warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era

Editedy by @ZhongwuLi

Major Chinese warlord coalitions as of 1925

The Warlord Era is the common term that refers to the time period of Chinabeginning from 1916 to the mid-1930s, when the country was divided 

by various military cliques. Followed by the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, and nominally ended in 1928 at the conclusion of the Northern 

Expedition with theNortheast Flag Replacement, beginning the "Nanjing decade". However, the division continued to exist into the 1930s, and 

remained until the end of theChinese Civil War in 1949.

The warlords and military cliques of the Warlord Era are generally divided into the Northern Faction and the Southern Faction. The following is a 

list of cliques within each faction, and the dominant warlords within that clique.

Northern Faction

The cliques in the Northern Faction are evolved from the Beiyang system. Most of them were generals under Yuan Shikai. After the death of Yuan, 

they separated and formed cliques in their own sphere of influence.

Anhui clique

Anhui is the name of a province in southern China.

The Anhui Clique was so named because many of its most influential members were from Anhui, including founder Duan Qirui.

It could be considered a legacy of Anhui native Li Hongzhang's influence on the Beiyang Army.

The clique was removed from power after the Zhili-Anhui War and slowly faded from prominence.

Name Years of dominance Notes

Duan Qirui 1916–1926- Premier: 1913, 1916–18; President: 1924-26- Negotiated the Nishihara Loans with Japan in exchange for Shandong Concession, triggering the May Fourth Movement

Xu Shuzheng 1916–1920

- Duan Qirui's right-hand man- Led expedition that reconquered Mongolia and temporarily brought it back under control

Duan Zhigui - Minister of War: 1917-1919

Jin Yunpeng - Premier: 1919-1921

Wang Yitang - Chairman of the House of Representatives 1918-1920

Lu Yongxiang

- Ruler of Zhejiang and Shanghai, his refusal to hand over Shanghai caused the Second Zhili–Fengtian War

Zhang Jingyao 1917–1920

- Governor of Hunan noted for his exceptional brutality- Assassinated in 1933 after he became involved with the Japanese plot to enthrone Puyi as emperor of Manchukuo

Zhili clique

Zhili was the province surrounding Beijing, most of its territory is now in the province of Hebei.

The Zhili clique was formed by officers disgruntled with the Anhui clique, they rallied around Feng Guozhang.

The clique took power after the Zhili-Anhui War but lost it after the Second Zhili-Fengtian War.

It was largely wiped out during the Northern Expedition.

Name Years of dominance Notes

Feng Guozhang 1916–1919

- Served as President 1917-1918- Died in 1919 and was succeeded by Cao Kun

Cao Kun 1919–1924- Bribed his way to the presidency and served from 1923 to 1924- Arrested and imprisoned during the Beijing coup by Feng Yuxiang

Wu Peifu 1919–1927- Military commander and strategist of the Zhili Clique- Credited with the victories that pushed Zhili to power but ultimately failed hold onto power in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War

Sun Chuanfang 1919–1927

- Controlled most of the Lower Yangtze- Defeated in the Northern Expedition

Fengtian clique

Fengtian is the former name of Liaoning province, and was the political center of Manchuria.

The Fengtian clique controlled most of Manchuria up to Shanhaiguan and had an uneasy relationship with Japan.

It took power in Beijing after the Second Zhili-Fengtian War but could not stop the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition.

Was driven from Manchuria after the Mukden Incident and merged with the Kuomintang.

Name Years of dominance Notes

Zhang Zuolin 1916–1928- Leader of the Fengtian Army, ruler of Manchuria- Assassinated by a Japanese military officer for his failure to halt the expansion of the Kuomintang

Zhang Xueliang 1928–1937

- Son and successor to Zhang Zuolin- Eventually reconciled the Fengtian clique with the Kuomintang

Guo Songling 1920–1925- General in the Fengtian Army- Rebelled during the Anti-Fengtian War but was defeated and killed in action

Zhang Haipeng

Zhang Jinghui Afterwards Prime Minister of Manchukuo

Zhang Zongchang

Tang Yulin

Wan Fulin

Wu Junsheng - Commander of Fengtian Cavalry

Yang Yuting - Executed by Zhang Xueliang for his part in the assassination of Zhang Zuolin

Shanxi clique

Formed in the aftermath of the Xinhai Revolution, the Shanxi clique was limited to Shanxi province only

Although affiliated with the Anhui clique, Yan Xishan remained neutral until the Northern Expedition

Most territory was lost to Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War

Name Years of Notes

dominance

Yan Xishan 1911–1949

- Military ruler of Shanxi- Joined the Kuomintang but later rebelled against Chiang Kai-shek in the Central Plains War- Defeated by the Communists in 1949, withdrew to Taiwan

Guominjun

Name Years of dominance Notes

Feng Yuxiang 1924–1934 Leader of the Northwest

Sun Yue 1924–1928

Hu Jingyi 1924–1925 Military governor of Henan

Song Zheyuan 1927–1930

Shandong

Name Years of dominance Notes

Zhang Zongchang 1925–1928 Ruler of the Shandong province

Han Fuqu 1930–1938Chairman of the Shandong Province; Was arrested and shot after abandoning his province when the Second Sino-Japanese War started.

Ma cliqueAll Ma Clique Generals were Kuomintang members.

Name Years of dominance Notes

Ma Anliang 1912–1920 Ruler of the Gansu province, Outranked all the other Ma Clique generals.

Ma Qi 1915–1931 Ruler of the Qinghai province, influential in Gansu province

Ma Lin 1931–1938 Ruler of the Qinghai province

Ma Fuxiang 1912–1928 Ruler of Ningxia

Ma Bufang 1938–1945 Ruler of the Qinghai province

Ma Hongbin 1921–1928 Ruler of Gansu Province

Ma Hongkui 1923–1949 Army commander then ruler of Ningxia Province from 1932

Ma Zhongying 1929–1934 Chief of the 36th Division

Ma Hushan 1934–1950 Chief of the 36th Division

Xinjiang clique

Name Years of dominance Notes

Yang Zengxin 1912–1928 Ruler of the Xinjiang province.

Ma Fuxing 1912–1924 Titai of Kashgar, Military Commander of Southern Xinjiang

Ma Shaowu 1924–1937 Tao-yin of Kashgar, Military Commander of Southern Xinjiang

Jin Shuren 1928–1934 Ruler of the Xinjiang province.

Southern FactionThe military cliques in the Southern Faction are generally regional revolutionary leaders that took over after the fall of Qing Dynasty in Xinhai 

Revolution.

Yunnan cliqueThe Yunnan Military Government was established on October 30, 1911, with Cai E elected as the military governor. This marked the beginning of 

the "Yunnan clique".

Name Years of dominance Notes

Cai E 1911–1916 Leader of the Yunnan Army

Tang Jiyao 1913-1927 Military governor of

Yunnan

Hu Ruoyu 1927 Governor of Yunnan

Long Yun 1927-1945 Governor of Yunnan

Old Guangxi cliqueGuangxi province announced its independence on November 6, 1911. Originally, the revolutionaries supported the Qing Governor to remain in 

position. However, he later left the province, and Lu Rongting succeeded his position.

Name Years of Notes

dominance

Lu Rongting 1912–1922

Chen Binghun 1916-1921

Shen Chunxuan

Shen Hongying 1923-1925 Military governor of Guangdong (1923-

1924)

New Guangxi cliqueBy 1924, the Old Guangxi clique was no longer effective, and was replaced by the New Guangxi clique.

Name Years of dominance

Notes

Bai Chongxi 1923–1949

Huang Shaoxiong 1923–1949

Li Zongren 1923–1949

GuangdongGuangdong was independent on November 8. The Guangdong Army was in the early 1920s mostly dominated by Chen Jiongming. In the 

1930s, Chen Jitang was chairman of the government.

Name Years of dominance

Notes

Chen Jiongming 1911–1924

Chen Jitang 1929–1936

Kuomintang

Name Years of dominance Notes

Sun Yat-sen 1912–1925 Founder of the Republic of China and leader of the Kuomintang

Chiang Kai-shek 1926–1975 Military leader of the Kuomintang and later President

He Yingqin 1926–1950 Senior General in the Kuomintang

Hu Hanmin 1925–1936 Leader of the right wing faction of the Kuomintang

Liao Zhongkai 1923–1925 Architect of the First United Front with the Chinese Communist Party

Wang Jingwei 1925–1944 Leader of the left wing faction of the Kuomintang, later Japanese puppet

Sichuan cliqueDuring the period from 1927–1938, Sichuan was in the hands of five warlords. No warlord had enough power to take on all the others at once, so 

many small battles occurred, pitting one warlord against another.

Name Years of dominance Notes

Liu Wenhui

Liu Xiang 1921–1938

Yang Sen

Tian Songyao

Deng Xihou

1915–1916 Empire of China (Yuan Shikai)National Protection War

1916 Death of Yuan Shikai

1917 Manchu Restoration

1917–1922 Constitutional Protection Movement

1918–1920 Siberian Intervention

1919 Paris Peace ConferenceMay Fourth Movement

1919–1921 Occupation of Mongolia

1920 Zhili–Anhui War

1920–1921 Guangdong–Guangxi War

1922 First Zhili–Fengtian War

1924 Second Zhili–Fengtian WarBeijing Coup

1925 Yunnan–Guangxi WarMay Thirtieth Movement

1925–1926 Anti-Fengtian War

1926–1928 Northern Expedition

1928 Jinan IncidentHuánggūtun IncidentFlag Replacement of the Northeast

1929 Sino-Soviet conflict

1930 Central Plains War

Beiyang Army

Yuan Shikai

Anhui

Zhili

FengtianShanxi

GuominjunMa

Xinjiang

YunnanOld GuangxiNew GuangxiGuangdong (Chen Jitang)

Kuomintang (KMT)

Communist Party (CPC)

Sichuan

Notable persons deemed to be hanjians Li Ling, a Han dynasty General who defected to the Xiongnu and married the daughter of the Xiongnu Chanyu.

Qin Hui (1090–1155), a premier of the Southern Song dynasty who preached appeasement towards aggression from the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty. He also played an important role in the death of the general Yue Fei, who is highly regarded as a patriot in Chinese culture.

Wu Sangui (1612–1678), a Ming dynasty general who guarded Shanhai Pass. The Ming dynasty was overthrown by a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng, and the rebels seized Wu's family and his concubine Chen Yuanyuan (who were in the capital Beijing) and mistreated them. Wu was angered and he decided to ally with the Manchus against Li Zicheng – he opened Shanhai Pass and guided the Manchus into former Ming territory, allowing the Manchus to swiftly overrun China and establish the Qing dynasty. Wu later led Qing forces to attack the Southern Ming dynasty (a short-lived state founded by Ming remnants) and personally executed Southern Ming's Yongli Emperor.

Wang Kemin (1879–1945), who collaborated with the Japanese during World War II and helped to establish the pro-Japan Provisional Government of the Republic of China (or North China Autonomous Government). After the war, he was arrested by the ROC government and tried for treason but committed suicide before his trial ended.

Demchugdongrub (1902–1966), commonly known as Prince De, a Mongol leader who collaborated with the Japanese. He was installed by the Japanese as the head of state of Mengjiang, a Japanese puppet state in Inner Mongolia. He was arrested by the PRC government in 1949 and charged with treason but was pardoned later. As he was an ethnic Mongol and not a Han Chinese, some feel that he should not be deemed as a hanjian.

Wang Jingwei (1883–1944), a Kuomintang politician and former close aide of Sun Yat-sen, who advocated peace negotiations during the Second Sino-Japanese War. He set up the pro-Japan Reorganized National Government of China in Nanjing with the help of the Japanese.

Zhou Fohai (1897–1948), the second-in-command of the Wang Jingwei government Executive Yuan. He was convicted of treason after the war and sentenced to death, but Chiang Kai-shek commuted his sentence to life imprisonment. He died of heart and stomach problems in jail.

Chen Gongbo (1892–1946), who served as the head of the Legislative Yuan of the Wang Jingwei government. He fled to Japan after the war but was extradited back to China, where he was convicted of treason and executed.

Kawashima Yoshiko (1907–1948), also known as the "Eastern Jewel", was a Manchu princess raised in Japan, who spied for the Japanese in Manchuria. After the war, she was arrested and convicted of treason and executed. She has been featured in numerous Chinese and Japanese novels, films, television programs, and video games, with the Chinese frequently depicting her as a wanton villain and seductress while the Japanese portrayed her as a tragic heroine. Due to her Manchu ethnicity and Japanese background, some feel that she should not be considered a hanjian.

Koo Hsien-jung (Gu Xianrong; 1866–1937), a Taiwanese businessman who led the Japanese forces into Taipei after the Qing officials fled and the Formosan garrison began looting the city during Japanese Invasion of Taiwan. His family became wealthy and influential under Japanese rule, and continues to be prominent in business and political circles in Taiwan, with members living and operating in both Taiwan and Japan.

Former foreign enclaves in China.Country Foreign Enclave

Location (modern name)

Year Established

Year Dissolved

Note

(International)Shanghai International Settlement

Shanghai 1863 1945

Merger of British and American concessions

(International) Beijing Legation Quarter Beijing 1861 1945

(International) Gulangyu Island Xiamen 1903 1945

Austria-HungaryAustro-Hungarian concession in Tianjin

Tianjin 1902 1917

BelgiumBelgian concession in Tianjin

Tianjin 1902 1931

FranceKwang-Chou-Wan leased territory

Zhanjiang 1898 1946

France French Concession Shanghai 1849 1946

FranceFrench Concession inShamian Island, Guangzhou

Guangzhou 1861 1946

FranceFrench Concession inHankou

Hankou 1896 1946

France French concession in Tianjin 1861 1946

Country Foreign EnclaveLocation (modern name)

Year Established

Year Dissolved

Note

Tianjin

FranceFrench Railway, Kunming

Kunming 1904 1940

GermanyKiautschou Bay leased territory

Qingdao 1898 1914

GermanyGerman concession inHankou

Hankou 1895 1917

GermanyGerman concession in Tianjin

Tianjin 1895 1917

ItalyItalian concession in Tianjin

Tianjin 1901 1947

Japan Taiwan colony Taiwan 1895 1945

JapanKwantung Leased Territory/South Manchuria Railway Zone

Dalian 1905 1945Obtained from Russia

JapanKiautschou Bay leased territory

Qingdao 1914 1922Obtained from Germany

JapanJapanese concession in Tianjin

Tianjin 1898 1943

JapanJapanese concession inHankou

Hankou 1898 1943

JapanJapanese concession inChongqing

Chongqing 1897 1943

JapanJapanese concession inSuzhou

Suzhou 1897 1943

JapanJapanese concession inHangzhou

Hangzhou 1897 1943

Portugal Macau colony Macau 1557 1999

Russia Russian Dalian Dalian 1898 1905

RussiaRussian concession in Tianjin

Tianjin 1900 1924

RussiaRussian concession inHankou

Hankou 1896 1924

Russia Chinese Eastern Harbin 1896 1952

Country Foreign EnclaveLocation (modern name)

Year Established

Year Dissolved

Note

Railway,Harbin

United Kingdom Hong Kong colony Hong Kong 1841 1997

United KingdomWeihaiwei leased territory

Weihai 1898 1930

Liugong Island remained under British control as a separate territory until 1940

United Kingdom Liugong Island Weihai 1930 1940

Formerly part of Weihaiwei leased territory since 1898

United KingdomBritish concession in Tianjin

Tianjin 1860 1943

United KingdomBritish concession inHankou

Hankou 1861 1927

United KingdomBritish concession in Jiujiang

Jiujiang 1861 1927

United KingdomBritish concession inZhenjiang

Zhenjiang 1861 1929

United KingdomBritish concession inShamian Island, Guangzhou

Guangzhou 1861 1945

United KingdomBritish concession in Amoy

Xiamen 1852 1930

United KingdomBritish concession in Shanghai

Shanghai 1846 1863

Merged to form Shanghai International Settlement

United StatesAmerican concession in Shanghai

Shanghai 1848 1863

Merged to form Shanghai International Settlement

United States American concession in Tianjin 1860 1902 Merged to

Country Foreign EnclaveLocation (modern name)

Year Established

Year Dissolved

Note

Tianjinform British concession in Tianjin

Four big families of the Republic of ChinaChiang family notables

Chiang Kai-shek (蔣介石, 1887–1975), first President of the Republic of China[2]

Chiang Ching-kuo (蔣經國, 1910–1988), President of the Republic of China Eddie Chiang (蔣孝勇, 1948–1996), politician Winston Chang (章孝慈, 1941–1996), Soochow University president John Chiang (蔣孝嚴, 1941–), politician

Soong family notables

Charlie Soong (宋嘉樹, 1863–1918), businessman, friend of Sun Yat-Sen T. V. Soong (宋子文, 1891–1971), businessman Soong sisters

Soong Ai-ling (宋藹齡, 1890–1973), married to H. H. Kung Soong Ching-ling ( 宋 慶 齡 , 1893–1981), married to Sun Yat-sen, Honorary President of the People's

Republic of China (1981), President of the People's Republic of China (1968–1972), Chairperson of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (1976–1978), Vice President of the People's Republic of China

Soong Mei-ling (宋美齡, 1898–2003), married to Chiang Kai-shek, First Lady of the Republic of China Soong Zi-on (宋子安, 1906–1969), Guangzhou bank chairman

Kung family notables

H. H. Kung (孔祥熙, 1881–1967), businessman, politician

Chen family notables

Chen Qi-mei (陳其美, 1878–1916), politician

Chen Guo-fu (陳果夫, 1892–1951), politician Chen Li-fu (陳立夫, 1900–2001), politician

Four big families of Hong Kong

Li family notables

Li Shek-pang (李石朋, 1863–1916) also known as Li Pui-choi (李佩材) - Originally from Guangdong Li Koon-chun ( 李 冠 春 , 1887–1966) - Founder of Bank of East Asia, Director of Tung Wah Group of

Hospitals and Po Leung Kuk[2]

Li Fook-shu (李福樹, 1912–95) - Council member of Chinese University of Hong Kong David Li Kwok-po (李國寶 , 1939–) - Chairman, Bank of East Asia, "[1]." Member of LegCo, ExCo,

and HK Basic Law Drafting Committee Adrian Li (李民橋, 1973–) Co-CEO, Bank of East Asia, CPPC Delegate Brian Li (李民斌, 1974–) Co-CEO, Bank of East Asia, CPPC Delegate

Arthur Li Kwok-cheung (李國章 , 1945–) - Hong Kong Secretary for Education & Manpower (2002-2007), ExCo Member, CPPC Delegate, Council member of the University of Hong Kong

Simon Li (李福善, 1922–2013) - CPPC Delegate, HK Basic Law Drafting Committee, Candidate for HK Chief Executive (1996)

Gladys Li (李志喜, 1948–) - Senior Counsel, former Chairwoman, HK Bar Association

Ronald Li (李福兆, 1929–2014) - Founder & Chairman of Hong Kong Stock Exchange

Alfred Ronald Li (李國麟, 1952–)

Li Tse-fong (李子方, 1891–1976)

Li Fook-wo (李福和, 1916–2014) Li Fook-kow (李福逑, 1922–2011)

Andrew Li (李國能, 1948–) - Chief Justice of the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong (1997–2010)

Li Lan-sang (李蘭生, 1900–69)

Alan Li (李福深)

Ho family notables

Robert Hotung (何東, 1862–1956) - Businessman, philanthropist Victoria Hotung (何錦姿, 1897–?) - married to Man-kam Lo Robert Ho (何世禮, 1906–98) George Ho (何佐芝, 1918–2014) - Founder of the Commercial Radio Hong Kong[5]

George Joseph Ho (何驥 1950–) - Chairman of the Commercial Radio Hong Kong

Ho Fook (何福, 1863–1926) - Businessman, philanthropist

Ho Kwong (何世光)

Stanley Ho (何鴻燊, 1921–) - Head of Macau casinos Pansy Ho (何超瓊, 1962–) - Actress and managing director of various casinos Josie Ho (何超儀, 1974–) - Singer, actress

Lawrence Ho (何猷龍, 1976–) - Chief exec of Melco International development

Ho Sai-chuen (何世全, 1891–1938) - Doctor and member of the Sanitary Board

Ho Kom-tong (何甘棠, 1866–1950) - Businessman, philanthropist

Grace Ho (何愛瑜) - married to Lee Hoi-chuen

Bruce Lee (李小龍, 1940–73) - Movie star and martial artist Brandon Lee (李國豪, 1965–93) - Actor and martial artist

Hui family notables

Hui Oi-chow (許愛周) - Business man

Victor Hui (許晉奎) - Chairman of Hong Kong Football Association, vice-president of Sports Federation and Olympic Committee of Hong Kong, China

Julian Hui (許晉亨) - Business man

Lo family notables

Lo Cheung-shiu (羅長肇, 1867–1934) - Compradore of the Jardine, Matheson & Co.

Lo Man-kam ( 羅 文 錦 , 1893–1959) - Solicitor, founder of Lo and Lo law firm,[9] member of the Executive andLegislative Councils of Hong Kong, married to Victoria Hotung, daughter of Robert Hotung

Lo Tak-shing ( 羅 德 丞 , 1935–2006) - Solicitor, member of the Hong Kong Basic Law Drafting Committee,CPPCC[10] Executive and Legislative Councils of Hong Kong

Lo Man-wai (羅文惠, 1895–1985) - Solicitor and member of the Executive and Legislative Councils. Enid Lo (羅德貞), woman tennis player, married to John L. Litton

Henry Litton (列顯倫, 1934–) - Non-Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal

John Litton (烈宗仁) - Barrister, Hong Kong Bar (1990- )