· Web viewManagement of this type of species will thus have to be landscape context specific, so as to not threaten forage provision while still addressing the problem of invasion

Contents: activities recommended for various education levels

No Topic Type of activity Grades 4 - 9

FET level (Gr 10-12) Agricultural College

University

Life Science

Agricultural Science

Farm worker

1 Pollination terms and definitions

Mix ‘n match √ √ √ √* √*

2 Plants and their pollinators Field trip observations or research project √ √ √

3 Plant and pollinator diagram

Labelling √ √ √ √* √*

4a Know the parts of the plants that we eat

Examine food and create bar graph √ √ √ √ √* √*

4b Food-crop/plant-pollinator table

Complete the table – observations √ √ √

4c Food-crop/plant-pollinator table (advanced)

Complete the table – observations, research √ √

5 Importance of pollinators and pollination

Group/class discussion √** √ √ √ √ √

6a Threats to pollinators Group/class discussion √** √ √ √ √ √6b Threats to pollinators –

what can we do?Group/class discussion √** √ √ √ √ √

7 Pollination as an ecosystem service

Discussion, reading lists, essay assignments √ √

8 Honeybee forage Group/individual assignments or essays √ √

9 Field studies Ideas for field studies √ √ √ √ √* These activities could be useful for college/university level, but may need to be modified to be slightly harder.

** These activities would need modification for use at the lower grades.

Materials produced for the Global Pollination Project & Honeybee Forage Project South Africa, implemented by SANBI.


Activity 1

Terms and definitions

Anther The pollen-bearing part at the upper end of the stamen of a flower.

Cross-pollination The transfer of pollen from an anther of the flower of one plant to a stigma of the flower of another plant.

Note: college/university level educators might want to discuss the types of cross-pollination.

Fertilisation or fertilization The process in which a male cell fuses with a female cell.

Filament A stalk that supports the anther.

Nectar Sugar-rich liquid produced by plants and consumed by pollinators.

Ovary The organ that bears the ovules of a flower.

Ovule The female reproductive structure that develops into a seed in a seed-bearing plant.

Pistil or carpel The ovary, style and stigma.

Pollen The fine powder-like material consisting of pollen grains that contain the male gametes (sperm cells), which is produced by the anthers of seed plants.

Pollen tube The slender tube formed by the pollen grain that penetrates an ovule and releases the male gametes.

Pollenizer or polleniser A plant that provides pollen.

Pollination Transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a plant.

Pollinator A vector (usually animal) that carries pollen from one flower to another.

Self-pollination Fertilisation by transfer of pollen from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of the same flower (autogamy) or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant (geitonogamy).

Stamen The male reproductive organ of a flower (consisting of a filament and a pollen-bearing anther at its tip).

Stigma The sticky part of the pistil made to catch pollen.

Style The slender part of a pistil, situated between the ovary and stigma.

Note to educators: this activity could be used in several mixes ‘n match ways or it could be combined with Activity 3, so that learners can visually see the parts of the flower.


Activity 2

Plants and their pollinatorsFind plants that would be suitable for these pollinators. Sketch the flower form and complete the table with its various features that attract or reward the pollinators.

POLLINATOR SKETCH OF THE FLOWER IT VISITS

SHAPEe.g. cup, tubular, flat

COLOURe.g. yellow, pink, white

FRAGRANCEe.g. none, floral, pungent

REWARDe.g. nectar, pollen, oil

Bee

Sunbird

Beetle

Bee fly

Fly

Hawk moth

Butterfly

Wind


Activity 2

Plants and their pollinators – ANSWERS & NOTESBackground for educatorsPollination is an excellent example of interactions between plants and animals where both parties benefit. Plants cannot move and therefore they need external vectors to a) transport pollen to stigmas, and b) disperse seeds. Animals are important vectors for both of these tasks, although wind can also play a role in pollination of some plants. Insects are the most important pollinating animals, but birds, bats and rodents are also pollinators of some plants. The benefit for the insect is the food they obtain from the plant–either nectar (a carbohydrate/sugar source) or pollen (a protein source). Cross-pollination depends on insects visiting flowers of the same species in sequence. To help ensure that this happens, the plants have various characteristics that help pollinators locate the right flowers, including the colour, size, shape and scent of the flowers, as well as the food reward.

This activity is intended to illustrate how some pollinators specialise in particular flower characteristics.

Example answer Note to educators: these are examples only, students may find others.POLLINATOR SKETCH OF THE

FLOWER IT VISITSSHAPEe.g. cup, tubular, flat

COLOURe.g. red, orange, pink

FRAGRANCEe.g. none, floral, pungent

REWARDe.g. nectar, pollen, oil

Carpenter beePodalyria calyptrata

Cup, flat Pink, purple, white, yellow

Fragrant smell Nectar, pollen

Sunbird Erica versicolor

Tubular Red, pink Fragrance not important to most birds

Nectar

Beetle Protea repens

Flat, bowlBig flowers

Yellow, red Yeasty Nectar, pollen

Bee fly Erica daphniflora

Bell-shaped, tubular

Pink, yellow, orange

Light scent Nectar

Fly Orbea variegata

Cup, flat Colour not important

Smelly flowers Nectar, pollen


Hawk mothJasmin

Tubular flowers, usually at night

White, pale flowers

Nice fragrance Nectar

ButterflyErica fastigiata

Tubular Red, pink No fragrance Nectar

WindCape thatch restios

Tubular / up straight

Brown/dull none No reward

Original created by: Goldfields Education Centre (SANBI).Some line sketches from the Botanical Society of South Africa Environmental Education Poster Series.


Activity 3

Plant and pollinator diagram

1. Label the parts of the plants indicated by lines and brackets. 2. Draw lines to illustrate the following, showing the path the bee would take (if the bee is needed):

a. Self-pollination (label this line “self-pollination”).b. Cross-pollination (label this line “cross-pollination”).

Activity 3


Plant and pollinator diagram – ANSWERS & NOTESNotes to educators: this activity is taken directly out of many text books where the parts of the flower are explained and labelled. However, we have taken the activity one step further by asking learners to physically illustrate both self-pollination and cross-pollination. These terms may be explained verbally or in writing as definitions exist in text books, but it is through drawing lines to show path of the pollen and the bee (if necessary) that learners may gain a deeper understanding of these terms.

Self-pollination is a form of pollination that can occur when a flower has both stamen and a pistil, and the pollen and ovules are both ripe at the same time. The cultivar or species is self-fertile and the stamens and the sticky stigma of the pistil contact each other in order to accomplish pollination. Sometimes a vector or pollinator can facilitate self-pollination—the bee first visits the anther and then the stigma of the same flower. Self-pollination does not result in an exchange of genetic material and therefore any offspring will have the same genetic material as the parent plant. However, self-pollination can be advantageous in some circumstances, allowing plants to produce offspring in areas where pollinator populations are variable. The diagram below shows self-pollination very clearly with the blue arrow illustrating the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower. However, it would not be wrong if a learner incorporated the bee in this process as well (as long as it is the same flower), as it is possible for self-pollination to require a pollinator as a vector.

Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of different flower on another plant (of the same species). This facilitates an exchange of genetic material and causes off-spring to contain genetic material from both parent plants. The lines below show the bee visiting the anther of one flower and then the stigma of the other flower.


Self-pollinationCross-pollination

Activity 4a

The parts of the plant that we eat1. Examine the food you have been given for lunch. 2. Write down everything that your meal consisted of, e.g.: 1 apple, 2 slices of bread, 2 slices

of cheese, 3 slices of tomato, 1 carton orange juice.3. Separate out the items of food that come from plants, try to determine what part of the plant

your food came from, and fill in the table below.Remember: there may be food items where only part of the item comes from plants—record those as well. An example is a sweet: remember that sweets contain sugar, which comes from sugar cane, which is a good example of a stem!

Flower Fruit Leaves Roots Seeds Stem

Add more rows if you need to.

Optional extra tasks:4. Draw a bar graph to determine which part of the plant you have the most of in your lunch

box. Use different colours to colour in the columns.5. How different would your bar graph look if you examine your food during supper instead of

lunch? Explain.


Activity 4a

The parts of the plant that we eat – ANSWERS & NOTESNotes to educators: This activity could be used over lunch (for the lower grades) or over several days where all meals could be monitored (for higher grades). Tasks 4 and 5 are optional.

EXAMPLE ANSWERS Flower Fruit Leaves Roots Seeds StemCauliflower Apple Onion (also stem) Nuts Onion (also leaves)Broccoli (also a stem)

Apricot Spinach Carrot Bread (wheat) Broccoli (also a flower)

Banana Tea (some teas use stem too)

Sweet potato Biscuits (wheat, grains)

Biscuit (sugar!)

Orange Cabbage Radish Rice SugarGrape Lettuce Samp Potatoes (modified

underground stem)Pumpkin Beetroot (also root) Beetroot (also

leaves)Maize meal Chips/crisps

(potato: see above)Tomato Brussels sprouts Popcorn AsparagusPeppers Parsley Nik Naks (corn!) CeleryCucumber OatsButternut CornflakesPeach Peanut butterWatermelon Baked beansPapaya PeasAvocado Chocolate

(cacao seed!)Chocolate (sugar is stem)

DateTangerineMango* And most other foods we call “fruit”

EXAMPLE BAR GRAPHFlower Fruit Leaves Roots Seeds Stem

Peanut butterNuts

Cucumber Biscuits (lemon creams)

Banana Corn chips Biscuits (icing)Orange juice Simba chips Bread ChocolateApple Lettuce Carrot muffin Muffin Sweets

EXAMPLE EXPLANATION OF HOW DIFFERENT THE BAR GRAPH WOULD LOOKThe food one will eat during supper will have less bread and more vegetables like carrots (root), cabbage (leaves), broccoli (flower), potatoes (swollen stem), and rice (seeds) spiced with herbs and meat. The bar graph would likely have less seeds and more of the other parts of the plant.


Activity 4b

Food, crops, pollinators table1. Examine the food you have been given for lunch. 2. Note everything that your meal consisted of, e.g.: 1 apple, 2 slices of bread, 2 slices of cheese, 3 slices of tomato, 1 carton orange

juice.3. Separate out the items of food that come from plants and list them in the table below.4. List the crop or plant that the food item comes from as well as the part of the plant (root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit or seed) that the

food is. Remember: there may be food items where only part of the item comes from plants—record those as well. An example is a sweet: remember that sweets contain sugar, which comes from sugar cane, which is a good example of a stem!

5. Determine whether a pollinator is needed for the food item to grow and research which pollinator(s) are valuable for that crop.6. Research and note an interesting fact about the pollinator or the pollination process.

Food Crop/plant Part of the plant /crop Pollinator(if applicable)

Interesting fact about pollinator or about the pollination

e.g. bread wheat seed Self-pollinated. Occasionally wind-pollinated, but wheat pollen only viable for short periods (up to a few hours).

Other materials to use for research and answers:- Pollinators of South African Crops poster (on this DVD)


Activity 4b

Food, crops, pollinators table – ANSWERS & NOTESNOTES to educators:

- This activity could follow on from 4a or be used alone.- This activity could be used over lunch or over several days where all meals could be monitored.- This activity could also be used as a research project, e.g. crops grown in the school garden or in farms surrounding the town.

EXAMPLE ANSWERS Food Crop/plant Part of the

plant /cropPollinator

(if applicable)Interesting fact about pollinator or about the

pollinationbread wheat plant seed Self-pollinated. Occasionally wind-pollinated, but wheat pollen only viable for

short periods (up to a few hours).tomato tomato plant fruit Self-fertile, but need

motion or outside aid to transfer pollen.

Domestic cultivars of tomatoes have been bred to maximise self-fertility.

orange juice orange tree fruit Honeybees and some other insects; only some cultivars.

Pollination requirement vary between cultivars, and for some of our modern cultivars the farmers actually try to prevent pollination to limit the number of pips (seeds) in the fruit.

apple apple tree fruit Honeybees and other insects.

Apples can be misshapen if there is insufficient pollination, so correct pollination is very important for export quality.

lettuce lettuce plant leaves None needed. Pollination is only required for lettuce seed production not for the growth of the lettuce itself.

Other materials to use for research and answers:- Pollinators of South African Crops poster (on this DVD)


Activity 4c

Food, crops, pollinators table (advanced alternative)1. Examine the food you have been given for lunch (or over several meals). 2. Note everything that your meal consisted of, e.g.: 1 apple, 2 slices of bread, 2 slices of cheese, 3 slices of tomato, 1 carton orange

juice.3. Separate out the items of food that come from plants and list them in the table below.4. List the crop or plant that the food item comes from as well as the part of the plant (root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit or seed) that the

food is. Remember: there may be food items where only part of the item comes from plants—record those as well. An example is a sweet: remember that sweets contain sugar, which comes from sugar cane, which is a good example of a stem!

5. Determine whether a pollinator is needed for the food item to grow and research which pollinator(s) are valuable for that crop. Record their scientific names as well.

6. Research and note an interesting fact about the pollinator or the pollination process.7. Note whether the pollinator is “wild” or “managed”, both in South Africa and in other parts of the world. [this is an optional question]

Food Crop/plant Part of plant

Scientific name of crop

Pollinator (if

applicable)

Scientific name or order of pollinator

Interesting fact about pollinator or about the

pollination

Is this a managed or wild pollinator?

(optional)

e.g. apple apple tree fruit Malus domestica honeybees Apis mellifera Correct pollination vital for shape of fruit and therefore export quality.

Apple growers bring in managed honeybee hives to ensure correct pollination.


Activity 4c

Food, crops, pollinators table (advanced alternative) – ANSWERS & NOTESNOTES to educators:

- This activity could follow on from 4a or be used alone (it is meant to REPLACE 4b at the higher levels).- This activity could be used over lunch or over several days where all meals could be monitored.- This activity could also be used as a research project, e.g. crops grown in the school garden or in farms surrounding the town.

EXAMPLE ANSWERS Food Crop /

plantPart of plant

Scientific name of

crop

Pollinator (if applicable)

Scientific name or order of pollinator

Interesting fact about pollinator or about

the pollination

Is this a managed or wild pollinator?

(optional)

apple apple tree fruit Malus domestica

Honeybees, but also other Hymenoptera and other insects.

Apis mellifera and others

Correct pollination vital for shape of fruit and therefore export quality.

Apple growers bring in managed honeybee hives to ensure correct pollination.

avocado avocado tree

fruit Persea americana

Honeybees (commercial) other bees, wasps, flies and possibly moths.


Nearly half of the annual avocado produce of 90,000t is exported.

Pollinators are usually managed.

broccoli broccoli plant

flower/stem Brassica oleracea

Honeybee needed for the seed production, not the vegetable itself.

Apis mellifera Pollination by honeybees increase the seed yield on broccoli.

Managed pollinators usually required for commercial seed production.

carrot carrot plants

root Daucus carota

Honeybees and other insects needed for the seed production, not the vegetable itself.


Bees essential for hybrid seed production.



onion onion plant leaves / stem Allium cepa Honeybees (commercial) and other insects needed for the seed production, not the vegetable itself.

Apis mellifera and others.

Vegetable seeds are usually produced separately to the vegetable itself. Klein Karoo area of SA plays a big role in the global seed production market.


potato potato plant

underground stem

Solanum tuberosum

Vegetative reproduction usually.

Potato flowers are pollinated by insects as well as through self-pollination.

Pollination is needed to create new varieties of potato seed, not for the potato itself.

Self-pollination possible, but sometimes managed honeybees used.

berries (raspberry, blackberry, strawberry)

berry plants

fruit Rubus spp Honeybees (commercial)and other bees and insects.


Most cultivars are self-incompatible, with insufficient cross-pollination resulting in imperfect fruits, as berry weight and form depend on the number of pollinated drupelets.

Managed honeybees are essential for the industry.

sunflower oil

sunflower seeds

seed Helianthus annuus

Honeybees, other bees and insects.


SA is the world’s 10th largest producer of sunflower seed for oil.

In the sunflower region beekeepers take their hives to the fields because of their interest in honey.

mango mango tree

fruit Mangifera indica

Ants, flies and other insects.

Empididae spp and others

Honeybees do not particularly like mango.

Wild pollinators.

rooibos tea rooibos plant

leaves Aspalathus linearis

Pollen wasp. Ceramius clypeatus

Only the seed production requires pollination.

Wild pollinators.


Activity 5

Importance of pollination & pollinators – ANSWERS & NOTESBackground to the activityArguments for protecting biodiversity fall into two categories: firstly that biodiversity has an intrinsic value that is worth protecting regardless of its value to humans; and secondly that biodiversity performs a number of ecological services for humankind that have economic, aesthetic or recreational value (i.e. anthropocentric values). Both points of view (intrinsic and anthropocentric) need not be contradictory as they serve the same ultimate purpose, and it is important to consider both.

One of the ways that anthropocentric values can be categorised is using the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (http://www.maweb.org), which considers human well-being to have five main components:

- The basic materials needed for a good life (sufficient food, shelter, access to goods).- Health (feeling well, access to clean water and air). - Good social relations (social cohesion, mutual respect, ability to help others).- Security (personal safety, secure resource access, security from disasters). - Freedom of choice and action (opportunity to be able to achieve what you value doing

and being).

ActivityThe audience works in groups, with each group receiving pieces of paper or card and large marker pens. The groups brainstorm the ways in which pollination and pollinators are important (preferably using the categories suggested below), writing each idea down on the paper or card. The cards can be pasted on a wall, and a discussion can be held with the entire audience once each group has given their feedback.

Importance of pollinators and pollination categories:(Note: this list is not exhaustive and audiences may list many other issues of importance)

INTRINSIC VALUE Intrinsic value

Pollinators are worth protecting for their own sakes, but also because so many other plants, animals and processes are reliant on them. We would do well to remember that these creatures facilitate reproduction in 90% of the world’s flowering plants—not only the plants that we eat, but also most other plants that flower. Imagine what the world would be like without pollinators! Pollination can be considered an ecosystem service (something that the natural world provides to humans for free), and pollinator decline is a serious concern for both natural habitats and crop production.

ANTHROPOCENTRIC VALUES Basic goods/materials

Pollinators are needed for about 35% of the world’s crop production volume, increasing outputs of 87 of the leading food crops worldwide. While many cereals are wind-pollinated, insect-pollinated crops include fruits, vegetable and nuts, as well as legumes that are food for animals. Many growers must rent honeybee colonies to increase bee populations during flowering. Food security, food diversity, human nutrition and food prices would all be affected should there be a decline in animal pollinators. In addition to food, many other goods are reliant on pollinators because they come from plants that require pollination for their reproduction—think about firewood, building materials, craft materials, dies, fibres, oils, gums, soaps, waxes, latex, tannins, etc.


http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/tannins.shtml

http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/latex.shtml

http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/waxes.shtml

http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/soaps.shtml

http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/gums.shtml

http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/oils.shtml

HealthMany medicines come from plants that require pollination [this could make a good research project]. Clean air and clean water also rely on plants to a certain extent—remember how plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and release O2? Think about the scientific values that are yet to be discovered or derived from pollinators and their plants they pollinate.

Good social relationsMany people or religions attach strong cultural or spiritual significance to plants (many of which require pollination by a pollinator). Most of us also derive aesthetic and recreational value from plants and animals. Good social relations between people are strongly associated to economic stressors, peoples’ cultural and religious beliefs, as well as general stress levels.

Security Many people rely on goods from the environment to create personal safety structures (e.g. wooden fences), but safety is also about insurance against possible future problems. Issues such as food security for generations to come, safety from flooding and other natural disasters, and others are all matters that we need to consider. We rely heavily on the natural environment, particularly plants, for our security issues.

Freedom of choice and actionWhile we know that pollination ensures that plants reproduce and therefore are abundant into the future, many people do not consider the issue of plant breeding. This is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants in order to produce desired characteristics, for example: new varieties that are higher-yielding, resistant to pests and diseases, drought-resistant or regionally adapted to different environments and growing conditions. Manipulating pollination is one of the key components of plant breeding, and cross-pollination is critical for genetic diversity within a population. Without pollination, genetic diversity would decrease and our choices would be limited.


Activities 6a & b

Notes to educators: These activities could take the form of a group or class discussion, or individual research projects resulting in talks, essays, posters, etc. The information in this document is not exhaustive and students should be encouraged to discuss and research other examples.

6a) Threats & pressures on pollinators – ANSWERS & NOTES

There is mounting evidence of a global ‘pollination crisis’ with reports of the mysterious disappearance in Europe and North America of hundreds of thousands of managed honeybee (Apis mellifera) colonies, as well as declines in populations of other wild pollinators. The honeybee losses have been termed Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD), an as yet unexplained phenomenon blamed on pesticides, environmental pollution, pests and diseases, the loss of suitable forage for honeybees, and the overworking of managed honeybees needed to service commercial agriculture. In a word, global honeybee populations are ‘stressed’ making them vulnerable to any new perturbation. Thus far South African honeybee populations have not exhibited significant losses, probably because of the relatively unmanaged state of African honeybees and the fact that they are indigenous. However, the fairly recent advent (1990’s and 2000’s) of bee diseases in South Africa previously only seen overseas suggests that our bees are now more vulnerable and stressed than was previously the case. We need to ensure that we are tackling all the issues that place pressure on honeybees, because in so doing we will hopefully also ensure the survival of some of the other lesser-known pollinators.

Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentationThe habitats required by many pollinators are being lost through changing land use practices such as agricultural intensification, through incorrect management of land such as incorrect fire regimes and over-grazing, and through climate change. Pollinators require a range of resources from their environment for foraging, nesting and reproduction. The loss of any one of these requirements can cause pollinators to become locally extinct. Habitats can also become fragmented and habitat patches isolated, so that pollination services are less effective. As the climate changes, the habitats suitable for supporting pollinators may change. When a habitat disappears, or the pollinator is unable to move to a new habitat, then local extinction can occur.

In South Africa, beekeepers often replenish their colonies by capturing swarming bees from the wild. The honeybee (Apis mellifera) is indigenous (occurs naturally) to South Africa and bees naturally abscond from managed hives, thereby creating a cycle whereby beekeepers catch honeybee swarms and these swarms return back to the wild. The maintenance of habitat for wild swarms is therefore very important to beekeepers.

Declining forage resourcesRelated to habitat loss, but deserving of a special mention, is the issue of plant forage resources. All pollinators, including honeybees managed by man in portable hives, need to forage on flowers with nectar (carbohydrate/energy) and pollen (protein). Both nectar and pollen are vital resources for most pollinators. Many commercial crop growers are reliant on beekeepers for the pollination service their honeybees provide to their crops. Pollination can be hard work for honeybees, and sometimes the crop flowers themselves are not nutritious enough for the bees. The beekeeper therefore is reliant on other forage sources that are available at


Agricultural intensification

Incorrect fire regimes

different times of the year and that can sustain their colonies throughout the year, and build their colonies up to have the strength for the pollination season. In South Africa, the various forage resources are indigenous flowering plants, crops plants and some exotic plants such as Eucalyptus (gum trees). Monoculture agriculture, urban sprawl, desertification, clearing of natural vegetation for infrastructure development, and alien vegetation infestation can all affect the forage resources. It is important for us to conserve and even increase the forage resources available to our pollinators, as we rely on our pollinators for our own food. We can probably all play a role by planting honeybee-friendly plants and encouraging our community leaders, schools and local parks to do the same.

Agrochemicals and other pollutants Excessive use or inappropriate application of pesticides or insecticides is known to have negative impacts on a range of pollinators. Agrochemicals vary in their effects on bees. Contact pesticides are usually sprayed on plants and can kill bees when they crawl over sprayed surfaces. Systemic pesticides, on the other hand, are usually incorporated into the soil or onto seeds and move up into the stem, leaves, nectar, and pollen of plants affecting bees when they gather the pollen and nectar.

Much research is continuing around the world regarding toxicity levels. In March 2012 a study conducted in Europe has shown that, even with very low levels of pesticide in the bee’s diet, a high proportion of bees (more than one third) suffer from orientation disorder and are unable to find their way back to the hive.

We can all play a role to ensure that our pollinators do not suffer from pollution—be careful when using household insecticides, and pay careful attention to the products you use in your own garden.

Pests and diseases Since the 1970’s, the European honeybee subspecies all over the globe have been heavily affected by the spread of the Varroa mite (Varroa destructor) from its south-east Asian origins, with the mite now present in almost all parts of the world. The physical action of the mite, sucking haemolymph from the bodies of adult and juvenile bees, weakens the bees to the extent that the normal lifespan of the bee is shortened, and normal activities are reduced, e.g. worker bees are no longer able to forage properly. In addition, many normal harmless honeybee viral diseases become lethal to bees weakened by the mites. The Varroa mite has been spreading through Africa for the past 15 years, and while the mite is able to survive in African honeybee colonies, thus far no substantial population-wide collapses have been reported.

American Foulbrood (AFB) is a serious bacterial disease of honeybees where the bacteria grow inside the bee larvae, taking their nourishment from the larvae. This disease only affects the bee larvae but is highly infectious and deadly to bee brood. Infected larvae darken and die. AFB only arrived in South Africa in 2009 and is being carefully monitored, but thus far beekeepers are experiencing only minor losses.

Over-working of managed pollinatorsThis is a challenge that is not often thought about and very hard to quantify. In South Africa, some beekeepers move their colonies large distances to provide the pollination service to farmers and to find forage for their bees. The disruptions associated with packing-up and transporting beehives for long distances appear stressful to bees. Honeybees can be confined within their hives for long periods of time, and then are forced to scout their new area for


Dead bee

Scanning electron micrograph of Varroa destructor on a honey bee host

important forage resources. Honeybee colonies are also sometimes moved directly from one crop to another without respite in between. Pollination is hard work for bees, with many crop plants actually not providing a nutritious reward. Pear trees, for example, have very low sugar content in their nectar and beekeepers are often required to bring in a second wave of colonies to complete the pollination process. In some places in the world, bees are fed high-fructose corn syrup to compensate for the lack of natural forage resources during the movement of hives or because hives are over-stocked on a particular forage resource. As our human demand for pollinator-dependent crops grows, and our desire to have certain fruits and vegetables outside their normal growing season, so will the demand for pollination services grow and therefore ultimately pressure on our honeybees to work even harder.

Further readingTo understand more about threats to pollinators and the importance of conserving pollinators, read: The Forgotten Pollinators by Stephen L. Buchmann and Gary Paul Nabhan A World Without Bees by Alison Benjamin and Brian McCallum

Some example tasks or assignments1. Group discussions about threats to plant-pollinator systems, providing South African

examples.2. Small research project: is the honeybee an indigenous species in South Africa? Why

does the answer to this question matter in terms of the sustainability of pollination services in South Africa?

6b) What can be done? – ANSWERS & NOTESScientific researchers, farmers, beekeepers, land owners and the general public all have roles to play in protecting the biodiversity and economic value of pollinators throughout South Africa. The list of ideas below is not exhaustive, as there are bound to be new ideas born every day if people think creatively. We have categorised what could be done as follows:

The knowledge base—more researchFurther scientific research is always needed so that policy decisions can be underpinned by sound science-based answers. Some examples of further scientific research that could be undertaken in South Africa are:

Quantifying the loss of pollinators in South Africa and the risks associated with the loss of pollination services.

Determine the economic value of pollinators for key crops. Establish the conservation status of South African pollinators. Investigate the drivers of pollinator loss. Investigate honeybee forage resources under global change scenarios (land use change

or climate change). Detailed research on threats to honeybees in South Africa and solutions. Research alternative species of pollinators (other than the honeybee) for potential

managed pollination. Identify the best management practices and technologies to overcome declines in

pollinators and the services they provide.

Putting the research into practice Materials produced for the Global Pollination Project & Honeybee Forage Project South Africa, implemented by SANBI.

Farmers, beekeepers and land owners have a role to play in ensuring that results and recommendations from research are converted into practice in South Africa. Such management practices could include:

Identify and promote best land use and conservation practices to restore and protect pollinator communities.

Plant forage for pollinators.

Capacity building and creating awarenessEnsuring that research results and the learning generated by trying out new practices are passed on to other people is called capacity building. Capacity building examples could be:

Build and strengthen alliances in South Africa so that knowledge and expertise are shared.

Construct effective networks to exchange information on pollination. Train the next generation of researchers and taxonomists.

Even if all farmers, beekeepers and researchers are trained and best practices that conserve pollinators and pollinator habitat are put in place, the general public and our policy- or decision-makers also need to be involved to ensure that general awareness is increased and appropriate policies are put into place. These awareness initiatives about pollinators and pollination could be:

Create plans and policy documents for the conservation and sustainable use of pollinators, and increase the awareness of governments, industry and the public.

Advise policy makers on pollinator issues. Introduce awareness of pollinators into other streams of education (i.e. not only when

studying biology or life science). Campaign to ‘plant a honeybee-friendly plant’. Make use of public venues for materials such as posters and information sheets, or even

large-scale displays such as observation beehives. Make use of the media (newspapers, online, magazines, television, radio) to present key

facts and ideas to the general public.


Activity 7

Pollination as an ecosystem service – ANSWERS & NOTES

Note for educatorsThe following is aimed primarily at college and university-level students specifically, as ecosystem services would not normally be undertaken at FET level. However, some of the information below may be of use to educators at other levels.

Ecosystem servicesEcosystem services are the benefits (resources or processes) that humans obtain from ecosystems. The vast majority of these services are usually taken for granted, but they are essential for human well-being. There is a growing interest in ecosystem services for two main reasons:

a) To provide sustainable resources for human well-being that will meet the Millennium Development Goals.

b) To provide incentives for ecosystem conservation.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment divided ecosystem services into four categories and this has provided a framework for on-going studies of ecosystem services:

(i) Provisioning services (e.g. water, food, medicines and genetic resources). (ii) Regulating services (e.g. flood attenuation, herbivory, pest control and pollination). (iii) Supporting services (e.g. primary production, nutrient cycling). (iv) Cultural services (e.g. recreational, spiritual and cultural benefits).

Ecosystem services in agricultureAgriculture is a useful industry to study in terms of ecosystem services, particularly in the context of biodiversity conservation, as agriculture is one of the main sources of land transformation, with concomitant impacts on biodiversity. Studies of ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes can explore the relationship between biodiversity conservation, sustainable land use and food security. Studies can focus on the importance of biodiversity for ecosystem services delivery; and on to what degree does a focus on ecosystem services in agro-ecosystems promote on-farm biodiversity conservation. Insects are good candidates for studying these aspects given their numerical dominance in natural and production landscapes, and the fact that they provide four specific ecosystem services: (i) soil nutrient cycling, (ii) pest control by natural enemies, (iii) dung removal to prevent range fouling, and (iv) pollination of crops.

Pollination as an example of ecosystem service useInsect pollination is essential in the production of several agricultural crops. Animal pollination is required for approximately 35% of global crop production volume (represents 87 of the world’s leading crops—many fruits and vegetables), and for the production of many fodder, seed, flower and oilseed crops. Insects, birds, bats, and other animals serve as pollinators while they forage for their own survival, consequently providing a (‘free’) ecosystem service. Honeybees are a pivotal species indigenous to Africa, being the most important generalist pollinator on the continent. Honeybees pollinate 40–70% of indigenous flowering plants and probably supply up to 90% of crop pollination in Africa. Wild pollinators (including honeybees) resident in natural or semi-natural areas perform an ecosystem service when they fly into nearby crops and pollinate these crops. In contrast, honeybee hives that are transported by beekeepers into a crop at peak flowering for pollination are managed pollinators, whose services are often paid for by the crop farmer. This is not an ecosystem service but rather a human-managed service. About fifty crops in South Africa are insect-pollinated, with much of the service provided by beekeepers and their managed honeybees. Wild pollination and managed pollination are together referred to as pollination services. See Figure 1 for a diagrammatic explanation of wild and managed pollination services.


Figure 1: Ecosystem services required for insects to pollinate crops

Wild pollination services requires the presence of substantial natural or semi-natural areas occurring within the crop areas, to ensure high numbers of pollinators likely to fly to where pollination of the crop plants is needed. Generally speaking, wild pollination becomes ineffective more than one kilometre from the non-crop/crop border. This means that agro-ecological landscape structure is very important for determining the potential availability of wild pollination services. When crop areas are not interspersed with non-crop areas, managed pollination is the only option. Honeybee hives have to be rented from a beekeeper to place them in the crop during flowering to ensure insect pollination. Managed pollination has another advantage in that many more pollinators can be available during flowering than would be present under natural conditions associated with wild pollination. This is especially beneficial when farming has to be intensive in order to reduce production costs, or good quality crop land is limited and costly. Under this situation, the number of crop hectares that can be adequately pollinated depends on the number of hives that can be rented. For individual beekeepers, however, the number of hives they can manage depends on the amount of flowering resources they have access to during different times of the year. The distance a beekeeper has to move his hives between these resources impacts on the cost of his operations and stress experienced by his managed honeybees. When flower resources are limited, beekeepers could thus compete amongst each other for the same resources or have to travel substantial distances to avoid competition.

Sustainability of pollination services in South AfricaThere is mounting evidence of a global ‘pollination crisis’ with the mysterious disappearance in Europe and North America of hundreds of thousands of managed honeybee colonies, as well as declines in populations of other wild pollinators. In a word, global honeybee populations are ‘stressed’ making them vulnerable to any new perturbation. Thus far South African honeybee populations have not exhibited significant losses, but the recent advent of ‘new’ (last 20 years) bee diseases in South Africa suggests that our bees are now more vulnerable and stressed than was previously the case. The honeybee is a readily-managed species, being tolerant to the disturbance associated with apiculture, relatively adaptable to harsh climates and has favourable honey-making abilities. However, the honeybee is also susceptible to threats such as diseases, pesticide poisoning, and a lack of adequate forage sources. Although honeybees may be thought of as managed or wild in South Africa, this distinction is not that relevant as they represent the same species. There is thus frequent gene exchange between wild and managed


populations during queen mating. Also, wild swarms are commonly trapped and then used as part of the beekeepers’ managed honeybee operation. Areas that support wild honeybees are thus vitally important and require protection.

As mentioned before, managed pollination has the biggest contribution to most commercial crop pollination in South Africa. Consequently, the most important factor contributing to the sustainability of the managed pollination service is the sustainable management and conservation of forage resources for managed honeybees. While crops can provide forage for honeybee colonies during the pollination season, beekeepers are reliant on other forage sources to ensure the survival of their colonies for the rest of the year when crops are not flowering. In other words, the honeybee requires adequate year-round forage (nectar and pollen) for colony maintenance, growth and health. Therefore, the forage service provided by plant species to managed honeybees is of particular importance in South Africa (and other countries) where pollinator-dependent crops are grown intensively and require managed honeybees. Forage provision relies on certain plant species (indigenous, exotic and crops) to provide nectar and pollen, and can thus be regarded as an ecosystem service.

The relative importance of the various forage components in South Africa is currently being studied. Certain species of Eucalyptus (gum trees), for example, have proven to be excellent honeybee forage utilised by many beekeepers, but some are also considered invasive species and are under regulation to be removed. Management of this type of species will thus have to be landscape context specific, as to not threaten forage provision while still addressing the problem of invasion in sensitive areas. The Western Cape’s fynbos is a valuable natural winter forage resource, but on its own cannot support all the managed honeybees required in the province. Forage provision thus has to be seen holistically, as a critical service depending on several different sources, each with their own characteristics and management challenges.

The sustainability of South Africa’s managed pollinator supply, and thus commercial pollinator-dependent agriculture production, depends on the ecosystem service of forage provision, and the holistic management and conservation of forage sources that are used by managed honeybees.

BACKGROUND LITERATURE ALLSOPP, M.H., DE LANGE, W.J. & VELDTMAN, R. 2008. Valuing insect pollination services with cost of

replacement. PLoS ONE 3(9): e3128. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003128.CARVALHEIRO, L.G., VELDTMAN, R., SHENKUTE, A., TESFAY, G.B., PIRK, C.W.W., DONALDSON, J.S.

& NICOLSON, S.W. 2011. Natural and within-farmland biodiversity enhances crop productivity. Ecology Letters 14: 251–259.

COSTANZA, R., D'ARGE, R., DE GROOT, R., FARBER, S., GRASSO, M., HANNON, B., LIMBURG, K.E., NAEEM, S., O'NIELL, R., PARUELO, J., RASKIN, R., SUTTON, P. & VAN DEN BELT, M. 1997. The value of the world’s ecosystem service and natural capital. Nature 387: 253–260.

GHAZOUL, J. 2005a. Buzziness as usual? Questioning the global pollination crisis. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20: 367–373.

KLEIN, A.M., VAISSIÈRE, B.E., CANE, J.H., STEFFAN-DEWENTER, I., CUNNINGHAM, S.A., KREMEN, C. & TSCHARNTKE, T. 2007. Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proceeding of the Royal Society London B 274: 303–313.

LOSEY, J.E. & VAUGHAN, M. 2006. The economic value of ecological services provided by insects. Bioscience 56: 311–323.

TILMAN, D., CASSMAN, K.G., MATSON, P.A., NAYLOR, R. & POLASKY, S. 2002. Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature 418: 671–677.

ASSESSMENT EXAMPLES: What are the requirements, benefits and constraints of using wild versus managed pollinators

in crop pollination? Discuss why the honeybee, being only one pollinator species, is so important in South Africa. Is the honeybee indigenous/non-indigenous, and how does this affect beekeeping in SA? Are there similarities between wild and managed pollinators? Please give reasons. Why do managed honeybees require more than one forage resource during a year?


Activity 8

Honeybee forage Managed pollination makes the biggest contribution to commercial crop pollination in South Africa. One of the most important factors likely to contribute to the sustainability of the managed pollination service is the management and conservation of forage resources for managed honeybees. While some crops can provide forage for honeybee colonies during the pollination season (although most crops are not ideal honeybee food), beekeepers are reliant on other forage sources to ensure the survival of their colonies for the rest of the year when crops are not flowering. In other words, the honeybee requires adequate year-round forage (nectar and pollen) for colony maintenance, growth and health. Therefore, the forage service provided by plant species to managed honeybees is of particular importance in countries where pollinator-dependent crops are grown intensively and require managed honeybees. Forage provision relies on certain plant species (indigenous, exotic and crop species) to provide nectar (carbohydrates) and pollen (protein), and can thus be regarded as an ecosystem service.

The relative importance of the various forage components in South Africa is currently being studied. Certain species of Eucalyptus (gum trees), for example, have proven to be excellent honeybee forage utilised by many beekeepers, but some are also considered invasive species and are under regulation to be removed. Management of this type of species will thus have to be landscape context specific, so as to not threaten forage provision while still addressing the problem of invasion in sensitive areas. The Western Cape’s fynbos is a valuable natural winter forage resource, but on its own cannot support all the managed honeybees required in the province. Forage provision thus has to be seen holistically, as a critical service depending on several different sources, each with their own characteristics and management challenges.

The sustainability of South Africa’s managed pollinator supply, and thus commercial pollinator-dependent agriculture production, depends on the ecosystem service of forage provision, and the holistic management and conservation of forage sources that are used by managed honeybees.

Some important aspects of forage:- Forage has to be available all year round. Honeybees are only taken to farms for

pollination on crops for a short time in the year, so they need forage the rest of the year to keep the colonies healthy and to build up for this pollination period. The beekeeper in the film on this DVD mentions that supplementary feeding (i.e. feeding bees artificial sugary foods) is not a good long-term solution.

- Forage needs to be variable and diverse. The beekeeper in the film speaks about the diversity of forage and the different colours of pollen being an excellent sign of the diversity of plants the bees are visiting. Just like for humans, the diversity of forage (nectar and pollen) ensures that bees are receiving all the nutrients they need.

Types of forages:The main types of honeybee forage being used in South Africa are: indigenous wild flowering plants (like fynbos), some crop species (like canola or sunflower), and exotic species (like eucalyptus/gum trees or some flowering weeds). Some of these forage sources are under threat—examples of this are where farmers or forestry managers change what they are growing (e.g. stop growing sunflowers and grow wheat instead; change the cultivar of Eucalyptus grown for forestry); or where invasive species programmes are removing certain important bee plant species (most notably some Eucalyptus/gum trees) because they are not indigenous. The implications of these change in practices or removal of resources is that the amount of forage available becomes even smaller than it was. Beekeepers then battle to find sufficient forage for their bees during the year, and the colonies are not strong or healthy enough to provide the intensive pollination service that we need for the short period that our crops are flowering. The issue can further escalate to less honey production by colonies. However, particularly in the


case of invasive exotic species, we need to be very careful—just because a plant is an important bee plant does not mean that it is not a problem in other respects. A balance needs to be found with the exotic plants that are important to honeybees, and management practices applied to make sure they are not planted in sensitive areas and/or do not become invasive.

What could we do about the shortage of honeybee forage?We could all plant honeybee-friendly plants, or (if we do not have gardens/land) we could encourage these plants to be planted in our public open spaces (urban greening programmes, city parks, road verges, etc). The pitfalls that we might encounter include:

- Not all honeybee-friendly plant species are suitable for all regions of South Africa. Check where they grow naturally and what the nurturing requirements are before planting.

- Some species have the potential to become invasive when planted in certain areas. Be careful when you choose which species to plant.

BACKGROUND LITERATUREALAUX, C., DUCLOZ, F., CRAUSER, D. & LE CONTE, Y. 2010. Diet effects on honeybee

immunocompetence. Biology Letters 6: 562–565.ALLSOPP, M.H. & CHERRY, M. 2004. An assessment of the impact on the bee and agricultural

industries in the Western Cape of the clearing of certain Eucalyptus species using questionnaire survey data. Pretoria (South Africa): National Government of the Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs, Internal Final Report.

JOHANNSMEIER, M.F. 2001. Beekeeping in South Africa, 3rd Edition. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No 14. Paarl Printers, Cape Town.

LEVY, S. 2011. What’s best for bees. Nature 479: 164–169MOUTON, M. 2011. Significance of direct and indirect pollination ecosystem services to the

apple industry in the Western Cape of South Africa. MSc Dissertation, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch.

ASSESSMENT EXAMPLES:Educators could design examination questions or tasks such as:

Why do managed honeybees require more than one forage resource during the year? [Possible sub-questions could include: importance of nutrition quality; blooming patterns or periods; availability/accessibility.]

Why can’t agricultural crops alone be adequate forage for honeybees throughout the year while the honeybees are providing the pollination service to the crop?

List all the plants that honeybees use—create a table of forage throughout the year on a regional basis.

What do honeybees do with the pollen/nectar that they collect? Discuss the challenge with regards to managing honeybee forage resources that are not

indigenous—use Eucalyptus/gum trees as an example.


Activity 9

Ideas for field studies on pollinators/pollinationThe following are ideas for field studies, with some thoughts on what outcomes the field studies should have for the students.

High school : At high school level, field studies should encourage students to:

Collect data by observing and/or experimenting in the school garden, in home gardens or in public parks. Students return to the classroom and discuss or present their observations.

Create a neighbourhood ‘Butterfly / Bee / Bird Gardening Guide’. This is to encourage students to be creative about how to encourage pollinators into urban areas.

Ideas for studies:1. Activity 2. 2. Activities 4 a and b.

College and university:At college and university level, field studies should encourage students to:

Conduct scientific investigations using appropriate tools and techniques. Communicate and present findings of observations through various illustrations,

demonstrations, models, exhibits and activities. Describe a reason for a given conclusion using evidence from an investigation. Learn

how to use evidence when communicating scientific ideas and results to separate fact from opinion.

Develop further hypotheses to be tested or questions to be answered and develop strategies for further information gathering.

Ideas for studies:1. Plant-pollinator species interactions could be studied by making use of Activity 2 on this

DVD, modified to be more complex for college/university level students in the field. Specialist entomology or plant ecology students might benefit from an exercise that examines specialist or generalist pollination. Further reading in the South African context: JOHNSTON, S.D. & STEINER, K.E. 2000. Generalization versus specialization in plant

pollination systems. TREE 15(4)

2. Food-pollination relationships could be studied using Activities 4 a and c on this DVD. Although examining the food one eats is a fairly simple activity and may be too simplistic for college and university students, the connection between the parts of the plants we humans eat and the need for pollination is not obvious in many of the current curricula. The direct link between pollination and food eaten is not clear. It is hoped that this activity will enable students to make that direct link and hereafter be more aware of the food dependent on insect pollination on supermarket shelves. Educators should feel free to modify the activities to make them harder as needed.

3. Insect flower visitor collection activities using nets (active sampling) or pan trapping (passive sampling), thereby documenting species (basic taxonomic identification) for sampled areas (fruit farms, flowering annuals or natural areas) to allow species richness comparisons. Such field studies would be suitable for entomology and ecology students. C aution : permits may be required for insect collection depending on the province where you are located. Diversity of pollinators is measured by catching pollinators with insect nets along a certain route for a particular time. The international Global Pollination Project developed a protocol for monitoring the status and trends of bees. This protocol contains


useful information about bowl/pan trapping, washing and drying specimens, identifying and pinning specimens, and database maintenance and should be available online in 2014. Further reading/ useful reference: EARDLEY, C. KUHLMANN, M. & PAULY, A. 2010. The Bee Genera and Subgenera of

Sub-Saharan Africa. ABC Taxa 7. http://www.internationalpollinatorsinitiative.org/

4. Crop-pollinator interaction observations are made to investigate the ecosystem service of pollination—what insects are pollinating what crop plants (e.g. observe a particular crop plant for a certain time period or walk transects through orchard observing flower visitors). Different crop sites could be compared varying in proximity to natural vegetation for example. Data collection involves documenting the abundance and basic species identification (e.g. ‘green fly’, ‘small black bee’) of the pollinators (flower visitors that touch the reproductive parts of the flower) observed on a given day and time. The international Global Pollination Project developed the ‘Protocol to Detect and Assess Pollination Deficits in Crops: a Handbook for its use’, which is available on this DVD or online at

http://www.internationalpollinatorsinitiative.org/jsp/documents/documents.jsp The deficits protocol details how to use scan sampling techniques to measure pollinator density for various crop types. Scan sampling involves walking along a set path and recording the numbers of pollinators seen when looking at individual floral units in sequence.

A further possibility would be sampling throughout the day and on different days, while also recording temperature and humidity with a thermo-hygrometer. This would show how weather affects pollination, both directly in terms of insect body temperature and indirectly through changes in nectar volume and concentration.

5. Integrated Pest Management is often a course conducted for horticulture students that has a direct connection to pollinators. The incorrect application of agro-chemicals can severely affect both pollinator populations and forage for pollinators (e.g. should a canola farmer be spraying at the time that a beekeeper is using the canola as honeybee forage, the potential for colony losses is very high).

6. Managed pollination studies may be important for horticultural students planning to work in pollinator-dependent crops. Field studies could determine the number of honeybee foragers visiting orchard trees or a group of neighbouring flowering plants for five minutes. Care is taken not to count the same honeybee within the five minutes. Also, a single honeybee can be followed to see how many flowers are visited within a minute or more depending on the crop type. These measurements can be taken at different times of the day, or at different stages of flowering of the crop. Hive quality, hive placement, and other issues such as the number of hives per hectare of particular crops are important issues needing study, but such field studies can be very hard to design and would require beekeeper assistance and specialist clothing.


http://www.internationalpollinatorsinitiative.org/jsp/documents/documents.jsp

Documents

· Web viewManagement of this type of species will thus have to be landscape context specific, so as to not threaten forage provision while still addressing the problem of invasion