U.S. HISTORY STUDY SHEET FOR THE EOC EXAMContent Focus Terms, People, Organizations, Events, Documents, and Laws

The Civil War, Reconstruction, and Westward Expansion(Benchmarks SS.912.A.2.1 - SS.912.A.2.7)

1. Kansas-Nebraska Act: This law created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, opening new lands for settlement, and had the effect of repealing the Missouri Compromise of 1820 by allowing white male settlers in those territories to determine through popular sovereignty whether they would allow slavery within each territory. The act was designed by Democratic Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. The initial purpose of the Kansas–Nebraska Act was to open up many thousands of new farms and make feasible a Midwestern Transcontinental Railroad. It became a problem when popular sovereignty was written into the proposal so that the voters of the moment would decide whether slavery would be allowed or not. The result was that pro- and anti-slavery elements flooded into Kansas with the goal of voting slavery up or down, leading to a bloody civil war. The term "Bleeding Kansas" was coined by Republican Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, to describe this civil war; its violence indicated that compromise was unlikely. Many people believe the Civil War actually began in 1854 with the passage of this law.

2. Black Codes: In the United States, the most notorious Black Codes were laws passed by Southern states in 1865 and 1866, after the Civil War. These laws had the intent and the effect of restricting African Americans' freedom and of compelling them to work in a labor economy based on low wages or debt.

3. Compromise: an agreement or a settlement of a dispute that is reached by each side making concessions.

4. Debt peonage: Debt bondage (also known as debt slavery or bonded labor) is a person's pledge of their labor or services as security for the repayment for a debt or other obligation. The services required to repay the debt may be undefined, and the services' duration may be undefined. Debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation.

5. Nadir: The word is used figuratively to mean the lowest point of a person's spirits or the lowest point in terms of quality in an activity or profession.

6. Popular sovereignty: the power of the people of a nation to directly or indirectly control the policies and directives of the government.

7. Indian reservation system: In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern day Oklahoma. Relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West. By the late 1860s, President Ulysses S. Grant pursued a stated "Peace Policy" as a possible solution to the conflict between white settlers and American Indian tribes whose lands were being taken. The policy included a reorganization of the Indian Service, with the goal of relocating various tribes from their ancestral homes to parcels of lands established specifically for their inhabitation.

8. Sharecropping: Sharecropping is a system of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on the land. Sharecropping was a way for very poor farmers (both black and white) to earn a living from land owned by someone else. The landowner provided land, housing, tools and seed, and perhaps a mule, and a local merchant loaned money for food and supplies. At harvest time the sharecropper received a share of the crop (from one-third to one-half), which paid off his debt to the merchant. By the late 1860s white farmers also became sharecroppers.

9. State’s rights: The balance of national government powers and those powers held by the states as defined in the Supremacy Clause of the U.S. Constitution was first addressed in the case of McCulloch v. Maryland (1819). The Court's decision by Chief Justice John Marshall asserted that the laws adopted by the federal government, when exercising its constitutional powers, are generally superior to any conflicting laws adopted by state governments. A major dispute over states' rights was over the issue of slavery. Supporters of slavery often argued that slavery was a right reserved to the states by the 10th amendment.

10. Suffrage: Suffrage is the right to vote gained through the democratic process. Throughout the course of American history, suffrage has been extended to more and more groups of people who had previously been denied the right. The major extensions of suffrage occurred with the 15TH amendment (black males), the 19th amendment (women), 24th amendment (eliminated pol taxes and literacy tests as requirements to vote), and the 26th amendment (lowered the age of voting from 21 to 18).

11. Abraham Lincoln: 16th President of the USA, and the leader of America through the American Civil War. A practical and effective war president, Lincoln made many moves that were questioned, such as his promotion of Ulysses S. Grant to the position of leader of the Union’s armed forces when Grant began the war as a captain, or his move to suspend habeas corpus and position martial law in the border states to prevent a possible change of heart (border states were states that were slave states that didn’t secede and states that were on the border of the 36-30 line). To Lincoln, the preservation of the United States was more important than anything else; for Lincoln, the end justified the means.

12. Stephen Douglas: Douglas was an American politician from Illinois and the designer of the Kansas–Nebraska Act. He was a U.S. Representative, a U.S. Senator, and the Democratic Party nominee for President in the 1860 election, which he lost to Republican Abraham Lincoln. Douglas had previously defeated Lincoln in the 1856 Illinois Senate race, which was noted for the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 over westward expansion of slavery into the western territories. Ironically, the Kansas-Nebraska Act was the cause of bloody fighting in those two territories, and many historians believe that the Civil War really began with the passage of that law in 1854. The disaster of the act was the catalyst that allowed Lincoln to win the 1860 Presidential election.

13. Jefferson Davis: The only President of the Confederate States of America. Under Davis’ leadership, the confederacy faced insurmountable odds and was finally vanquished in April of 1865. After Davis was captured in 1865, he was accused of treason but was not tried and was released after two years. While not disgraced, Davis had been displaced in white Southern affection after the war by his leading general, Robert E. Lee.

Nevertheless, many Southerners empathized with his defiance, refusal to accept defeat, and resistance to Reconstruction.

14. Ulysses S. Grant: He was the 18th president of the United States (1869–1877) following his success as military commander in the American Civil War. Under Grant, the Union Army defeated the Confederate military; the war ended with the surrender of Robert E. Lee's army at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. As president, Grant led the Radical Republicans in their effort to eliminate vestiges of Confederate nationalism and slavery, protect African American citizenship, and defeat the Ku Klux Klan. During his second term the country's economy was devastated by the Panic of 1873, while investigations exposed corruption scandals in the administration. The conservative white Southerners regained control of Southern state governments and Democrats took control of the federal House of Representatives. By the time Grant left the White House in 1877, his Reconstruction policies were being undone.

15. Andrew Johnson: He was the 17th President of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. Johnson became president as Abraham Lincoln's vice president at the time of Lincoln's assassination. The new president favored quick restoration of the seceded states to the Union and full implementation of Lincoln’s plan to reunite the nation without overly punishing the south. His plans, however, did not give protection to the former slaves, and he came into conflict with the Radical Republican dominated Congress, culminating in his impeachment by the House of Representatives. The first American president to be impeached, he was acquitted in the Senate by one vote. His political career was finished, however.

16. Robert E. Lee: He was an American career military officer who is best known for having commanded the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the American Civil War. He emerged as a shrewd tactician and battlefield commander, winning numerous battles against far superior Union armies. His abilities as a tactician have been praised by many military historians, and he is even today revered in the Deep South.

17. Ku Klux Klan: The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the name of three distinct past and present far-right organizations (1. Post-Civil War, 2. Xenophobic anti-immigration throughout the first 1/3 of the 20th century, and 3. The anti-black civil rights movement that began sometime in the 1950’s and continues to this day, albeit with less fanfare and power) which have advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically expressed through real and symbolic terrorism. Since the mid-20th century, the KKK has also been anti-communist. The current manifestation is splintered into several chapters with no connection to each other; it is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. It is estimated to have between 5,000 and 8,000 members as of 2012.

18. Carpetbaggers: In United States history, a carpetbagger was a Northerner (Yankee) who moved to the South after the U.S. Civil War, especially during the Reconstruction era (1865-1877), in order to profit from the instability and power vacuum that existed at this time.

19. Scalawags: In United States history, scalawags were southern whites who supported Reconstruction, carpetbaggers, and the Republican Party after the American Civil War.

20. Freedman’s Bureau: was a U.S. federal government agency (1866-1870) that aided distressed freedmen (freed slaves) during the Reconstruction era of the United States,

though by 1870 it had been considerably weakened and was completely gone by the end of Reconstruction in 1876-1877.

21. Radical Republicans: The Radical Republicans were a faction within the Republican Party from about 1854 (before the American Civil War) until the end of Reconstruction in 1877. They called themselves "radicals" because they opposed the lenient policies of more moderate factions of the Republican party factions led by Abraham Lincoln and after the war by "conservatives" (in the South) and "liberals" (in the North). Radical republicans strongly opposed slavery during the war and after the war distrusted ex-Confederates, demanding harsh policies for the former rebels, and emphasizing civil rights and voting rights for freedmen (recently freed slaves).

22. Rutherford B. Hayes: was the 19th President of the United States (1877–1881). As president, he oversaw the end of Reconstruction, and was actually elected in the closest election in American Presidential election history. The vote was so close that Northern Republicans felt obligated to end reconstruction in a compromise with the Southern state leadership who were ready to demand a recount and/or decry the election as being “fixed”. Hayes began the efforts that eventually led to civil service reform (Pendleton Act of 1883), and attempted to reconcile the divisions left over from the Civil War and Reconstruction.

23. William Tecumseh Sherman: Sherman was an American soldier, businessman, educator and author. He served as a General in the Union Army during the American Civil War (1861–65), for which he received recognition for his outstanding command of military strategy as well as criticism for the harshness of the "scorched earth" policies that he implemented in conducting total war against the Confederate States. Sherman served under General Ulysses S. Grant in 1862 and 1863 during the campaigns that led to the fall of the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg on the Mississippi River and ended with the routing of the Confederate armies in the state of Tennessee. In 1864, Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the western theater of the war after Grant took command of the entire Union army. He proceeded to lead his troops east during the scorched earth campaign of 1864 and 1865 to capture of the city of Atlanta, a military success that contributed to the re-election of President Abraham Lincoln. Sherman's subsequent march through Georgia and the Carolinas further undermined the Confederacy's ability to continue fighting.

24. The Anaconda Plan: This is the name widely applied to an outline strategy for subduing the Southern states in the American Civil War. Proposed by General-in-Chief Winfield Scott, the plan emphasized the naval blockade of the Southern ports, and called for an advance up the Mississippi River to cut the South in two, which would effectively end the western war.

25. Civil Rights Act of 1866: This Act declared that people born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power are entitled to be citizens, without regard to race, color, or previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude. It also said that any non-white citizen has the same rights as a white citizen to make and enforce contracts, sue and be sued, give evidence in court, and inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property. Additionally, the Act guaranteed to all citizens the "full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens, and ... like punishment, pains, and penalties..."

26. Compromise of 1850: The Compromise of 1850 was a package of five laws passed in September 1850, which defused a four-year confrontation between the slave states of the South and the free states of the North regarding the status of western territories acquired during the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). The compromise delayed secession and civil war for 10 years but ultimately failed to prevent that disaster from occurring. The following are the provisions of this compromise:

A. Texas’ application to become a state was approved after it surrendered its claim to New Mexico (over which it had threatened war) as well as its claims north of the Missouri Compromise Line, transferred its large public debt to the federal government, and retained control over El Paso that it had established earlier in 1850, with the Texas Panhandle thrown in at the last moment.

B. California's application for admission as a free state with its current boundaries was approved and a Southern proposal to split California at parallel 35° north to provide a Southern territory was not approved (this made the Missouri compromise 36-30 line obsolete).

C. The South avoided adoption of the symbolically significant Wilmot Proviso (the Wilmot Proviso, one of the major events leading to the American Civil War, would have banned slavery in any territory to be acquired from Mexico following the Mexican War).

D. The new New Mexico Territory and Utah Territory could in principle decide in the future to become slave states (popular sovereignty), even though Utah and a northern fringe of New Mexico were north of the Missouri Compromise Line where slavery had previously been banned in territories.

E. The most concrete Southern gain was the Fugitive Slave Act, the enforcement of which outraged Northern public opinion. It required that all escaped slaves were, upon capture, to be returned to their masters and that all officials and citizens of Free states had to cooperate in this law.

27. Dred Scott vs. Sandford (1857): In this decision, the Court held that African Americans whether slave or free, could not be American citizens and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court (in other words, if a free black person in a free state was forced into slavery in that state, the black person could legally do nothing about it, even though slavery was illegal in that state!). It went further to say that the federal government had no power to regulate slavery in the federal territories acquired after the creation of the United States.

28. Battle of Gettysburg: Considered by many (along with the rebel surrender at Vicksburg the next day) to be the turning point of the Civil War, this three day battle in the summer of 1863 involved the largest number of casualties of any battle in this horrible war. General Lee believed that the North would be open to surrendering the war if he could penetrate into union territory in Pennsylvania as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia possibly. General Grant and President Lincoln sent troops to try and stop them and Gettysburg, PA was where they ended up meeting. The Union dug in and after suffering some early losses on day one, had begun to wear down Lee’s troops by the end of the second day. On the third day, a desperate plan was put together by Lee to try and use a massive assault on the center of the Union lines to try and break through. The Union leader at Gettysburg, General George Meade, predicted the night before that Lee would attempt this, and the Union forces were ready for it and

decimated the rebel charge. This suicide run is known as “Pickett’s charge”, named after Maj. Gen. George Pickett, one of three Confederate generals who led the assault. Defeated, Lee soon ordered a retreat from battle, and while what was left of his army did escape, they were never able to fight offensively again and never really threatened the union militarily after this.

29. Gettysburg Address: The Gettysburg Address is a speech by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, one of the best-known in American history. It was delivered by Lincoln during the American Civil War, on the afternoon of Thursday, November 19, 1863. In it, Lincoln reiterated the principles of human equality espoused by the Declaration of Independence and proclaimed the Civil War as a struggle not only for the preservation of the Union, but also one that would bring true equality to all of its citizens.

30. Battle of Vicksburg: It began in May of 1863 with two major Union assaults (May 19 and 22, 1863) against the Confederate fortifications outside of Vicksburg which were repulsed with heavy casualties. Grant decided to besiege (surround and starve out) the city beginning on May 25. With no reinforcements, their supplies nearly gone, and after holding out for more than forty days, the garrison finally surrendered on July 4 when they heard that Lee had lost at Gettysburg the previous day. This action, when combined with Lee's defeat at Gettysburg by is considered to be the turning point of the war..

31. Emancipation Proclamation of 1863: This presidential statement proclaimed the freedom of slaves in the ten states that were still in rebellion, and was based on the president's constitutional authority as commander in chief of the armed forces. The Proclamation also ordered that "suitable" persons among those freed could be enrolled into the paid service of United States' forces, and ordered the Union Army (and all segments of the Executive branch) to "recognize and maintain the freedom of" the ex-slaves.

32. The Civil War Amendments (AKA Reconstruction Amendments): This refers to the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments to the United States Constitution, adopted between 1865 and 1870, the five years immediately following the Civil War. The amendments were important in implementing the Reconstruction of the American South after the war. Their proponents saw them as transforming the United States from a country that was (in Abraham Lincoln's words) "half slave and half free" to one in which the constitutionally guaranteed "blessings of liberty" would be extended to the entire populace, including the former slaves and their descendants. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery. The Fourteenth Amendment included the privileges and immunities clause (all people are guaranteed the same privileges no matter what state they find themselves in), and the due process (all people will be treated fairly by the law) and equal protection clauses (all people are entitled to the equal protection of the law, meaning no one should be above the law or be treated differently than anyone else under the law) applicable to all persons. The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination in voting rights of citizens on the basis of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

33. Radical Republican Reconstruction Plan: The Radical Republicans opposed Lincoln's terms for reuniting the United States during Reconstruction, which began in 1863, which they viewed as too lenient. They proposed an "ironclad oath" that would prevent anyone who supported the Confederacy from voting in elections; Lincoln blocked it. Radicals passed the Wade-Davis Bill (the bill made re-admittance to the Union for former Confederate states contingent on a majority in each Southern state taking the Ironclad

oath to the effect they had never in the past supported the Confederacy) in 1864; Lincoln vetoed it. The Radicals demanded a more aggressive prosecution of the war, a faster end to slavery and the total destruction of the Confederacy. After the assassination of Lincoln, Vice President Andrew Johnson became president. Although he appeared at first to be a Radical, he broke with them, and the Radicals and Johnson became embroiled in a bitter struggle. Johnson proved a poor politician and the Radicals soon had full control of Congress and could override Johnson's vetoes. Johnson vetoed 21 bills passed by Congress during his term, but the Radicals overrode 15 of them, including the Reconstruction Acts (the creation of five military districts in the South, each commanded by a general, which would serve as the acting government for the region in order to enforce the laws of the Constitution regarding the rights of blacks and the provisions of the Civil War amendments).

Late 19 th Century, Industrial Revolution, Farmer’s Challenges, the Shift From a Rural Agrarian to an Urban Industrial Society, Immigration, and the Labor Movement

(Benchmarks SS.912.A.3.1 - SS.912.A.3.13)34. The Great Migration was the movement of 6 million African-Americans out of the rural

Southern United States to the Northeast, Midwest, and West from the end of the civil war through most of the 20th century.

35. The Homestead Act of 1862 was the first of several Homestead acts, the 'Homestead Act of 1862”, was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on May 20, 1862. Anyone who had never taken up arms against the U.S. government (including freed slaves and women), was 21 years or older, or the head of a family, could file an application to claim a federal land grant. There was also a residency requirement (The occupant had to reside on the land for five years, and show evidence of having made improvements. If so, and the land would be theirs for free).

36. The Anaconda Plan is the name widely applied to an outline strategy for subduing the seceding states in the American Civil War. Proposed by General-in-Chief Winfield Scott, the plan emphasized the blockade of the Southern ports, and called for an advance down the Mississippi River to cut the South in two.

37. The Compromise of 1877 was a purported informal, unwritten deal that settled the intensely disputed 1876 U.S. presidential election, pulled federal troops out of state politics in the South, and ended the Reconstruction Era.

38. The Dawes Act of 1877 was adopted by Congress in 1887. It authorized the President of the United States to survey Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians. The stated objective of the Dawes Act was to stimulate assimilation of Indians into American society.

39. The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 is a federal law designed to regulate the railroad industry, particularly its monopolistic practices. The law required that railroad rates be "reasonable and just," but did not empower the government to fix specific rates. It also required that railroads publicize shipping rates and prohibited short haul or long haul fare discrimination, a form of price discrimination against smaller markets, particularly farmers. The Act created a federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which it charged with monitoring railroads to ensure that they complied with the new regulations. The Act was the first federal law to regulate private industry in the United States.

40. The Freeport Doctrine was articulated by Stephen A. Douglas at the second of the Lincoln-Douglas debates on August 27, 1858, in Freeport, Illinois. Lincoln tried to force Douglas to choose between the principle of popular sovereignty proposed by the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the majority decision of the United States Supreme Court in the Dred Scott case of, which stated that slavery could not legally be excluded from U.S. territories (since Douglas professed great respect for Supreme Court decisions, and accused the Republicans of disrespecting the court, yet this aspect of the Dred Scott decision was contrary to Douglas' views and politically unpopular in Illinois). Instead of making a direct choice, Douglas' response stated that despite the court's ruling, slavery could be prevented from any territory by the refusal of the people living in that territory to pass laws favorable to slavery. Likewise, if the people of the territory supported slavery, legislation would provide for its continued existence.

41. The Ostend Manifesto was a document written in 1854 that described the rationale for the United States to purchase Cuba from Spain while implying that the U.S. should declare war if Spain refused.

42. The Industrial Revolution refers to the movement away from an agrarian (agricultural) based economy to an economy centered on manufacturing. There is generally thought to have been two of these revolutions, the first beginning in England in the late 18th century and rapidly spread across Europe and into America and mainly involved the manufacture of textiles (the creation of woven fabrics). The first Industrial Revolution evolved into the second Industrial Revolution between 1840 and 1870, when technological and economic progress continued with the increasing adoption of steam power (steam-powered railways, boats and ships), the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of machinery in steam powered factories. Eventually, the revolution exploded at the turn of the 20th century with the creation of controlled electric power.

43. Reservation System refers to the 1851 Indian Appropriations Act which gave funds to move western tribes onto reservations. Commissioner of Indian Affairs Orlando Brown explained the rationale behind this policy in 1850. Brown suggested that reservations should be “a country adapted to agriculture, of limited extent and well-defined boundaries; within which all, with occasional exceptions, should be compelled constantly to remain until such time as their general improvement and good conduct may supersede the necessity of such restrictions.”

44. A monopoly exists when there is only one seller of a good or service and there is no reasonable alternative available. Monopolies are generally considered undesirable in a free enterprise system as they tend to keep prices high and quality levels of goods and services produced low – competition, the opposite idea of monopoly, does the opposite and is considered to be one of the cornerstones of a free enterprise system. In America, only certain types of monopolies are legal. Corporations have tried to get around anti-monopoly laws in several ways, disguising their business models so as to attempt to avoid detection by the law.

45. The Grange is a fraternal organization in the United States which encourages families to band together to promote the economic and political well-being of the community and agriculture. The Grange, founded after the Civil War in 1867, is the oldest American agricultural advocacy group with a national scope. The Farmers' Alliance was an organized agrarian economic movement among American farmers that developed and flourished in the 1870s and 1880s. The movement included several parallel but

independent political organizations — the National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union among the white farmers of the South, the National Farmers' Alliance among the white and black farmers of the Midwest and High Plains, where the Granger movement had been strong, and the Colored Farmers' National Alliance and Cooperative Union, consisting of the African American farmers of the South. These organizations formed as a direct result of agricultural surpluses, or overproduction, which resulted in lowered prices for agricultural goods and caused many farmers to go poor. In the view of farmers, banks charged outrageous interest rates, and monopolistic railroads not only charged outrageous rates but their rates were unfair and arbitrary in that the railroads charged farmers higher rates than they charged fellow industrialists. This movement led to some major accomplishments, including the passage of the Granger Laws, the establishment of free rural mail delivery, and the rise of the Populist Party, a short lived but influential political party that stood up for the rights of ordinary American workers and farmers. While the Populist Party ended after the election of 1896, many of their ideas and principles were adopted by the Progressive Movement in the first part of the 20th century.

46. The Granger Laws were a series of laws passed in several Midwestern states of the United States, namely Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois, in the late 1860s and early 1870s. The Granger Laws were promoted primarily by a group of farmers known as the Grange. The main goal of the Grange was to regulate rising prices of railroad and grain elevator company fees after the American Civil War.

47. The Cross of Gold Speech was delivered by William Jennings Bryan, a former United States Representative from Nebraska, at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago on July 9, 1896. In the address, Bryan supported bimetallism or "free silver", which he believed would bring the nation prosperity. He decried the gold standard, concluding the speech by saying, "you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold". Bryan's address helped catapult him to the Democratic Party's presidential nomination and is considered one of the greatest political speeches in American history. For twenty years, Americans had been bitterly divided over the nation's monetary standard. The gold standard, which the United States had effectively been on since 1873, limited the money supply but eased trade with other nations, such as the United Kingdom, whose currency was also based on gold. Less money in circulation doesn’t affect the wealthy, but it does affect everyone else. Bryan lost the election, but his progressive attitude toward helping the less fortunate rang true and ushered in a new wave of progressive political and economic thought.

48. The Suffrage Movement has, at times, focused more on expanding the rights of a single group, such as for women, or for African Americans. However, the general term refers to expanding the vote to all adults regardless of their sex, sexual orientation, race, or ethnicity.

49. The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) was formed on May 15, 1869 in New York City. It was created in response to a split in the American Equal Rights Association over whether the woman's movement should support the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (which gave black males the right to vote). Its founders, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, opposed the Fifteenth Amendment unless it included the vote for women. The NWSA worked to secure women's voting rights through a federal constitutional amendment - contrarily, its rival, the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), believed success could be more

easily achieved through state-by-state campaigns. In 1890 the NWSA and the AWSA merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).

50. Urbanization refers to the post-Civil War – 1930 migration of people from farming areas (rural) to cities and towns (urban).

51. Urban centers are areas with high population density which may actually have multiple urban centers. For example, Miami has many municipalities with urban populations, such as North Miami, Hialeah, Liberty City, and Kendall. Each of these municipalities is their own urban center.

52. The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 is a United States federal law that was designed to regulate the railroad industry, particularly its monopolistic practices. Act required that railroad rates be "reasonable and just," but did not empower the government to fix specific rates. It also required that railroads publicize shipping rates and prohibited short haul or long haul fare discrimination, a form of price discrimination against smaller markets, particularly farmers. The Act created a federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which it charged with monitoring railroads to ensure that they complied with the new regulations.

53. Child labor was a horrific norm in American society during the post-Civil War period until the Keating-Owen Act was passed in 1916. The law effectively ended child labor under the age of 14, but it was ruled unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in 1918. Child labor was not truly eliminated until 1938 with the passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act.

54. Ida Tarbell was an American teacher, author and journalist. She was one of the leading "muckrakers" of the progressive era. She is best known for her 1904 book “The History of the Standard Oil Company”, which is considered to be one of the greatest literary works of 20th-century American journalism. She depicted John D. Rockefeller as miserly, money-grabbing, and viciously effective at monopolizing the oil trade. This book led to the US Supreme Court declaring Standard Oil to be an illegal monopoly and breaking it up into 33 separate companies.

55. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron prior to the open hearth furnace. The process is named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1855. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten.

56. A market economy is an economy in which decisions regarding investment, production and distribution are based on supply and demand.

57. A planned economy is an economic system in which decisions regarding production and investment are embodied in a plan formulated by a central authority, usually by a public body such as a government agency.

58. A political machine is a political organization in which an authoritative boss or small group commands the support of a corps of supporters and businesses (usually campaign workers), who receive rewards for their efforts. The machine's power is based on the ability of the workers to get out the vote for their candidates on Election Day.

59. Henry Morrison Flagler (January 2, 1830 – May 20, 1913) was an American industrialist and a founder of Standard Oil. He was also a key figure in the development of the eastern coast of Florida along the Atlantic Ocean and was founder of what became

the Florida East Coast Railway. He is known as the father of Miami, Florida and also founded Palm Beach, Florida.

60. Muckrakers were turn of the century investigative journalists who exposed corruption in business and government and publicized it in books, newspapers and magazines. This many times forced business and government to institute changes in response to this negative press.

61. Ida Minerva Tarbell (November 5, 1857 – January 6, 1944) was an American teacher, author and journalist. She was one of the leading "muckrakers" of the progressive era. She wrote many notable magazine series and biographies. She is best known for her 1904 book The History of the Standard Oil Company, which was listed as No. 5 in a 1999 list by New York University of the top 100 works of 20th-century American journalism. She depicted John D. Rockefeller as crabbed, miserly, money-grabbing, and viciously effective at monopolizing the oil trade.

62. Immigration refers to the migration of foreign people into the United States to live here permanently or semi-permanently. Americans, despite the imagery of America as a “melting pot” have always been afraid of and generally been against immigration. This fear of foreigners (xenophobia) has led to many historical events that both define and haunt the American experience (Sacco and Vanzetti, the 2nd coming of the KKK, etc.).

63. Settlement houses were privately operated houses designed to help new immigrants to a large city to adapt easier, find jobs, learn the English language and about American culture, and to basically aid in the “Americanization” process.

64. Innovation, or invention, was a major force of the late 19th and early 20th century and still is today. People like Thomas Edison (lightbulb, electric generator, phonograph), Nicola Tesla (AC electricity), and Henry Ford (assembly line mass production factory) stand out as great turn of the century innovators.

65. The Knights of Labor was the largest and one of the most important American labor organizations of the 1880s. Its most important leader was Terence V. Powderly. The Knights promoted the social and cultural uplift of the working man, rejected Socialism and radicalism, and demanded the eight-hour day. In some cases it acted as a labor union, negotiating with employers, but it was never well organized, and after a rapid expansion in the mid-1880s, it suddenly lost its new members and became a small operation again.

66. The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was one of the first federations of labor unions in the United States. It was founded in Columbus, Ohio in May 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers' International Union was elected president of the Federation at its founding convention and was reelected every year except one until his death in 1924. The AFL was the largest union grouping in the United States for the first half of the 20th century, even after the creation of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) by unions that were expelled by the AFL in 1935 over its opposition to industrial unionism. While the Federation was founded and dominated by craft unions throughout the first fifty years of its existence, many of its craft union affiliates turned to organizing on an industrial union basis to meet the challenge from the CIO in the 1940s. In 1955, the AFL merged with its longtime rival, the Congress of Industrial Organizations, to form the AFL-CIO, a federation which remains in place to this day. Together with its offspring, the AFL has comprised the longest lasting and most influential labor federation in the United States.

67. Lewis Latimer was an African American draftsman and inventor who was born in Chelsea, Massachusetts, on September 4, 1848, the youngest of five children of Rebecca Latimer. He is best known for inventing an improved process for creating a carbon filament for light bulbs that was superior to Thomas Edison's original paper filament, which would burn out quickly. Latimer’s carbon filament introduced long lasting light bulbs and made it possible for cities to consider creating electric grids to electrify entire cities and towns.

68. Gentlemen’s agreements were a tactic used by T. Roosevelt in dealing with corporations that were trying to monopolize an industry and/or engaging in unfair labor practices. TR would many times offer to not go after a business legally, with the business promising to not engage in such practices and to basically follow the rules that TR set down. This allowed the business to remain out of trouble and TR to promote and maintain a business environment that was more open and competitive.

69. Government regulation was a no-no until the progressives began their revolution, because laissez-faire capitalism was the way of American business and government up until that point. But progressives saw government as a potential agent of positive change and began involving the government in regulating business. Laws such as the Sherman and Clayton Anti-Trust Acts, the Keating-Owen Act, and the creation of various government agencies that had legal authority to not only regulate business but also to arrest and charge business leaders with crimes changed the country from a laissez-faire nation to a nation that had business under government oversight.

70. Social Darwinism is a modern name given to various theories of society that emerged in the United States and Europe in the 1870s, and which sought to apply biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology and politics. Social Darwinists generally argue that the strong should see their wealth and power increase because of their inherent genetic superiority while the weak should see their wealth and power decrease, resulting from a lack of strong genes. Obviously, different social Darwinists have different views about which groups of people are the strong and the weak, and they also hold different opinions about the precise mechanism that should be used to promote strength and punish weakness.

71. The Social Gospel movement was a Protestant Christian intellectual movement that was most prominent in the early 20th century United States and Canada. The movement applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environment, child labor, inadequate labor unions, poor schools, and the danger of war. This movement gave rise to philanthropy, as well as organized institutions such as settlement houses, YMCA organizations, and charitable organizations such as the Salvation Army.

72. George Washington Carver (by January 1864 – January 5, 1943), was an American scientist, botanist, educator, and inventor. The exact day and year of his birth are unknown; he is believed to have been born into slavery in Missouri in January 1864. Carver's reputation is based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, such as peanuts, soybeans and sweet potatoes, which also aided nutrition for farm families. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their quality of life.

73. Binder Boys - The strangest element of the Florida real estate industry was the use of binder boys to start land transactions and to relieve realtors of the task of standing around hot, vacant land waiting for investors. Most binder boys were young, ambitious men and women willing to take a binder, or down payment with a thirty day financing period. Many binder boys were college students with tennis or golf skills who demonstrated the desirability of some future real estate development by just playing a game of tennis for the tourists. Often there was little more than a fancy entrance way and a tennis court resting in some isolated field. Binder boys did not get paid a commission until the binder check cleared the bank, a process than sometimes took several weeks. However, South Florida lived real estate during this time and binders discovered the mere presentation of their binder receipts gave them instant credit in hotels, restaurants, and nightspots. It was exciting being a young person with so much expected money going into your bank account.

74. The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by Chester A. Arthur on May 6, 1882, following revisions made in 1880 to the Burlingame Treaty of 1868. Those revisions allowed the U.S. to suspend Chinese immigration, a ban that was intended to last 10 years. This law was repealed by the Magnuson Act on December 17, 1943.

75. The Haymarket affair (also known as the Haymarket massacre or Haymarket riot) refers to the aftermath of a bombing that took place at ``a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4, 1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago. It began as a peaceful rally in support of workers striking for an eight-hour day. An unknown person threw a dynamite bomb at police as they acted to disperse the public meeting. The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians; scores of others were wounded.

76. The Sherman Antitrust Act (Sherman Act, July 2, 1890, Ch. 647, 26 Stat. 209, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1–7) is a landmark federal statute on United States competition law passed by Congress in 1890. It prohibits certain business activities that federal government regulators deem to be anticompetitive, and requires the federal government to investigate and pursue trusts, companies, and organizations suspected of being in violation. It was the first federal statute to limit cartels and monopolies, and today still forms the basis for most antitrust litigation by the United States federal government.

77. The Homestead Strike was an industrial lockout and strike which began on June 30, 1892, culminating in a battle between strikers and private security agents on July 6, 1892. The battle was the second largest and one of the most serious disputes in U.S. labor history. The final result was a major defeat for the union and a setback for efforts to unionize steelworkers. Carnegie Steel was the overall victor.

78. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act was enacted on July 14, 1890 as a United States federal law. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act did not authorize the free and unlimited coinage of silver that the Free Silver supporters wanted. However, it increased the amount of silver the government was required to purchase on a recurrent monthly basis to 4.5 million ounces. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act had been passed in response to the growing complaints of farmers' and miners' interests. Farmers had immense debts that could not be paid off due to deflation caused by overproduction, and they urged the government to pass the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in order to boost the economy and cause inflation, allowing them to pay their debts with cheaper dollars.

Late 19 th and Early 20 th Century World Affairs, Imperialism, the Spanish-American War, Pre through Post War - World War I

(Benchmarks SS.912.A.4.1 - SS.912.A.4.11)79. George Dewey (December 26, 1837 – January 16, 1917) was an admiral of the United

States Navy. He is best known for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish-American War. He was also the only person in the history of the United States to have attained the rank of Admiral of the Navy, the most senior rank in the United States Navy.

80. The Teller Amendment was an amendment to a joint resolution of the United States Congress, enacted on April 20, 1898, in reply to President William McKinley's War Message. It placed a condition of the United States military in Cuba. According to the clause, the U.S. could not annex Cuba but only leave "control of the island to its people."

81. The Treaty of Portsmouth formally ended the 1904-05 Russo-Japanese War. In accordance with the treaty, both Japan and Russia agreed to leave Manchuria and return its sovereignty to China, but Japan leased the Liaodong Peninsula (containing Port Arthur and Talien), and the Russian rail system in southern Manchuria with access to strategic resources. Japan also received the southern half of the Island of Sakhalin from Russia, so many looked on this war as a Japanese victory.

82. Imperialism is the process of stronger nations taking over weaker countries to add territory to their land control, open up new markets to become richer, and to test and expand military capabilities. In the end imperialism leads to an attempt to build an empire.

83. The Open Door Policy originates with British commercial practice, as was reflected in treaties concluded with China after the First Opium War (1839–1842). Through the acquisition of the Philippine Islands, and when the partition of China by the European powers and Japan seemed imminent, the United States felt its commercial interests in China were threatened. U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia), asking them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports within their spheres of influence in China. The open door policy stated that all European nations, and the United States, could trade with China.

84. The four main reasons WW 1 happened:a. Imperialism: Domination by one country of the political, economic, or cultural life

of another country or region. Imperial competition amongst the major Euro powers and America contributed to the feelings of distrust and animosity amongst the combatants. This led to…

b. Militarism: A glorification of the military leading to a buildup of the armed forces, usually presaging a war effort. In this era, the need for a strong military was two-fold; a nation needed it for imperial conquest, and it also needed it to protect themselves from other major military powers geographically nearby (France and Germany, for example). This in turn led to…

c. Nationalism: A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one’s country; this became extreme in this era, many times evolving into xenophobia, a fear and distrust of anyone and anything foreign. Many times this feeling of superiority over other nations manifested itself in the glory of victorious armed forces and a desire to gain even more by conquest. Nationalism also aided the desire for independence in some European regions such as the Balkan Peninsula, the region where WW 1 actually began. This led to…

d. Alliances: Contracts between two or more nations to respond militarily if another nation attacks one of them. For example, if England and France are allies and Germany attacks France, England is required to go to war with Germany. As Germany became more and more powerful, a fear developed in France and Russia, Germany’s Western and Eastern neighbors, that Germany might try and defeat one of them in order to gain more land, money, and power. The balance of power in Europe was shifting out of balance as Germany had quickly become the most powerful, and so France and Russia decided to join together as a defense against potential German aggression. Russia responded by initiating an alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy (The Triple Alliance) and began to build their navy up. England was alarmed as their navy was what set them apart in Europe and was also what protected their island from attack. In response, England joined France and Russia in what became the Triple Entente. When the heir to the Austria-Hungarian throne, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo, the capital city of Bosnia, in June of 1914, Austria-Hungary wished to attack Bosnia and asked Germany if they would support them. Germany answered with the famous Blank Check, telling Austria-Hungary that they backed them up no matter what the cost. Russia was allied with Bosnia, so when Austria-Hungary attacked Bosnia, Russia was required to respond. Once Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany declared war on each other, the rest of the allied nations fell in and declared war. That’s how WW 1 started.

85. New Technology in WW 1: Chemical warfare (using poisonous gases and chemical compounds, mainly chlorine, to either kill or incapacitate enemies), mobile radio field telephones for battle communication, cannons capable of firing shells as far as 120 kilometers (74.5 miles) and fighter planes were flown into battle zones for the first time ever. Other examples are flamethrowers, tanks, and submachine guns and other types of automatic weapons.

86. The Sussex Pledge was the agreement with the USA whereby Germany agreed to stop their unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic (this meant Germany had previously attacked any ships they thought might be helping their enemy, even if the attacking commander lacked evidence to show that to be the case). When a French cross-channel passenger ferry, the Sussex, was torpedoed without warning on March 24, 1916, the ship was severely damaged and about 50 lives were lost. Although no US citizens were killed in this attack, it prompted President Woodrow Wilson to declare that if Germany were to continue unrestricted submarine warfare, the United States would break diplomatic relations with Germany. Fearing the entry of the United States into World War I, Germany attempted to appease the United States by issuing this pledge. There were three primary elements of the pledge:a. Passenger ships would not be targeted;

b. Merchant ships would not be sunk until the presence of weapons had been established, if necessary by a search of the ship;

c. Merchant ships would not be sunk without provision for the safety of passengers and crew.

By early 1917 Germany had become wrongly convinced that they could defeat the Allies by reinstituting unrestricted submarine warfare before the United States could enter the war. The Sussex pledge was therefore cancelled in January 1917. The resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram caused the United States to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.

87. The RMS Lusitania, a passenger cruise ship, was hit by a torpedo and sunk on May 7, 1915 during the First World War, as Germany waged submarine warfare against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The ship was torpedoed by a German U-boat (German submarines were called U-boats) and sank in 18 minutes, killing 1,198 and leaving 761 survivors. The sinking turned public opinion in many countries against Germany, especially in the United States, as it contributed heavily to America’s entry into World War I and became an iconic symbol in military recruiting campaigns of why the war was being fought.

88. The Selective Service Act of 1917 authorized the federal government to raise a national army for the American entry into World War I through conscription, also referred to as a draft. The Act was canceled with the end of the war in November of 1918.

89. The Big Four refers to the top Allied leaders who met at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919 following the end of World War I (1914–18). The Big Four are also known as the Council of Four. It was composed of Woodrow Wilson of the United States, David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Orlando of Italy, and Georges Clemenceau of France.

90. A conscientious objector is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service" on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, and/or religion.

91. Propaganda involves the mass publishing/disseminating of information with the aim of persuading people to accept and embrace a particular idea(s). Propaganda is not necessarily untruthful, but truth is not what propaganda is about. The purpose is to persuade, not tell the truth. As a result, truth is many times twisted, and lies are not at all uncommon, all for the sake of convincing the public of something. During wartime, or the prelude to a war, propaganda is widely used to “sell” the war to the public.

92. African-Americans eagerly volunteered to join the Allied cause following America's entry into World War 1. By the time of the armistice with Germany on November 11, 1918, over 350,000 African Americans had served with the American Expeditionary Force on the Western Front. Most African American units were largely relegated to support roles and did not see combat. One of the most distinguished units was the 369th Infantry Regiment, known as the "Harlem Hellfighters", which was on the front lines for six months, longer than any other American unit in the war. 171 members of the 369th were awarded the Legion of Merit.

93. Women in World War I were mobilized in unprecedented numbers on all sides. The vast majority of these women in America went to work in the civilian work force to replace the men who’d left to fight the war or work in greatly expanded munitions

(weapons and ammunition) factories. Thousands served in the military in support roles, usually either as nurses or clerical workers, but in Russia some saw combat as well.

94. The home front during World War I covers the domestic, economic, social and political histories of countries involved in that conflict. It covers the mobilization of armed forces and war supplies, but does not include the military history. America had the largest industrial, financial and agricultural base of any of the great powers, but it took 12–18 months to fully reorient it to the war effort. American money, food and weapons flowed freely to Europe from spring 1917, but American troops arrived much more slowly. The US Army in 1917 was small and poorly equipped, and much of American manufacturing shifted over to provide for the war effort. Because young men were fighting in the war, many jobs that blacks and women would never have had a chance at opened up. Meanwhile, propaganda promoting the war effort was very effective, convincing Americans to not only support the war effort, but also to sacrifice by going through ration programs, and buying war bonds to help pay for the war. War bonds are loans given to the US government by Americans with the promise that they could collect the war bond amount, with interest, at a date far in the future, usually 20 years.

95. The War Industries Board (WIB) was a United States government agency established on July 28, 1917, during World War I, to coordinate the purchase of war supplies. The organization encouraged companies to use mass-production techniques to increase efficiency and urged them to eliminate waste by standardizing products.

96. The Committee on Public Information, also known as the CPI or the Creel Committee, was an independent agency of the government of the United States created to influence U.S. public opinion to be in favor of American participation in World War I.

97. The Espionage Act of 1917 originally prohibited any attempt to interfere with military operations, to support U.S. enemies during wartime, to promote insubordination in the military, or to interfere with military recruitment. In 1919, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Schenck v. United States that the act did not violate the freedom of speech of those convicted under its provisions.

98. The Sedition Act of 1918 was an Act of the United States Congress that extended the Espionage Act of 1917 to cover a broader range of offenses, notably speech and the expression of opinion against the government or the war effort or interfered with the sale of government bonds.

99. The Zimmermann Telegram (or Zimmermann Note) was a 1917 diplomatic proposal from the German Empire to Mexico to make war against the United States. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. Revelation of the contents outraged American public opinion and helped generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April. The Foreign Secretary of the German Empire, Arthur Zimmermann, sent the telegram in which instructed Ambassador Eckardt that if the U.S. appeared likely to enter the war, he was to approach the Mexican Government with a proposal for military alliance, with funding from Germany. Mexico was promised territories in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona that had been lost to the United States starting in 1836 as parts of the former Republic of Texas, and in 1848 with the Mexican Cession.

100. Entangling alliances among the European powers affected World War I by causing a small regional conflict to explode into an international war. The first of the two major alliances in this war were the Central Powers dominated by Germany, Austria-

Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Their opponents were the Allies made up of France, Great Britain, Russia, Japan, Italy and eventually the United States. The war began with a relatively small incident, the June 28, 1914, assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb. Serbia said they had nothing to do with the assassination; however, knowing that Serbia had designs on its territories in the Balkans, the government of Austria-Hungary suspected Serbia of complicity and so they attacked. This caused a cascade of alliances to go into effect. Russia rushed to the support of its ally Serbia by mobilizing its troops. This caused Austria-Hungary and Germany to mobilize their troops against Russia. At this point, to defend its ally and attack its longtime enemy, Germany, France began to ready its troops. Germany attacked France through Belgium, a country whose neutrality Great Britain had sworn to defend. This act dragged the British military into the war. By September 1914, Japan and the Ottoman Turks had joined as well, creating a tangled conflict between the alliances that took place not only in Europe but also throughout the world, in the open sea, and in European colonies in Africa and Asia.

101. Trench Warfare used occupied fighting lines consisting of deep trenches, with an area in the middle between the enemy trenches called “no man’s land’. Any attacks had to be carried out with one side climbing out of their trenches and rushing toward the enemy trench, exposing them to the machine guns and artillery fire from the enemy. The trenches gave significant protection from the enemy's machine gun and small arms fire and also greatly enhanced protection from the enemy’s artillery fire, but if you were outside of the trench, your life was in serious danger. Attacks, even if successful, usually sustained severe casualties.The most prominent case of trench warfare occurred on the Western Front in World War I. A revolution in military arms and firepower made the newer weapons ridiculously powerful, but this was not matched by similar advances in mobility and body armor, so the trenches were the only place on a battlefield that offered any protection from the enemy. No man's land was fully exposed to artillery fire from both sides.

102. An armistice is a formal agreement of warring parties to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, since it might be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace but the attempt fails.

103. The Treaty of Versailles ended World War 1. France was absolutely committed to hurting Germany badly for punishment, and to make sure that Germany would never again posed a threat to France. As a result, the treaty was extremely punitive towards Germany. Several points in the treaty really stuck in Germany’s throat. One of the most important and controversial required Germany to accept responsibility for the war, which became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty also forced Germany to disarm (disarmament is when a country either voluntarily or involuntarily eliminates or drastically cuts back on the amount of weaponry they possess)their military, make substantial territorial concessions (they lost all of their material possessions and some of their own territory as well), and pay massive reparations to certain countries that had formed the Allied/Entente powers, mainly France. The total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion Marks (roughly equivalent in US money to $442 billion – another way to look at it is that this sum was equal to approximately half of the total amount of gold ever found). At the time economists, notably John Maynard Keynes predicted that the treaty was too harsh—a "Carthaginian peace" (Carthage was literally destroyed

forever by the Roman legions) and said the figure was excessive and counter-productive. He was right.

104. The "Fourteen Points" was a statement by United States President Woodrow Wilson that the Great War was being fought for a moral cause and for postwar peace in Europe. People in Europe generally welcomed Wilson's intervention, but his main Allied colleagues (Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of the Great Britain, and Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy) were skeptical of the applicability of Wilsonian idealism.

105. The League of Nations was an organization for international cooperation established at the initiative of the victorious Allied Powers at the end of World War I. During the war influential groups in the United States and Britain had urged the creation of such a body, and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson strongly favored the idea as a means of preventing another destructive world conflict. A league covenant (contract) embodying the principles of collective security (joint action by League members against an aggressor), arbitration of international disputes, reduction of weapons, and open diplomacy, was formulated and subscribed to by the Allies at the Paris Peace Conference (1919). It never really worked; even though it was President Wilson’s plan (it was one of his famous 14 Points) Americans were deeply suspicious of this; many saw the possibility of the American government becoming subverted to the will of the League. As a result, America never joined the league and by the 1930’s, was rendered powerless. It suspended its activities during World War II and then was replaced after the war by the United Nations, which still exists today.