialises the educational enterprise and reduces it to a contest of national prestige. The studies are also, with some exceptions, confined to rich countries in the OECD. In most

countries, these studies are initiated and heavily funded by governments and Ministries of education. This reflects the legitimate needs of decision-makers and politicians to obtain comparative data on the scholastic achievement of their pupils and to have some measures of the efficiency and cost-benefits of their national educational systems. In an age of globalisation and economic competition, national authorities are increasingly concerned about how well their own education system compares with that of others. This, of course, assumes that quality can be measured against common standards. Similarly, national authorities have a legitimate need to obtain comparative international data relating to such parameters as unit costs, the effectiveness of teacher training, the significance of class size, and resource deployment.

One may, with considerable exaggeration, characterize projects like TIMSS and PISA as the educational parallel of so-called Big Science or techno-science. The scale and costs of these comparative studies are many factors higher than the kinds of research in which most science educators are involved. The institutions that undertake these studies are often government agencies for research and development, or research institutions from which the government may reasonably expect a degree of loyalty. Such large-scale research projects do not emerge from an independent and critical academic research perspective, and one may use Ziman's concept of 'post-academic science' (Ziman 2000) to characterize them, their loyalties and their implicit values and commitments.

Not unexpectedly, those who pay the bill also influence the 'definition' of what counts as science. Given the strong domination of this work by the USA, it is no surprise that there seem to be no test items that relate to topics such as the theory of evolution, human reproduction, sexual minorities or sexually transmitted diseases. If such a science curriculum is used to define 'benchmarks', it may lead to a narrow conception of relevance, and hence to a loweringof standards, rather than, as intended, the opposite.

Scientific and technological illiteracy and the Public Understanding of Science?

Projects like TIMSS and PISA describe the levels of achievement of children of school age. However, there is a comparable political concern about how the general public relates to science. The concern has many dimensions. These include the nature and level of public scientific and technological knowledge, attitudes and interests, and, of course, the degree of public support for scientific and technological research and the community that undertakes it.

Acronyms like PUST (Public Understanding of Science and Technology) have become indicators of growing unease about the situation. Academic journals are devoted to the relevant issues (e.g., Public Understanding of Science) and several research institutions study the challenges involved in promoting the public understanding of science. Phrases like 'scientific illiteracy' are also used, more or less fruitfully, to describe the situation. There is a rich literature in the field,

and this is marked by the many, and often conflicting, meanings of some of the terms used. This position has been well reviewed and analysed by Jenkins (1997).

In a series of studies dating back to the 1970s, Miller defined and measured scientific literacy in the United States (e.g., Millar 1983), and his approach is evident in research subsequently undertaken in this field in many other countries. See, for example, the influential Eurobarometer studies (e.g., EU 2001).

A key research institute in this field is the International Center for the Advancement of Scientific Literacy (ICASL) in the USA. With support from the National Science Foundation, this regularly undertakes and publishes surveys of public scientific literacy, as well as of public attitudes to science and technology. There is also international participation in some of these surveys. The Center presents itself the following way:

Not more than 7 percent of Americans qualify as scientifically literate by relatively lenient standards. Recognizing this serious problem, governments in most industrialized nations are making concerted efforts to address the issue of pervasive illiteracy.

Such studies and conclusions are open to several sorts of criticism (Jenkins, 1994, 1997). The questions asked in these studies are often derived directly from academic science so that lay persons are asked to provide answers to questions such as ‘How many planets are there around the Sun?’ and ‘Which is the larger, an atom or an electron?’ The studies can also be seen as attempts by the scientific community to promote its own agenda and interests, by lamenting the level of public understanding of science. Further, given the strong domination by the USA among the organisers of large-scale comparative studies, these seldom accommodate cultural or social differences in the context within which the alleged scientific and technological literacy is presumed to be required.

Several researchers have taken a different approach to the public understanding of science, and investigated 'scientific knowledge in action', i.e., the use made of it in real-life situations (see, for example, Irwin and Wynne 1996; Layton et al. 1993) Such studies provide a very different understanding of what constitutes 'the problem' and how it might be addressed.

In spite of the criticism indicated here, reports like the bi-annual Science and Engineering Indicators (NSB 2000) provide a wealth of information on many aspects of scientific and technological research in society and education. Although these studies are North American, the large volumes (more than 500 pages) include an important comparative perspective. Reports such as the 2000 National Survey of Science and Mathematics Education (at http://2000survey.horizon-research.com/) also provide valuable data as well as analysis and comparative insights. Based upon almost six thousand participating science and mathematics

teachers in schools across the United States, the study was sponsored by the National Science Foundation.

Statistical data and most surveys, however, do not shed much light on the underlying causes of many of the present educational concerns. Why have science and technology apparently lost their attraction for many young people, and what might be done to remedy this situation? Without some answers to these questions, intervention programmes designed to increase interest in science and technology are unlikely to succeed.

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Q.2 Write contribution of Ibn Sina in science education. Explain effects of hydrological ( water cycle) cycle on your life.

Contribution of Ibn Sina in science education

Ibn Sina is generally known as one of the most important philosophers and physicians, one whose contributions to science and philosophy have attracted numerous studies. This article provides an outline of his philosophy of science which determined the framework for his understanding of natural philosophy. Rather than being of historical interest, the article argues, Ibn Sina's philosophy of science is a useful beginning for developing a contemporary Islamic philosophy of science. The article also discusses Ibn Sina's importance in the philosophy of health and medicine.

Keywords: Contributions of Ibn Sina in various sciences; Islamic philosophy of science; health and medicine in Islam; Ibn Sina and contemporary Islamic intellectual thought.

Ibn Sina is without doubt the most widely known intellectual figure concerned with science in Islamic civilization. He has, in fact, gained the image of a folk hero, especially in the zones of Arabic, Persian, and Turkic cultures, where numerous stories concerning his exceptional intellectual powers came into being in the form of folktales told by grandmothers to their grandchildren over the centuries. Moreover, his medical heritage is alive wherever Islamic medicine is still practiced, such as in Pakistan and India, and his influence as a philosopher and even theologian is to be felt wherever the Islamic philosophical tradition survives, as in Persia. The sign of respect for him as almost the archetype of the Muslim philosopher-scientist can be seen in the number of hospitals, schools, and centers of research bearing his name from Morocco to Malaysia.

In this essay we shall limit the definition of science to the mathematical and natural, while remembering that Ibn Sina also made major contributions to the sciences of language, music,

psychology, etc., and even the occult sciences (al-'ulum al-gharibah), not to speak of the supreme science or metaphysics (al-ilahiyyat) which determined the framework for his understanding of natural philosophy (al-ilahiyyat). Because of the fame of Ibn Sina in both the West and in the Islamic world, numerous studies have been devoted to him and even if we were to limit ourselves to the above given definition of science, it would still be necessary to compose a large work and in fact many volumes to do justice to Ibn Sina's contributions to science and its philosophy. (1) Here we shall provide a simple summary based on a lifelong study of his philosophical and scientific works, without claiming to have exhausted the discussion of any of the fields to which he made contributions.

Before turning to specific sciences, it is essential that we deal with Ibn Sina's contributions to what in today's terminology would be called "philosophy of science" and the more traditional category of natural philosophy, which are in fact the most important aspects of his scientific legacy, worthy of much more study than has been granted them until now. It is our belief that in this aspect of Ibn Sina's work is to be found one of the major cornerstones for the creation of a contemporary Islamic philosophy of science. His discussion of the relation of physics to metaphysics, the meaning of form (Eurah) in both physics and the biological sciences, the relation between various sciences in the context of the Islamic intellectual tradition and many other subjects dealt comprehensively by this remarkable figure are of great relevance today and are not only of historic interest.

Before Ibn Sina, philosophers such as al-Kindi and al-Farabi had been concerned with the classification of the sciences, which is a matter of great significance for a worldview based on tawhid and the consequent inter-relation of all branches of authentic knowledge. Ibn Sina continued this effort with greater knowledge of particular sciences than his illustrious predecessors and also at a time when the various sciences had developed more fully. His treatise Fi aqsam al-ulum al-'aqliyyah (Classification of the Rational Sciences) as well as his classification of the sciences in his Kitab al-shifa' (The Book of Healing) are major contributions to a subject of great importance in Islamic civilization, namely the rapport between various sciences, both intellectual and religious. (2) From the Islamic point of view, an authentically Islamic philosophy of science cannot ignore the relation between various modes of knowing and the sciences which result from them. Ibn Sina's contributions to this subject are still of significance and will surely play a role in any serious current effort made to re-create a contemporary Islamic classification of the sciences which would be authentically Islamic.

Another element of Ibn Sina's philosophy of nature is his contribution to logic and the use of logic in the mathematical sciences. As has been shown by A.M. Goichon and others, while Ibn Sina used the Aristotelian syllogistic method, he allowed empirical causes to be used as the middle term in a syllogism. (3) The dichotomy observed in the West between Aristotelian

syllogistic thinking and scientific induction, and empirical knowledge and the attack made by defenders of the latter against Aristotelian reasoning as one finds in Francis Bacon, do not in fact apply to Ibn Sina and later Islamic thinkers influenced by him. Thanks to him induction played a different role vis-a-vis deductive thinking from what one finds in the mainstream Western philosophy, and the two complemented rather than opposed each other in Islamic thought. A major twentieth century treatment of the subject of induction by the Muslim philosopher Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr (4) is in many ways the authentication and continuation of the philosophical efforts of Ibn Sina in this domain.

The question of induction in logic leads us to the general subject of epistemology and the so-called scientific method of Ibn Sina. One of the greatest scientific contributions of Ibn Sina was to demonstrate that there are, in fact, not one but many methods of acquiring scientific knowledge, ranging from empirical observation and experimentation, to deduction and demonstration, to intellectual intuition which he called hads. If anyone carefully studies the history of science in general, including modern science, he will realize how all these methods of knowing have been at play in various stages of scientific discovery, and how shallow and unscientific it is to speak of a single scientific method. Kepler did not discover the laws of planetary motion nor Einstein the theory of relativity nor Heisenberg the uncertainty principle through what ordinary textbooks describe as the "scientific method."

Today, because of the prevalence of scientism among many modernistic Muslim thinkers, there is a vast body of literature being produced in various Islamic languages on "the scientific method." Islamic science, however, was based not on one method but several methods for knowing the world about us, and a hierarchy was in fact created within epistemology in Islamic philosophy which also permitted the creation of harmony between various modes of knowing, including revealed knowledge, between what is attained through revelation, intellection and reasoning, and what is known empirically. (5) Surely this issue is of the greatest importance for the current challenges which modern science poses for Islamic thought, and again the contribution of Ibn Sina to the subject is of the utmost significance.

The philosophy of science of Ibn Sina includes of course the philosophy of the natural world, one which is of the profoundest order and which is far from having become outmoded, as many modern Muslim thinkers believe. In his natural philosophy, Ibn Sina follows to a large extent Aristotle, as far as such basic theses such as hylomorphism and potentiality and actuality are concerned, although his metaphysics is different from that of the Stagirite as far as the meaning of being and the basic ontological question of necessity and contingency is concerned. It must be remembered that, although for a long time Aristotelian natural philosophy was severely attacked, going all the way back to the works of Galileo, the Aristotelian idea of potentiality was resuscitated in modern quantum mechanics by no less a figure than Werner Heisenberg and

that both the concepts of potentiality/actuality and morphos in the Aristotelian sense are still very much alive in the more profound new interpretations that are being given by certain contemporary scientists of quantum mechanics, not to speak of biology. (6) One hardly needs to remind contemporary Muslim thinkers seeking to create an Islamic philosophy of science how valuable the contributions of Ibn Sina--and for that matter, those of later Islamic philosophers such as Mulla Cadra--are for today's Islamic thinkers. (7) One should never forget that Ibn Sina has provided in his Kitab al- shifa' the most extensive, complete and systematic account of Aristotelian natural philosophy in its Islamic form, more complete than the works of Aristotle himself, and a veritable synthesis which influenced not only later Islamic thought but also much of European scholasticism, especially the thought of Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. (8) Present day Thomistic philosophers seeking to create a new philosophy of nature are very much in debt to the momentous contributions of Ibn Sina to the subject, including his contribution to the philosophy of biology, which has not received as much attention as his discussions of physics and cosmology in general.

Although he was not a major mathematician like the reviver of his philosophy, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Ibn Sina made important contributions to the philosophy of mathematics, not to speak of his notable studies of the theoretical and mathematical aspects of music and his role in the criticism of the mathematical astronomy of Ptolemy, which was widely pursued in later centuries by al-Tusi, al-'Urdi, al-Shirazi and others. What is important, as far as his contributions to the philosophy of mathematics is concerned, is his discussion of mathematical form in relation to logical concepts and the rapport between formal and mathematical logic. Little work has been done in the Islamic philosophy of mathematics until now. Once such an undertaking is fully accomplished, it will become clear that even in this field, where his mathematical contributions were nowhere near as great as those of other philosophically minded scientists such as Ibn al-Haytham, 'Umar Khayyam and al-Tusi, Ibn Sina nevertheless played an important role in the creation of the philosophy of mathematics as an important branch of the Islamic philosophy of science.

The various aspects of Ibn Sina's natural and mathematical philosophy, or what is called today, with a modified meaning, the "philosophy of science", are to be found in the Kitab al- shifa'. This work needs to be studied thoroughly with the view of bringing out his total philosophy of science, including general cosmology, (9) philosophy of physics, philosophy of living forms and philosophy of mathematics. There is probably no other work in the annals of Islamic thought that is as important as the Shifa' from this point of view. It is also in this encyclopedic work that we see for the first time the systematic treatment of the three kingdoms--that is, minerals, plants and animals--in their interrelation with one another, something not found in any single work, nor in such a systematic manner, in any Greek text. Also it is in this book that the idea of the great chain of being is used as the metaphysical basis for the integration of all the different

sciences from physics (in the modern sense) to the life sciences to meteorology to astronomy and finally to the science of being beyond the visible world. Although the elements of these ideas had existed among Greek and earlier Islamic philosophers, their synthesis owes its existence to Ibn Sina, a synthesis which played a major role in the later history of science and natural history in both the Muslim world and the West.

II

Ibn Sina was not only the most famous of all Muslim philosopher-scientists, he was also the most celebrated medical authority in the classical Islamic world as well as in the medieval West. His contributions to medicine, pharmacology and related subjects are immense, and need separate treatment if one is to do justice to all that Ibn Sina accomplished in these domains. What we wish to emphasize here is the philosophy of medicine that he expounded on the basis of the synthesis of Hippocrates, Galen, Indian and pre-Islamic Persian medicine as well as earlier Islamic physicians such as al-Tabari and al-Razi and Islamic teachings about health and related subjects. What is health? What is illness? These are questions that are difficult to answer in the framework of the prevalent mechanistic view of modern medicine. For Ibn Sina, however, his philosophy of medicine provided a clear answer to these questions. The human being possesses levels of reality situated in the vertical hierarchy of body, soul and spirit. On the horizontal level, the body of the human microcosm also possesses elements and natures which combine to form the human corporeal reality. Health is equilibrium and balance between elements of both the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the human microcosm and illness is loss of this equilibrium. Moreover, to be healthy it is necessary that an equilibrium be established with one's environment and in one's diet and manner of living, or what is today called lifestyle, as well as between one's physical and one's psychological states, and finally between the soul and the spirit and ultimately with God. All of these realities and their harmonious relation play a role in human health, as the loss of harmony between them is instrumental in bringing about illness.

Ibn Sina formulated an elaborate philosophy of what is today called holistic medicine. (10) In his treatment of illness he did not shun any means that he considered to be effective. While providing herbal and mineral medicaments, he also used psychosomatic medicine as well as what is today called spiritual healing. If formulated in a contemporary language, Ibn Sina's philosophy of medicine is bound to be readily accepted in a world in which there is so much interest in holistic medicine. Moreover, Avicennean or Islamic medicine will certainly have as wide an appeal in the West as acupuncture, Tibetan and Ayurvedic medicine if presented correctly by competent practitioners of this all-important school of medicine. This also holds true for the Muslim world itself, where, except for the Indo-Pakistani Subcontinent, the practice of Islamic medicine was gradually reduced to "folk medicine" by the early 14th/20th century.

The remarkable success of the two brothers, Hakim 'Abd al-Hamid and Hakim Muhammad Sa'id in creating the Hamdard centers in Delhi and Karachi after the partition of India bears witness to the ever-living importance of the medical heritage of Ibn Sina.

Ibn Sina did not, of course, create only a grand synthesis containing a total medical philosophy. He also made major specific contributions to medicine and pharmacology. This included everything from discerning meningitis as a distinct illness, the contagious nature of tuberculosis, the real cause of asthma and the significance of the optic nerve, to experimenting with and subscribing many drugs for various illnesses. The vast pharmacopoeia of Ibn Sina includes of course many earlier sources, but there are also many drugs for which he is directly responsible. Ibn Sina also emphasized the importance of public health. For him as for other authorities of Islamic medicine, the most important medical action is to prevent disease through public health and diet rather than cure it after disease has already infected the patient. His combination of diet and medicaments and consideration of the two to be complementary is not unique to him, and characterizes Islamic medicine in general, but he himself made major contributions not only to the exposition of the idea, but also to prescribing specific diets in combination with various drugs. In Islamic medicine the line between various food substances and what we call drugs or medicine today is thin, and the use of food materials with medical properties and medicinal substances with nourishing qualities is common. Ibn Sina's contribution to the creation of this harmonious interplay between dietary and medical usages and regulations is central, and he left that as a legacy for later Islamic medicine and even traditional cuisines of the Islamic world.

Furthermore, the widespread influence of this remarkable figure whom the West called "The Prince of Physicians" caused many of these ideas to spread to Western medicine and to remain prevalent until the rise of mechanistic science and medicine in the 11th/17th century. It is strange that now that many of these traditional ideas are being revived in the West, Ibn Sina is not being given his dues as one of the main authors of the thesis that food is also medicine for the body and medicine can be food, and that the effect of the two are complimentary and interrelated.

III

A few words must also be said about Ibn Sina's contributions to the other sciences besides medicine, and the disciplines of the philosophy of science, cosmology and natural history. The Kitab al-shifa' is not only the first work in which the three kingdoms in natural history, as they later became known, were treated together systematically, it also contains the most extensive discussion of geology and the mineral kingdom of any classical Islamic work. Besides having analyzed the structure of a meteor, Ibn Sina dealt with the formation of sedimentary rocks and the role of earthquakes in mountain formation. He displayed clear awareness of the possibility

of seas turning into dry land and vice-versa and was therefore able to give a correct explanation for the discovery of fossils on mountain tops. Regarding the formation of metals, while rejecting the possibility of alchemical transmutation, he accepted the Jabirean sulphur-mercury theory which he combined with the mineralogical theories of Aristotle and Theophrastus. His works and those of Muslim scientists who followed him played a very important role in the later development of chemical theories which grew out of the alchemical worldview, once the symbolic and spiritual significance of alchemy was forgotten. It must be recalled, however, that although Ibn Sina created a synthesis of ideas concerning the nature of the mineral and metallic states, the transformation of alchemy to chemistry proceeded him and was accomplished by Muhammad ibn Zakariyya' al-Razi (ca. 250-313/854-925). (11) In any case, the contributions of Ibn Sina to several aspects of geology and mineralogy are significant in the history of these sciences.

From the point of view of the later development of modern science, perhaps the most important scientific contribution of Ibn Sina, outside the field of medicine, was to dynamics and the study of projectile motion. Aristotle had discussed the question of projectile as against natural motion, and had come up with theories for its explanation which were already criticized before the rise of Islam by John Philoponos. Ibn Sina was fully aware of the views of Aristotle on this matter and was, like Philoponos, critical of the Stagirite on this subject. Ibn Sina developed the theory of mayl (the Latin inclinatio), according to which, whenever a body is in projectile motion in opposition to its natural motion, an "inclination" is created in it to return to its natural place and motion, and this causes it to move until that mayl is spent. Ibn Sina's views were added to those of Ibn al-Haytham, who spoke of momentum, as well as the theories of Ibn Bajjah and others, and they played a critical role in showing the weakness of Aristotelian physics in explaining projectile motion and in preparing the ground for Galileo's rejection of that physics. The language of these Muslim philosophers can be detected in Galileo's Pisan Dialogue. (12)

IV

Ibn Sina's greatest significance for the sciences, as far as contemporary Muslims are concerned, is his natural philosophy, or, in modern parlance, philosophy of science, and medicine. Today the Islamic world is in dire need of developing its own natural philosophy rooted in the deepest teachings of the Islamic revelation and fourteen centuries of a living Islamic intellectual tradition. The contributions of Ibn Sina are indispensable in order to accomplish this task successfully. No amount of scientism wrapped in piety by certain contemporary Muslims can prevent Ibn Sinan philosophy, including his philosophy of nature, from remaining as a very important component of the still living Islamic intellectual tradition. After over a thousand years, Ibn Sina still has a great deal to teach us, not only about logic, philosophy and medicine

but also about science itself, about how to be an authentic Islamic scientist, and about how to integrate the sciences of nature into the total scheme of knowledge in such a way as to preserve tawhid and to prevent a partial knowledge of the relative from eclipsing and marginalizing the knowledge of the Absolute, the attainment of the knowledge of Which is the ultimate goal of human existence.

Effects of hydrological (water cycle) cycle on your life

The water cycle or the hydrologic cycle is one of the greatest natural processes . It has two significant effects:

1-Effects on climate

The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate.

2-Effects on biogeochemical cycling

While the water cycle is itself a biogeochemical cycle,[21] flow of water over and beneath the Earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemicals. Runoff is responsible for almost all of the transport f eroded sediment and phosphorus[22] from land to waterbodies.

There are many articles which discusses the human impact on water cycle. here is the effects based on NASA website:

Large-scale human manipulation of water has significantly altered global patterns of streamflow. Resulting changes in sea level, ocean salinity, and in biophysical properties of the land surface could ultimately generate climate feedbacks.

According to a study by Vivien Gornitz (GISS/Columbia), Cynthia Rosenzweig (GISS), and Dan Hillel (University of Massachusetts), human regulation of river flow and vegetation clearing has reduced river runoff by around 324 km3 per year, representing nearly 1% of the total annual streamflow (41,022 km3/yr) and around 10% of the yearly volume of fresh water used by people (3240 km3/yr).

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Q.3 a) write electronic configuration of first ten elements given in periodic table.

B) What would happen if there were no mixtures?

a)

Name Atomic Number Electron Configuration

Period 1

Hydrogen 1 1s1

Helium 2 1s2

Period 2

Lithium 3 1s2 2s1

Beryllium 4 1s2 2s2

Boron 5 1s2 2s22p1

Carbon 6 1s2 2s22p2

Nitrogen 7 1s2 2s22p3

Oxygen 8 1s2 2s22p4

Fluorine 9 1s2 2s22p5

Neon 10 1s2 2s22p6

b)

Mixtures are absolutely everywhere you look. Most things in nature are mixtures. Look at rocks, the ocean, or even the atmosphere. They are all mixtures, and mixtures are about physical properties, not chemical ones. That statement means the individual molecules enjoy being near each other, but their fundamental chemical structure does not change when they enter the mixture. If the chemical structure changed, it would be called a reaction.

When you see distilled water (H2O), it's a pure

substance. That means that there are only water molecules in the liquid. A mixture would be a glass of water with other things dissolved inside, maybe one of those powders you take if you get sick. Each of the substances in that glass keeps its own chemical properties. So, if you have some dissolved substances in water, you can boil off the water and still have those dissolved substances left over. If you have some salt (NaCl) in water and then boil off the water, the salt remains in the pan. The salt is left because it takes very high temperatures to meltsalt (even more to boil it).

Mixtures are Everywhere

There are an infinite number of mixtures. Anything you can combine is a mixture. Think of everything you eat. Just think about how many cakes there are. Each of those cakes is made up of a different mixture of ingredients. Even the wood in your pencil is considered a mixture. There is the basic cellulose of the wood, but there are also thousands of other compounds in that pencil. Solutions are also mixtures, but all of the molecules are evenly spread out through the system. They are called homogenous mixtures.

If you put sand into a glass of water, it is considered to be a mixture. You can always tell a mixture, because each of the substances can be separated from the group in different physical ways. You can always get the sand out of the water by filtering the water away. If you were busy, you could just leave the sand and water mixture alone for a few minutes. Sometimes mixtures separate on their own. When you come back, you will find that all of the sand has sunk to the bottom. Gravity was helping you with the separation. Don't forget that a mixture can also be made of two liquids. Even something as simple as oil and water is a mixture.

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Q.4 a) consider a tug of war which two teams pulling on a rope are eventually matched. So that no motion takes place.is work done on the rope?

b) In most situations the friction force reduces the kinetic energy. However frictional friction can sometime increase the kinetic energy. Discuss a few situations in which friction causes an increase in kinetic energy.

a)

No. If there is no motion there is no work.

b)

If a crate is located on the bed of a truck, and the truck accelerates, the friction force extended on the crate causes it to undergo the same acceleration as the truck, assuming that the crate doesn't slip. Another example is a car that accelerates because of the frictional forces between the road surface and its tires. This force is in the direction of the motion of the care and produces an increase in the cars kinetic energy.

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Q.5a) Define kinetic energy. Derive KE=1/2mv2

b) Explain nature of light in detail.

a)

KINETIC ENERGY

"Energy posses by a body by virtue of its motion are referred to as ‘Kinetic Energy’".

Kinetic energy is the energy an object has because of its motion.

If we want to accelerate an object, then we must apply a force. Applying a force requires us to do work. After work has been done, energy has been transferred to the object, and the object will be moving with a new constant speed. The energy transferred is known as kinetic energy, and it depends on the mass and speed achieved.

Kinetic energy can be transferred between objects and transformed into other kinds of energy. For example, a flying squirrel might collide with a stationary chipmunk. Following the collision, some of the initial kinetic energy of the squirrel might have been transferred into the chipmunk or transformed to some other form of energy.

FORMULA

K.E. = 1/2 mv2

Kinetic energy depends upon the mass and velocity of body. If velocity is zero then K.E. of body will also be zero.

Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity like other forms of energies.

DERIVE: K.E = 1/2 mv2

PROOF

Consider a body of mass "m" starts moving from rest. After a time interval "t" its velocity becomes V.If initial velocity of the body is Vi = 0 ,final velocity Vf = V and the displacement of body is "d". Then

First of all we will find the acceleration of body.

Using equation of motion

2aS = Vf2 – Vi2 Putting the above mentioned values 2ad = V2 – 0a = V2/2d

Now force is given byF = ma Putting the value of accelerationF = m(V2/2d) As we know that Work done = Fd

Putting the value of FWork done = (mv2/2d)(d)

Work done = mV2/2OR Work done = ½ mV2

Since the work done is motion is called "Kinetic Energy"i.e. K.E. = Work done OR K.E. =1/2mV2.

b)

Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave that can be seen by humans. The wave nature of light was first illustrated through experiments on diffraction and interference. Like all electromagnetic waves, light can travel through a vacuum. The transverse nature of light can be demonstrated through polarization.

In 1678, Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) published Traité de la Lumiere, where he argued in favor of the wave nature of light. Huygens stated that an expanding sphere of light behaves as if each point on the wave front were a new source of radiation of the same frequency and phase.

Thomas Young (1773–1829) and Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827) disproved Newton's corpuscular theory.

sources

Light is produced by one of two methods…

Incandescence is the emission of light from "hot" matter (T ≳ 800 K).

Luminescence is the emission of light when excited electrons fall to lower energy levels(in matter that may or may not be "hot").

speed

Just notes so far. The speed of light in a vacuum is represented by the letter c from the Latin celeritas — swiftness. Measurements of the speed of light.

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