Demobilization, the Roaring 20’s, the Harlem Renaissance, the First Red Scare, the Fundamentalist Movement, the Beginning of the Black Civil Rights Movement, the Great

Depression, and the New Deal (Benchmarks SS.912.A.5.1 - SS.912.A.5.12)

1. Demobilization is the breaking down of the military and its soldiers once a war effort is completed. It is the antonym of mobilization, which refers to the gearing up of the military in preparation for an upcoming war.

2. Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and co-operative (people and government) management of the economy.

3. Communism is a revolutionary socialist movement to create a classless, moneyless, and stateless social order structured upon common (state) ownership of the means of production, as well as a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of this social order via dictatorship.

4. Anarchism is a political philosophy that favors stateless societies often defined as self-governed voluntary institutions. Several anarchist authors have defined this as more specific institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations. Anarchism believes that the state, meaning any national government, is undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful to the people.

5. The Red Scare had two phases, both being steeped in misinformation and xenophobia. The 1st Red Scare occurred after World War 1, once Americans had some time to digest exactly what Communism was and how this new governmental philosophy in Russia might affect America down the road. It became a nation-wide anti-communist/Socialist hysteria provoked by a fear that there would be a Communist revolution in America which would change every aspect of the American way of life. There was a second Red Scare in the 1950 after World War II (1939–45), and was popularly known as "McCarthyism" after its most famous supporter, Senator Joseph McCarthy. McCarthyism coincided with increased popular fear of communist espionage consequent to a Soviet Eastern Europe, the Berlin Blockade (1948–49), the Chinese Civil War (where the Chinese adopted Communism as a governmental form), the confessions of spying for the Soviet Union given by several high-ranking U.S. government officials, and the Korean War, also a communist battle. McCarthy claimed that he had evidence of major politicians, political leaders, and celebrities that were actively aiding the Russians and other Communist organizations. He was lying and was never able to prosecute a single person and left office in disgrace. Today, McCarthyism stands for the practice of making formal accusations without proper regard for evidence. It also means the practice of making unfair allegations or using unfair investigative techniques.

6. The Dawes Plan was an attempt in 1924 to solve the German reparations problem, which had bedeviled international politics following World War I. The plan provided for a staggered payment plan for Germany's payment of war reparations. Because the plan resolved a serious international crisis, Dawes shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1925 for his work.

7. Tariffs are taxes one country places on any goods being exported to that nation by another nation. This raises the price of the foreign goods, and gives an advantage to companies based in the home country. Tariffs are seen as protectionist because the main reason is to shelter American businesses and American jobs from foreign competition.

8. Flappers were a "new breed" of young Western women in the 1920s who wore short skirts, bobbed their hair, listened to jazz, and showed openly their disdain for what was then considered acceptable female behavior. Flappers were seen as brash for wearing excessive makeup, drinking and smoking, treating sex in a casual manner, driving automobiles, and otherwise doing things women were not supposed to be doing at that time – they ignored social and sexual norms. This movement of independence is one of the precursors to the women’s rights movement that began in the 1960’s.

9. The impact of climate and natural disasters in the 1920’s and 1930’s refers to the fact that the Florida land boom of the 1920's was interrupted by a series of natural disasters in Florida, including freezes which hurt citrus production, and major hurricanes, especially the 1926 storm, a category 4 to 5 hurricane by modern standards that absolutely devastated Miami and left a heavy trail of damage all the way up the state, even in Pensacola. In the Midwest, a long drought during the 1930s, particularly in 1934-1936, combined with farming methods that did not include crop rotation, fallow fields, cover crops, soil terracing and wind-breaking trees to prevent wind erosion, caused these disastrous storms to develop. Many people left their land and moved penniless to the east of west coasts, creating an even more desperate situation for cities during the Great Depression.

10. The Everglades National Park is a U.S. National Park in Florida that protects the southern 20 percent of the original Everglades. In the United States, it is the largest tropical wilderness, the largest wilderness of any kind east of the Mississippi River, and is visited on average by one million people each year. It has been declared an International Biosphere Reserve, a World Heritage Site, and a Wetland of International Importance, one of only three locations in the world to appear on all three lists.

11. The Jazz Age was a feature of the 1920s when jazz music and dancing became popular. This occurred particularly in the United States, but also later in Britain, France and elsewhere. Jazz played a significant part in wider cultural changes during the period, and its influence on pop culture continued long afterwards. Jazz music originated mainly in New Orleans, and is/was a fusion of African and European music. The Jazz Age is often referred to in conjunction with the phenomenon referred to as the Roaring Twenties.

12. The Roaring Twenties is a term used to refer to the 1920s in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, a period that’s characterized by the decade's distinctive cultural scene in New York City, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, London, Los Angeles, and many other major cities during this ten year period of sustained economic prosperity. The French called it the "années folles" ("Crazy Years"), emphasizing the era's social, artistic and cultural dynamism. American jazz music blossomed, the flapper redefined modern womanhood and Art Deco fashion styles peaked (the Art Deco style is most cleanly preserved in the architecture of South Beach). Economically the era saw the first large-scale use of automobiles, telephones, motion pictures, and electricity. It also marked a time of unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and significant (and positive) changes in the quality of life.

13. Constitutional Amendments related to this era: a. 16th: provided for a national income tax. Ratified in 1913.b. 17th: established the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote rather

than by the choice of state legislatures.

c. 18th: established Prohibition; in other words, it made the manufacture, sale, transport, and/or possession of alcoholic beverages illegal in the USA. Ratified in 1919.

d. 19th: gave women the right to vote. Ratified in 1920.e. 21st: Repealed the 18th amendment and ended Prohibition. Ratified in 1933.

14. The Fordney–McCumber Tariff of 1922 raised American tariffs in order to protect American factories and farms. Congress displayed a pro-business attitude in passing the ad valorem tariff, but also promoted foreign trade through providing huge loans to Europe, which in turn bought more American goods.

15. The Teapot Dome scandal was a bribery incident that took place in the United States from 1920–1923, during the administration of President Warren G. Harding. Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall leased Navy petroleum reserves at Teapot Dome in Wyoming and two other locations in California to private oil companies at low rates without competitive bidding. In 1922 and 1923, the leases became the subject of a sensational investigation by Senator Thomas J. Walsh. Fall was later convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies.

16. Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti (better known as Sacco and Vanzetti) were Italian-born anarchists (see below) who were convicted of murdering two men during the armed robbery of a shoe factory in Braintree, Massachusetts, United States in 1920. Both adhered to a strain of anarchism that advocated relentless warfare against a violent and oppressive government. After a few hours' deliberation, the jury found Sacco and Vanzetti guilty of first-degree murder on July 14, 1921. A series of appeals followed, funded largely by a private Sacco and Vanzetti Defense Committee. The appeals were based on recanted testimony, conflicting ballistics evidence, a prejudicial pre-trial statement by the jury foreman, and a confession by an alleged participant in the robbery. All appeals were denied by the original trial judge and eventually by the Massachusetts State Supreme Court. By 1925, the case had drawn worldwide attention. As details of the trial and the men's suspected innocence became known, Sacco and Vanzetti became the center of one of the largest international causes célèbres (an issue or incident arousing widespread controversy, outside campaigning and heated public debate) in modern history. In 1927, protests on their behalf were held in every major city in North America and Europe, as well as Tokyo, Sydney, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, and Johannesburg. Celebrated writers, artists, and academics pleaded for their pardon or for a new trial. Nothing worked, however. Sacco and Vanzetti were sentenced to death in April 1927, accelerating the outcry. Responding to a massive influx of telegrams urging their pardon, Massachusetts governor Alvan Fuller appointed a three-man commission to investigate the case. After weeks of secret deliberation, which included interviews with the judge, lawyers, and several witnesses, the commission upheld the verdict. Sacco and Vanzetti were executed via electric chair on August 23, 1927. Subsequent riots destroyed property in Paris, London, and other cities around the world.

17. Anarchism is often defined as a political philosophy which holds the state and its governments to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful. It advocates a stateless society absent of any governmental bodies, where local communities of people make decisions voluntarily.

18. "A return to normalcy" (i.e. a return to the way of life before World War I) was United States presidential candidate Warren G. Harding’s campaign promise in the election of 1920. This pledge basically promised to return America to pre-WWI isolationism.

19. Four-Power Treaty, all parties agreement to respect the Pacific holdings of the other countries signing the agreement, to not seeking further territorial expansion, and promised mutual consultation with each other in the event of a dispute over territorial possessions.

20. The Kellogg–Briand Pact was a 1928 international agreement in which promised not to use war to resolve disputes or conflicts. Parties failing to abide by this promise would "be denied the benefits furnished by this treaty". It was signed by Germany, France and the United States on August 27, 1928, and by most other nations soon after. Sponsored by France and the U.S., the Pact renounced the use of war and called for the peaceful settlement of disputes.

21. The Neutrality Acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing problems in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. The growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I was the cause of these acts, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts.

22. The Washington Naval Conference was a military conference called by President Warren G. Harding and held in Washington from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922. Conducted outside the auspices of the League of Nations, it was attended by nine nations—the United States, Japan, China, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal—regarding interests in the Pacific Ocean and East Asia. Soviet Russia was not invited to the conference. It was the first international conference held in the United States and the first disarmament conference in history, and it is still studied by political scientists as a model for a successful disarmament movement.

23. Immigration vs. Nativism was a philosophical battle in the US in the 1920’s regarding whether or not the US should shut down its borders to immigrants (nativism) or continue to accept foreigners into the country as the US always had in the past. In the 1920’s, a quota system was put in place to limit immigration. It’s a battle that continues to this day, with each side of the issue having periods of dominance over the years.

24. Booker Taliaferro Washington (April 5, 1856 – November 14, 1915) was an African-American educator, author, orator, and advisor to Republican presidents. He was the dominant leader in the African-American community in the United States from 1890 to 1915. Representative of the last generation of black American leaders born in slavery, he spoke on behalf of the large majority of blacks who lived in the South but had lost their ability to vote through disfranchisement by southern legislatures. Historians note that Washington, "advised, networked, cut deals, made threats, pressured, punished enemies, rewarded friends, greased palms, manipulated the media, signed autographs, read minds with the skill of a master psychologist, strategized, raised money, always knew where the camera was pointing, traveled with an entourage, waved the flag with patriotic speeches, and claimed to have no interest in partisan politics. In other words, he was an artful politician."

25. W.E.B. Du Bois (February 23, 1868 – August 27, 1963) was an American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, and author. After graduating from Harvard, where he was the first African American to earn a doctorate, he became a professor of history, sociology and economics at Atlanta University. Du Bois was one of the co-founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement, a group of

African-American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta Compromise, an agreement crafted by Booker T. Washington which provided that Southern blacks would work and submit to white political rule, while Southern whites guaranteed that blacks would receive basic educational and economic opportunities. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation, which he believed would be brought about by the African-American intellectual elite. He referred to this group as the talented tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership.

26. Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr., (17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940), was a Jamaican political leader, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a staunch proponent of the Black nationalism and Pan-Africanism movements, to which end he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL). He founded the Black Star Line, part of the Back-to-Africa movement, which promoted the return of the African people to their ancestral lands.

27. Irving Berlin (May 11, 1888 – September 22, 1989) was a great American composer and lyricist of Belarusian Jewish origin in Russian Empire, nowadays Belarus), widely considered one of the greatest songwriters in American history. He published his first song, "Marie from Sunny Italy", in 1907 and had his first major international hit, "Alexander's Ragtime Band" in 1911.

28. Langston Hughes (February 1, 1902 – May 22, 1967) was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist. He was one of the earliest innovators of the then-new literary art form jazz poetry. Hughes is best known for his work during the Harlem Renaissance.

29. The Harlem Renaissance was a black artistic movement in New York City in the 1920s, when writers, poets, painters, and musicians came together to express feelings and experiences, especially about the injustices of Jim Crow laws. A few of the leading figures of the movement included Duke Ellington, Zora Neale Hurston, and Langston Hughes.

30. Mary Jane McLeod Bethune (July 10, 1875 – May 18, 1955) was an American educator and civil rights leader best known for starting a school for African-American students in Daytona Beach, Florida, that eventually became Bethune-Cookman University and for being an advisor to President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

31. A. Philip Randolph (April 15, 1889 – May 16, 1979) was a leader in the African-American civil-rights movement, the American labor movement and socialist political parties.

32. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was created in 1909 by a group of liberal thinkers (including Du Bois, Jane Addams and John Dewey). Its mission is "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination".

33. The Eighteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution established prohibition of alcoholic beverages in the United States, which made the production, transport and sale of alcohol illegal.

34. Fundamentalism is the demand for a strict adherence to specific Biblical doctrines, with the core idea that the Bible was the direct word of God in absolute. Often it is understood as a reaction against Modernist theology, which tended to dismiss some areas of the Bible

while embracing others. The term "fundamentalism" was originally coined by its supporters to describe a movement within the Protestant community of the United States in the early part of the 20th century, and that had its roots in the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy of that time.

35. The Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits any United States citizen to be denied the right to vote based on sex. It was ratified on August 18, 1920.

36. The Rosewood massacre was a violent, racially motivated conflict that took place during the first week of January, 1923 in rural Levy County, Florida, United States. At least six blacks and two whites were killed, and the town of Rosewood was abandoned and destroyed in what contemporary news reports characterized as a race riot. Racial disturbances were common during the early 20th century in the United States, reflecting the nation's rapid social changes. Florida had an especially high number of lynchings in the years before the massacre.

37. The Volstead Act was enacted to carry out the intent of the Eighteenth Amendment, which established prohibition in the United States. The three distinct purposes of the Act were to prohibit intoxicating beverages, to regulate the manufacture, sale, or transport of intoxicating liquor, and to ensure an ample supply of alcohol and promote its use in scientific research and in the development of fuel, dye and other lawful industries and practices, such as religious rituals.

38. The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in 1929-1930 and lasted until the late 1930’s or middle 1940’s. It was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century; some historians believe that it was the worst economic disaster in the history of civilization. The depression originated in the United States, after the fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929, and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929 (known as Black Tuesday). The Great Depression had devastating effects internationally. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%. Unemployment in the U.S. rose to 30+% and in some countries rose as high as 50%. Construction was virtually halted in most countries. Farming and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by approximately 60%. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s. In many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until after the end of World War II.

39. The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also known as Black Tuesday or the Stock Market Crash of 1929 began in late October of 1929 and was the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States, when taking into consideration the full extent and duration of its fallout. The crash signaled the beginning of the 10-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. During that fateful month, there were actually three separate “black” days where the stock market showed major signs of weakness. On October 24, or "Black Thursday, the market lost 11 percent of its value at the opening bell on very heavy trading. Over the weekend, the events were covered by the newspapers across the United States and the panic deepened. On October 28, or Black Monday, the slide continued with a record loss for a day of 13%. The next day, the big one, Black Tuesday, October 29, 1929, another 12% loss continued the slide. The volume of stocks traded on October 29, 1929 was a record that was not broken

for nearly 40 years. By the end of the slide in 1932 (yes three full years!) the stock market had lost 89% of its value.

40. The New Deal was a series of domestic programs enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1937. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term (1933–37) of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs were in response to the Great Depression, and focused on what historians call the "3 R’s": Relief, Recovery, and Reform, meaning relief for the unemployed and poor; recovery of the economy to normal levels; and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. Many historians distinguish between a "First New Deal" (1933–34) and a "Second New Deal" (1935–38), with the second one more liberal and more controversial. The "First New Deal" (1933–34) dealt with diverse groups, from banking and railroads to industry and farming, all of which demanded help for economic survival. The "Second New Deal" in 1935–38 included the Wagner Act to promote labor unions, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) relief program (which made the federal government by far the largest single employer in the nation), the Social Security Act, and new programs to aid farmers and migrant workers. The final major items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the United States Housing Authority and Farm Security Administration, both in 1937, and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which set maximum hours and minimum wages for most categories of workers and eliminated child labor under the age of 14.

41. 1933 bank holidays were called by FDR on several occasions. By closing all the banks, FDR stopped the run on those financial institutions and also gave some comfort to the people who were worried about their bank accounts. After announcing he would close the banks, he told the public that federal examiners would check each and every bank closed. Those that were financially strong would be allowed to reopen. Those that were in bad shape would be closed, and those that needed help would be provided aid from the federal government. It boosted the confidence of the public that the government was doing something to protect their money.

42. Bull markets are characterized by optimism, investor confidence and expectations that strong results will continue. Bear markets are the complete opposite, characterized by fear, pessimism, and a distinct lack of investor confidence. Bull markets see stock prices rising, while bear markets see stock prices plummeting. It's difficult to predict consistently when the trends in the market will change. Part of the difficulty is that psychological effects and speculation may sometimes play a large role in the markets. The use of "bull" and "bear" to describe markets comes from the way the animals attack their opponents. A bull thrusts its horns up into the air while a bear swipes its paws down. These actions are metaphors for the movement of a market. If the trend is up, it's a bull market. If the trend is down, it's a bear market.

43. The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) was a law passed by the United States Congress in 1933 authorizing the President to regulate American industry in an attempt to raise prices after severe deflation during the first few years of the Great depression and to stimulate economic recovery. It also established a national public works program known as the Public Works Administration (PWA), an attempt to create jobs via the creation of a large-scale public works construction agency, the PWA. The law also created a new agency; the National Recovery Administration (NRA). The PWA built large-scale public works such as dams, bridges, hospitals, and schools, while the NRA became the

primary New Deal agency established by President Franklin Roosevelt in 1933. Its goal was to eliminate "cut-throat competition" by bringing industry, labor and government together to create codes of fair practices and set fair prices. The NRA intended to reduce "destructive competition" and to help workers by setting minimum wages and maximum weekly hours, as well as minimum prices at which products could be sold.

44. The Dust Bowl, or the Dirty Thirties, was a period of severe dust storms causing major ecological and agricultural damage to American and Canadian prairie lands in the 1930s, particularly in 1934 and 1936. The phenomenon was caused by severe drought combined with farming methods that did not include crop rotation, fallow fields, cover crops, soil terracing and wind-breaking trees to prevent wind erosion.

45. The term business cycle (or the economic boom/bust cycle) refers to economy-wide fluctuations in production, trade and economic activity in general over several months or years in an economy organized on free-enterprise principles. The business cycle is the upward and downward movements of levels of GDP or GNP (Gross Domestic Product and Gross National Product) and refers to the period of expansions and contractions in the level of economic activities (business fluctuations) around its long-term growth trend. These fluctuations typically involve shifts over time between periods of relatively rapid economic growth (an expansion or boom), and periods of relative stagnation or decline (a contraction or recession which can in a worst case scenario become a depression). Business cycles are usually measured by considering the growth rate of real gross domestic product. A typical cycle is boom followed by recession followed by recovery, and then boom again. Despite being termed cycles, these fluctuations in economic activity do not follow a mechanical or predictable pattern.

46. Gross national product (GNP) is the market value of all the products and services produced in one year by labor and property supplied by the residents of a country.

47. Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all officially recognized final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.

48. A sit-down strike is a form of civil disobedience in which an organized group of workers, usually employed at a factory or other centralized location, take possession of the workplace by "sitting down" at their stations, effectively preventing their employers from replacing them with strikebreakers or, in some cases, moving production to other locations.

49. Buying on margin refers to the purchase of stocks by borrowing the necessary funds from a bank or stockbroker. Buying on margin refers to the initial payment made to the broker for the stock being purchased. The collateral for the funds being borrowed is the marginable securities in the investor's account – if the stock begins to fall, the bank or broker can call in your margin loan, forcing you to sell other stock assets to pay off the margin loan.

50. Speculation is the practice of engaging in risky financial transactions in an attempt to profit from short or medium term fluctuations in the market value of a tradable good such as a financial instrument, rather than attempting to profit from the underlying financial attributes embodied in the instrument such as capital gains, interest, or dividends. Speculators usually pay little attention to the fundamental value of a security and instead focus purely on price movements.

51. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) was a United States federal law of the New Deal era which restricted agricultural production by paying farmers not to plant on part of

their land and/or to kill off excess livestock. Its purpose was to reduce crop surplus and therefore effectively raise the value of crops.

52. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was a public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men from relief families, ages 18–25. It provided unskilled manual labor jobs related to the conservation and development of natural resources in rural lands owned by federal, state and local governments.

53. The Bonus Army was the popular name of an assemblage of some 43,000 marchers—17,000 World War I veterans, their families, and affiliated groups—who gathered in Washington, D.C., in the spring and summer of 1932 to demand cash-payment redemption of their service certificates which were not supposed to be paid off until 1945. Its organizers called it the Bonus Expeditionary Force to echo the name of World War I's American Expeditionary Forces, while the media called it the Bonus March. It was led by Walter W. Waters, a former army sergeant. The government refused to pay the certificates off and riots ensued. Several marchers were killed, many more wounded, and they were unceremoniously swept out of Washington, defeated by the military and police.

54. Many of the war veterans had been out of work since the beginning of the Great Depression. The World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924 had awarded them bonuses in the form of certificates they could not redeem until 1945. Each service certificate, issued to a qualified veteran soldier, bore a face value equal to the soldier's promised payment plus compound interest. The principal demand of the Bonus Army was the immediate cash payment of their certificates.

55. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) is a United States government corporation operating as an independent agency created by the Banking Act of 1933. As of January 2013, it provides deposit insurance guaranteeing the safety of a bank depositor's accounts in member banks up to $250,000 for each deposit.

56. The Social Security Act of 1935 provided benefits to retirees and the unemployed, and a lump-sum benefit at death. Payments to current retirees are financed by a payroll tax on current workers' wages, half directly as a payroll tax and half paid by the employer. The act also gave money to states to provide assistance to aged individuals (Title I), for unemployment insurance (Title III), Aid to Families with Dependent Children (Title IV), Maternal and Child Welfare (Title V), public health services (Title VI), and the blind (Title X).

57. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was the primary New Deal agency established by U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in 1933. The goal was to eliminate "cut-throat competition" by bringing industry, labor and government together to create codes of "fair practices" and set prices.

58. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is a federally owned corporation in the United States created by congressional charter in May 1933 to provide navigation, flood control, electricity generation, fertilizer manufacturing, and economic development in the Tennessee Valley, a region particularly affected by the Great Depression. The TVA was envisioned not only as a provider, but also as a regional economic development agency that would use federal experts and electricity to rapidly modernize the region's economy and society.

59. The Works Progress Administration (renamed in 1939 as the Work Projects Administration; WPA) was the largest and most ambitious New Deal agency, employing millions of unemployed people (mostly unskilled men) to carry out public works projects, including the construction of public buildings and roads. In much smaller but more famous projects the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects.

60. The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (also known as the Wagner Act) is a US labor law which guarantees basic rights of private sector employees to organize into trade unions, engage in collective bargaining for better terms and conditions at work, and take collective action including strike if necessary. The act also created the National Labor Relations Board which conducts elections which, if voted in favor of representation, awards labor unions (also known as trade unions) with a requirement for the employer to engage in collective bargaining with this union.

61. The Smoot-Hawley Tariff was an act sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot and Representative Willis C. Hawley and signed into law on June 17, 1930, that raised U.S. tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods to record levels. The act, and the ensuing retaliatory tariffs by foreign trading partners, reduced American exports and imports by more than half. Economists agree that Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act increased the severity of the Great Depression.

62. The Seminole Indians are a Native American people originally from Florida. Today, most live in Oklahoma reservations with a minority in Florida. The Seminole nation emerged in a process of ethnogenesis out of several groups of Native Americans, most significantly Creek Indians and from northern Muscogee Indians. During their early decades, the Seminole became increasingly independent of other Creek groups and established their own identity. They developed a thriving trade network in the British and second Spanish periods (roughly 1767–1821). The tribe expanded considerably during this time, and was further supplemented from the late 18th century by free black people and escaped enslaved people who settled near and paid tribute to Seminole towns. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the tribe was forced out of Florida to reservations in Oklahoma. Fewer than 200 Seminoles were left, but they initiated a comeback and today the tribe is a very vocal and very important part of the Florida experience. The following idea started with the Seminoles - in the late 1970s the tribe won numerous court challenges to initiate Indian Gaming, which many tribes have adopted to generate revenues for welfare, education and development. The Seminoles started with a bingo hall; today, the Seminole Hard Rock Casinos is what it turned into. Not bad, huh?

Pre Through Post World War II and the Beginning of the Cold War (i.e. the Foreign and Domestic Policy Events Involving the Cold War During the

Truman and Eisenhower Administrations)(Benchmarks SS.912.A.6.1 - SS.912.A.6.12

63. The Atlantic Charter was a pivotal policy statement first issued in August 1941 that early in World War II defined the Allied goals for the post-war world. It was drafted by Britain and the United States, and later agreed to by all the Allies. The Charter stated the ideal goals of the war: no territorial aggrandizement; no territorial changes made against the wishes of the people; restoration of self-government to those deprived of it; free access to raw materials; reduction of trade restrictions; global cooperation to secure better

economic and social conditions for all; freedom from fear and want; freedom of the seas; and abandonment of the use of force, as well as disarmament of aggressor nations.

64. The Neutrality Acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts. The legacy of the Neutrality Acts is widely regarded as having been generally negative: they made no distinction between aggressor and victim, treating both equally as "belligerents"; and they limited the US government's ability to aid Britain and France against Nazi Germany. The acts were largely repealed in 1941, in the face of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

65. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 is the direct reason why the USA entered World War II. The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack was intended to prevent US action interfering with military goals the Empire of Japan was planning in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. The base was attacked by 353 Japanese fighter planes, bombers, and torpedo planes in two waves, launched from six aircraft carriers. All eight U.S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four being sunk. All but one (The USS Arizona) were later raised, and six of the eight battleships were returned to service and went on to fight in the war. 2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded.

66. The Home Front during World War II covers the activities of the civilians in our nation while at war. World War II was a total war; homeland production became more valuable to both the Allied and Axis powers than ever before. Life on the home front during World War II was a significant part of the war effort for all participants and had a major impact on the outcome of the war. Governments became involved with new issues such as rationing, manpower allocation, home defense, evacuation in the face of air raids, and response to occupation by an enemy power. The morale and psychology of the people responded to leadership and propaganda. Women were mobilized to an unprecedented degree, both at home and in the military. The success in mobilizing economic output was a major factor in supporting combat operations. All of the powers involved had learned from their experiences during World War I and tried to use its lessons and avoid making errors. In the United States, farming and other production was increased. For example, citizens were encouraged to plant "victory gardens", personal farms that families worked on that would make up for shortages in vegetables and fruits as a result of rationing.

67. The internment of Japanese Americans was the World War II confinement of approximately 120,000 people of Japanese heritage who lived on the Pacific coast of the United States. The U.S. government ordered the confinement of Japanese Americans in 1942, shortly after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. The internment was applied unequally as a geographic matter: almost all who lived on the West Coast were sent to camps, while in Hawaii, where 150,000-plus Japanese Americans comprised over one-third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 were interned. Sixty-two percent of the internees were American citizens. Many of the confined families had relatives fighting for America in the war.

68. The Battle of the Coral Sea, fought during May 4–8, 1942, was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II between the Imperial Japanese Navy and naval and air forces from the United States and Australia. The battle marked the first action in which aircraft carriers engaged each other, as well as the first in which neither side's ships sighted or fired directly upon the other. Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk, the battle would prove to be a strategic victory for the Allies for several reasons. First, the battle marked the first time since the start of the war that major Japanese naval advance had been stopped by the Allies. Secondly, the Japanese fleet carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku – one damaged and the other with a no aircraft to launch from it – were unable to participate in the Battle of Midway, which took place the following month, ensuring a rough parity in aircraft between the two adversaries and contributing significantly to the US victory in that battle (Midway along with the battle of the Coral Sea is considered by most historians to be the turning point in the Pacific war against Japan). The severe losses in carriers at Midway prevented the Japanese from attempting to take any more Pacific islands. Two months after Midway, the Allies took advantage of Japan's vulnerability in the South Pacific and launched the Guadalcanal Campaign that, along with the New Guinea Campaign, eventually broke Japanese defenses in the South Pacific and was a significant contributing factor to Japan's ultimate defeat in World War II.

69. Lend-Lease (enacted March 11, 1941) was the law that started a program under which the United States of America supplied the United Kingdom, the USSR, Republic of China, Free France, and other Allied nations with materiel between 1941 and 1945. It was signed into law on March 11, 1941, a year and a half after the outbreak of World War II in Europe in September 1939. This was nine months before the U.S. entered the war in December 1941. The Act effectively ended the United States' pretense of neutrality. A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $639 billion today) worth of supplies were shipped: $31.4 billion to Britain, $11.3 billion to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion to France, $1.6 billion to China, and smaller sums to other Allies.

70. The Normandy landings, codenamed Operation Neptune and/or Operation Overlord were the landing operations of the Allied invasion of Normandy, during World War II. The landings commenced on Tuesday, June 6, 1944 (D-Day), beginning at 6:30 am. In planning, as for most Allied operations, the term D-Day was used for the day of the actual landing, which was dependent on final approval. The landings were conducted in two phases: an airborne assault landing of 24,000 British, American, Canadian and Free French airborne troops shortly after midnight, and an amphibious landing of Allied infantry and armored divisions on the coast of France starting at 6:30 am. Some surprise was achieved thanks to inclement weather and a comprehensive deception plan implemented in the months before the landings, although it does appear that the Germans knew it was coming, but were unsure where exactly the attack would focus on.

71. The Allied Invasion of Italy was the Allied landing on mainland Italy on 3 September 1943, by General Harold Alexander's 15th Army Group (comprising Lieutenant General Mark Clark's U.S. Fifth Army and General Bernard Montgomery's British Eighth Army) during the Second World War. The operation followed the successful invasion of Sicily during the Italian Campaign. The main invasion force landed around Salerno on the western coast in Operation Avalanche, while two supporting operations took place in Calabria (Operation Baytown) and Taranto (Operation Slapstick).

72. Victory in Europe Day—known as V-E Day or VE Day—was the public holiday celebrated on 8 May 1945 (in Commonwealth countries, 7 May 1945) to mark the date when the World War II Allies formally accepted the unconditional surrender of the armed forces of Nazi Germany and the end of Adolf Hitler's Third Reich, thus ending the war in Europe.

73. Cash and carry was a policy requested by U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at a special session of the United States Congress on September 21, 1939. It replaced the Neutrality Acts of 1936. The revision allowed the sale of material to belligerents, as long as the recipients arranged for the transport using their own ships and paid immediately in cash, assuming all risk in transportation.

74. Hiroshima and Nagasaki are the two Japanese cities that were chosen to be the targets of the first (and only) wartime use of nuclear weapons. A uranium gun-type atomic bomb (Little Boy) was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, followed by a plutonium implosion-type bomb (Fat Man) on the city of Nagasaki on August 9. Within the first two to four months of the bombings, the acute effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000–166,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000–80,000 in Nagasaki; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day. During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians.

75. Victory over Japan Day (also known as Victory in the Pacific Day, V-J Day, or V-P Day) is a name chosen for the day on which Japan surrendered, effectively ending World War II, and subsequent anniversaries of that event. The term has been applied to both of the days on which the initial announcement of Japan's surrender was made – to the afternoon of August 15, 1945, in Japan, and, because of time zone differences, to August 14, 1945 (when it was announced in the United States and the rest of the Americas and Eastern Pacific Islands) – as well as to September 2, 1945, when the signing of the surrender document occurred, officially ending World War II.

76. The Final Solution AKA Final Solution to the Jewish Question refers to Nazi Germany's plan during World War II to systematically rid the world of the Jewish population through genocide. This policy was formulated in procedural terms at the Wannsee Conference in January 1942, and culminated in the mass murder of two thirds of the Jewish population of Europe, as well as other “undesirables”. These included Gypsies, Poles and other Slavs, as well as people with physical or mental disabilities, Jehovah's Witnesses, homosexuals, Communists, and Socialists. This mass murder of between 6 and 15 million people by Hitler’s Nazi regime is collectively referred to as “the Holocaust”.

77. Loyalty Review Boards were created in response to public fears and Congressional investigations into communism in the United States. President Harry S. Truman issues an executive decree establishing a sweeping loyalty investigation of federal employees as fears concerning communist activity in the United States, particularly in the federal government, increased. Congress had already launched investigations of communist influence in Hollywood, and laws banning communists from teaching positions were being instituted in several states. Of most concern to the Truman administration, however, were persistent charges that communists were operating in government offices. In response to these fears and concerns, Truman issued an executive order on March 21, 1947, which set up the Loyalty Review Program which in turn created the Loyalty

review Boards to check the loyalty of federal employees. In announcing his order, Truman indicated that he expected all federal workers to demonstrate "complete and unswerving loyalty" the United States. Anything less, he declared, "constitutes a threat to our democratic processes."

78. National Security refers to the requirement of the government to maintain the survival of the United States through the use of economic power, diplomacy, military power, and political power. The concept developed mostly in the United States after World War II.

79. The Cold War, often dated from 1947 to 1991, was a sustained state of political and military tension between powers in the Western Bloc, dominated by the United States with NATO among its allies, and powers in the Eastern Bloc, dominated by the Soviet Union along with the Warsaw Pact.

80. The Iron Curtain symbolized the ideological conflict and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. The term symbolized efforts by the Soviet Union to block itself and its dependent and central European allies off from open contact with the west and non-communist areas.

81. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defense whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009.

82. George Frost Kennan (February 16, 1904 – March 17, 2005) was an American adviser, diplomat, political scientist, and historian, best known as "the father of containment" and as a key figure in the emergence of the Cold War. He later wrote standard histories of the relations between Russia and the Western powers. He was also a core member of the group of foreign policy elders known as "The Wise Men". In the late 1940s, his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and the U.S. foreign policy of "containing" the Soviet Union, thrusting him into a lifelong role as a leading authority on the Cold War.

83. George Catlett Marshall, Jr. GCB (December 31, 1880 – October 16, 1959), was an American military leader, Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of State, and the third Secretary of Defense. Once noted as the "organizer of victory" by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II, Marshall served as the United States Army Chief of Staff during the war and as the chief military adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. As Secretary of State, his name was given to the Marshall Plan, which was based on a speech made as the commencement address at Harvard in the spring of 1947, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953. The Marshall Plan (officially the plan’s name was the European Recovery Program (ERP), was the American initiative to aid Europe, in which the United States gave $17 billion (approximately $160 billion in current dollar value) in economic support to help rebuild European economies after the end of World War II. The idea was to keep the Soviet Union from going into these war-torn nations and attempting to help their recovery, as the fear was that the Soviets wouldn’t leave and would attempt to turn that nation communist.

84. The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was the American program to aid Europe, in which the United States gave economic support to

help rebuild European economies after the end of World War II in order to prevent the spread of Soviet Communism. The plan was in operation for four years beginning in April 1948.

85. The Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance (1955–1991), more commonly referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty between eight communist states of Central and Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War. The founding treaty was established under the initiative of the Soviet Union and signed on 14 May 1955, in Warsaw.

86. The Berlin blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Allied control. Their aim was to force the western powers to allow the Soviet zone to start supplying Berlin with food and fuel, thereby giving the Soviets practical control over the entire city. In response, the Western Allies organized the Berlin airlift to carry supplies to the people in West Berlin. Aircrews from the United States Air Force, the British Royal Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force, Royal Canadian Air Force, Royal New Zealand Air Force, and South African Air Force flew over 200,000 flights in one year, providing up to 4700 tons of daily necessities such as fuel and food to the Berliners.

87. The Dumbarton Oaks Conference was an international conference at which the United Nations was formulated and negotiated among international leaders. The conference was held at Dumbarton Oaks from August 21, 1944 through October 7, 1944.

88. The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization established on October 24, 1945, to promote international cooperation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was created following the Second World War to prevent another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The organization is financed by voluntary contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict.

89. The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military trials, held by the Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, The first and best known of these trials, described as "the greatest trial in history" by Norman Birkett, one of the British judges who presided over it, was the Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT) held between November of 1945 and October of 1946.

90. The Tehran Conference was a strategy meeting held between Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill from 28 November to 1 December 1943. It was held in the Soviet Embassy in Tehran, Iran and was the first of the World War II conferences held between all of the "Big Three" Allied leaders (the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom). It closely followed the Cairo Conference and preceded both the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences. Although all three of the leaders present arrived with differing objectives, the main outcome of the Tehran Conference was the commitment to the opening of a second front against Nazi Germany by the Western Allies.

91. The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945, was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta, in the Crimea.

92. The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in Potsdam, occupied Germany, from July 17 to August 2, 1945. (In some older documents it is also referred to as the Berlin Conference of the Three Heads of Government of the USSR, USA and UK [2][3]) Participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. The three powers were represented by Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin, Prime Ministers Winston Churchill,[4] and, later, Clement Attlee,[5] and President Harry S. Truman. Stalin, Churchill, and Truman—as well as Attlee, who participated alongside Churchill while awaiting the outcome of the 1945 general election, and then replaced Churchill as Prime Minister after the Conservative's defeat to the Labour Party—gathered to decide how to administer punishment to the defeated Nazi Germany, which had agreed to unconditional surrender nine weeks earlier, on 8 May (V-E Day). The goals of the conference also included the establishment of post-war order, peace treaties issues, and countering the effects of the war.

93. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, also known informally as the G.I. Bill of Rights, was a law that provided a range of benefits for returning World War II veterans (commonly referred to as G.I.s). Benefits included low-cost mortgages, low-interest loans to start a business, cash payments of tuition and living expenses to attend university, high school or vocational education, as well as one year of unemployment compensation. By 1956, roughly 2.2 million veterans had used the G.I. Bill education benefits in order to attend colleges or universities, and an additional 5.6 million used these benefits for some kind of job training program. The G.I. Bill was a major factor in the creation of the American middle class, but also substantially increased racial inequality because many of the benefits of the G.I. Bill were not granted to soldiers of color.

94. The Berlin Blockade (June 24, 1948 –May 12, 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany (USA, Britain, France, and he Soviet Union), the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under allied control because the Western sections of Berlin had introduced a new German currency called the Deutschmark. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the Deutschmark from being used in West Berlin. In response, the Western Allies organized the Berlin Airlift to carry supplies to the people in West Berlin. Aircrews from the United States Air Force, the British Royal Air Force, the Royal Canadian Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and the South African Air Force flew over 200,000 flights in one year, providing up to 4,700 tons of necessities daily, such as fuel and food, to the West Berliners. Neither side wanted a war; as a result, the Soviets did not disrupt the airlift. By the spring of 1949 the airlift was clearly succeeding, and by April it was delivering more cargo than had previously been transported into the city by rail. On May 11, 1949, the USSR lifted the

blockade of West Berlin. However, this crisis highlighted the competing ideological, political, and economic visions for postwar Europe, particularly Germany. The clash ultimately led to the division of that country into East Germany and West Germany in 1949, a division that didn’t end until 1989.

95. The Truman Doctrine was an international relations policy set forth by the U.S. President Harry Truman in a speech on March 12, 1947, which stated that the U.S. would support Greece and Turkey with economic and military aid to prevent them from falling into the Soviet sphere. Historians often consider it to be the start of the Cold War, and the start of the containment policy to stop Soviet expansion.

96. Containment was a United States policy using numerous strategies to prevent the spread of communism abroad. A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa , and Vietnam. It represented a middle-ground position between isolationism, détente and rollback.

97. The domino theory was a theory prominent from the 1950s to the 1980’s that evinced the belief that if one nation in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect; if one fell, the others would fall as well.

98. The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways (commonly known as the Interstate Highway System) is a network of freeways that forms a part of the National Highway System of the United States. The system is named for President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who championed its formation. Construction was authorized by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, and the original portion was completed 35 years later. The network has since been extended, and as of 2012, it had a total length of 47,714 miles, making it the world's second longest highway system after China's.

99. A suburb is a residential area either existing as part of a city (urban area) or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of the city. In most English-speaking regions, suburban areas are defined in contrast to central or inner-city areas and tend to be somewhat more affluent (wealthy) comparative to urban areas.

100. Women in the workforce earning wages or a salary are part of a modern phenomenon, one that developed at the same time as the growth of paid employment for men. However, women have been challenged by prejudice and discrimination in the workforce in many areas. Until the last 50-100 years in America, legal and cultural practices, combined with the influence of longstanding religious and educational conventions, restricted women's entry and participation in the workforce. The result has been economic dependency upon men, and consequently women have traditionally suffered from a poor socioeconomic status. As professional occupations and formal education has become increasingly more open to women, their situation has dramatically improved, albeit not to the same status of men. Women's lack of access to higher education effectively excluded them from the practice of well-paid and high status professional occupations. Entry of women into the higher professions like law and medicine was delayed in most countries due to women being denied entry to universities and qualification for degrees; for example, Cambridge University only fully validated degrees for women late in 1947, and even then only after much opposition and acrimonious debate. Women were largely limited to low-paid and

poor status occupations for most of the 19th and 20th centuries, or earned less pay than men for doing the same work. However, throughout the 20th century, public perceptions of paid work shifted as the workforce increasingly moved to office jobs that do not require heavy labor, and women increasingly acquired the higher education that led to better-compensated, longer-term careers rather than lower-skilled, shorter-term jobs.

101. The nuclear arms race was a competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War and was a large part of the race to see which nation was the world’s most powerful superpower. This superpower competition was also evident in the Korean and Vietnam Wars, the Space Race and with Olympic competitions as well. During the Cold War, in addition to the American and Soviet nuclear stockpiles, other countries developed nuclear weapons, though none engaged in warhead production on nearly the same scale as the two superpowers. None of these defensive measures were secure, and by the late 1950’s both the United States and Soviet Union had enough nuclear missiles that each could obliterate the other side. Both sides developed the capability to launch a devastating attack even after sustaining a full assault from the other side This policy was part of what became known as Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD); both sides knew that any attack upon the other would be devastating to themselves, thus in theory restraining them from initiating an attack. Later on both the soviets and Americans wanted to stop nuclear proliferation, or the spread of nuclear war capabilities to other nations. While this effort has been somewhat successful, there are four nations currently that either have nuclear weapons or are attempting to create them that are troubling to say the least (North Korea and Iran are in the process of creating a nuclear war program, and India and Pakistan, longtime enemies, already have nuclear capacity).

102. John Foster Dulles (February 25, 1888 – May 24, 1959) served as U.S. Secretary of State under Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive moralistic stance against communism throughout the world. He negotiated numerous treaties and alliances to bring that about. He advocated support of the French in their war against the Viet Minh in Indochina but rejected the Geneva Accords that France and the Communists agreed to, and instead supported South Vietnam after the Geneva Conference in 1954.

103. The Korean War was fought from June 25, 1950 till July 27, 1953. Technically, it was between North and South Korea for control of the peninsula, but the reality was it was a Cold War conflict between the Democratic USA and Communist China and the Soviet Union. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the closing days of World War II. In August of 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and—by agreement with the United States—occupied Korea north of the 38th parallel. U.S. forces subsequently occupied the south. By 1948, two separate governments had been set up. Both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of Korea, and neither side accepted the 38th parallel border as permanent. North Korean forces - supported by the Soviet Union and China—invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950 and pushed the democratic South Korean forces back into the southeastern corner of the peninsula. The United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire, which was ignored. On June 27, 1950, the UN Security Council decided to dispatch U.N. Forces to support South Korea, with the United States in the

lead role. This war featured a United Nations force led by the United States of America fighting for the South, and a North Korean side whose main firepower came from mainly China with support from the Soviet Union. Outmaneuvered and suffering heavy casualties in the first two months of the conflict, South Korean forces were forced back to the Pusan perimeter. The arrival of the UN forces allowed the South Koreans to push the North Koreans and Chinese northward almost to the Chinese border, but then china redoubled their manpower and efforts and drove the South Koreans and UN forces back to the 38th parallel. The last two years of the war saw mostly a stalemate. The fighting ended on July 27, 1953, when the armistice agreement was signed. The agreement established a new border between the Koreas close to the previous one and created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), a 2.5-mile (4.0 km)-wide fortified buffer zone between the two nations. Border incidents have continued to the present, and tensions between the two remain high. Note that the Korean War never officially ended; no peace treaty was signed or even discussed. The armistice still holds. For now.

Post-World War II Prosperity, The Foreign and Domestic Policy Events of the Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon Administrations, the Civil Rights Movement, Supreme Court Activism

Regarding Civil Rights (Warren and Burger Courts), the Vietnam War, the Women’s Rights Movement, and Watergate

(Benchmarks SS.912.A.6.13 - SS.912.A.7.13)

104. Hawks are politicians who are in favor of a strong military and who are not shy about engaging in war if the situation calls for it. Doves are politicians who are generally against war as a means of resolving conflicts and tend to rely on diplomacy and deal making to solve problems between nations

105. Panmunjom, located in Gyeonggi Province, is an abandoned village on the de facto border between North and South Korea, where the 1953 Korean Armistice Agreement that paused the Korean War was signed. The building where the armistice was signed still stands. Its name is often used as a metonym for the nearby Joint Security Area (JSA), where discussions between North and South still take place in blue buildings that straddle the Military Demarcation Line. As such, it is considered one of the last vestiges of the Cold War.

106. The South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila, Philippines. The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok, Thailand.[1] The organization's headquarters were also in Bangkok. Eight members joined the organization.

107. The Cuban missile crisis was a 13-day confrontation in October 1962 between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba. It played out on television worldwide and was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full scale nuclear war. In response to the failed Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961, and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey against the USSR with Moscow within range, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev decided to agree to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles in Cuba to deter future harassment of Cuba. An agreement was reached

during a secret meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July and construction on a number of missiles sites started later that summer.An election was underway in the U.S. and the White House had denied Republican charges that it was ignoring dangerous Soviet missiles 90 miles from Florida. These missile preparations were confirmed when an Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic missile facilities. The United States established a military blockade to prevent further missiles from entering Cuba. It announced that they would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba and demanded that the weapons already in Cuba be dismantled and returned to the USSR.After a period of tense negotiations an agreement was reached between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement never to invade Cuba without direct provocation. Secretly, the US also agreed that it would dismantle all US-built Jupiter MRBMs, which were deployed in Turkey and Italy against the Soviet Union but were not known to the public.

The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from November 1, 1955 to the fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975. This war was fought between North Vietnam—supported by the Soviet Union, China and other communist allies—and the government of South Vietnam—supported by the United States and other anti-communist allies. The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), a South Vietnamese communist group aided by the North Vietnamese, fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The People's Army of Vietnam (also known as the North Vietnamese Army) engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units to battle. As the war wore on, the part of the Viet Cong in the fighting decreased and the role of the NVA grew. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes. In the course of the war, the U.S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam and surrounding areas. The U.S. government viewed American involvement in the war as a way to prevent a Communist takeover of South Vietnam and the Indochina peninsula as a whole (Domino theory). This was part of a wider containment strategy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. According to this theory, if one state went Communist, other states in the region would follow, and U.S. policy thus held that Communist rule over all of Vietnam was unacceptable. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam under communist rule. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina. UU.S. involvement massively escalated following the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which a U.S. destroyer clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft, which was followed by the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave the U.S. President (Lyndon B. Johnson at the time) authorization to increase the U.S. military presence. Regular U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965 and escalated each year through 1968.