TO WHAT EXTENT CAN TEACHERS MAKE A DIFFERENCE THROUGH

PEDAGOGIC PRACTICE TO ENHANCE SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING?

A STUDY OF MIXED NATIONALITY STUDENTS IN A UK UNIVERSITY

Name: Nicola Dawson

Organisational Affiliation: Coventry University – Lecturer in HRM

Email: ab6544@coventry.ac.uk

Stream 8: Scholarly Practitioner Research – Teaching and Learning

Submission Type: Working Paper

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Abstract

Purpose

This paper aims to establish to what extent can teachers make a difference through pedagogic

practice to enhance self-directed learning with HRD students in a British Post 1992

university.

Design/methodology

Informal ‘insider’ action research was conducted in autumn 2014 with a small cohort of

students using semi-structured discussions and a review of reflective reports, at three stages

during one teaching semester.

Findings

Certain practices were more effective in enhancing SDL in all students – the establishment of

rapport and setting of expectations in small groups at the outset; the use of peer group

working to support feedback; experiential learning methods and reflective practice in class

and the synchronous use of VLE resources and provision of additional reading resources.

Research limitations/implications

As ‘insider’ action research, the findings have been interpreted within the values and beliefs

espoused by the author in their efforts to develop their own professional practice. Similarly,

the small cohort size might make any conclusions only appropriate to the cohort studied.

Practical implications

In establishing common factors that enhance SDL skills, teachers can develop their

professional pedagogic practice to improve student engagement in learning. Further, by

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understanding cultural differences in this context, one can differentiate practices to mixed

nationality groups.

Social implications

In understanding how teaching practice can enhance the development of SDL, educators can

help develop key skills to aid students in their preparations for the world of work.

Originality/value

This research offers an insight into how post graduate students of HRD within a British

university can be appropriately supported through particular acts of teaching practice, to

enhance their capacity to self-direct, key to both employability and learner engagement.

Until now, recent studies into SDL have focussed typically on medical education elsewhere

in the world.

Keywords 3-6

Self-directed learning; pedagogy; learner motivation; higher education; teaching innovation;

learner engagement

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Introduction

This study examines acts of teaching practice to establish whether they aid students’

engagement in self-directed learning (SDL). This is based on preliminary research undertaken

with mixed nationality, post-graduate human resource development (PG HRD) students in a

British university.

The capabilities required of today’s graduates have changed to address the need for rising

skill levels in an evolving global economy and in line with the growth of knowledge societies

(Altbach and Knight, 2007). More than ever before, employees need to be capable and

motivated, critical thinkers and self-directed learners (Joseph and Joseph, 1997; Fallows and

Steven, 2000; Ellinger, 2004). These capabilities are significantly related to each another and

can be fostered in higher education (Kreber, 2006). Knowles (1975) suggested that self-

directed learners retain and make use of what they’ve learnt better and for longer.

Developing these capabilities as part of educational programmes is therefore fundamental for

today’s students of HRD. In particular, to develop both their critical appreciation of the

subject field and to develop their awareness of and responsibility to challenge what others

take for granted in organisations (Burrell, 1991), as they prepare for employment.

Development of a critical approach, through the associated development of self-directed

learning therefore enables HRD students in engaging in search for “the truth” (Sambrook,

2006, p5), in questioning tradition, not least, in attempting to define HRD (Lee, 2001) and

exposing previously accepted assumptions to create a multi-faceted construct of what HRD is

(Sambrook, 2004).

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In order to create capable graduates, one must consider how best to involve students (Astin,

1999). Understanding students’ motivation is key to engaging learners, as cultural differences

exist. For home students, impetus is predominantly about professional progression, pursuing

a passion for a particular subject or self-fulfilment (Stickland, 1996). However for

international students, an M-level qualification represents credence, and significantly impacts

on any future employment potential in tight home labour markets. (Altbach and Knight,

2007). Whatever the learners’ key drivers are for graduate study, the case for developing

engaged learners with key employability skills cannot be debated (Gibbs, 2014).

Literature Review

Traditional definitions of self- directed learning (SDL) are exemplified by Knowles (1975,

p.18) as; “a process by which individuals take the initiative, with or without the assistance of

others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identify human and

material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies,

and evaluating learning outcomes.”

In the past twenty years however, opinions have shifted dramatically regarding the

significance of the learner and their contribution to the learning process; what the learner

does has become more important for the learning process than what the teacher contributes

(Prosser and Trigwell, 1998; Biggs, 1999; Trigwell and Shale, 2004). Alongside this, the

definition and our understanding of self-directed learning (SDL) have evolved too.

Traditional theories of SDL alike Knowles (1975) above, largely focussed on learners

“taking primary responsibility and control of their learning process” (Pilling-Cormick and

Garrison, 2007.p14), particularly in terms of external task control – the external management

of learning activities (Garrison, 1997) and pedagogical aspects (Knowles, 1970 in Long,

2001). Brookfield (1985; 1986) claimed the full form of SDL is when both external activities

(task control) and internal reflective dimensions are brought together (Candy, 1991). More

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recent models including Garrison’s (1997) three dimensional comprehensive model of self-

management, self-monitoring and motivation reflects current understanding, by incorporating

these internal cognitive concepts.

The learner, according to Garrison, takes responsibility and control to monitor and manage

learning activities. This he termed as self-management. This is comparable to Pilling-

Cormick’s SDLP model (1996, in Pilling-Cormick and Garrison, 2007) where individuals

determine their priorities and choose from available resources. The resources provided aid the

development of meanings and interpretations for the learner. Pilling-Cormick’s model

divides self-management further into three aspects; a) the control factor and b) the contextual

influences on the interaction between the teacher and student – involving both motivational

and management processes and c) being the interaction between the student and the teacher

(known as cognitive responsibility). The interaction between teacher and student is worthy of

additional note, as a key consideration for pedagogic practice is in determining how best to

engage students (QAA, 2013).

Student engagement however, is not the sole responsibility of the teacher (Kuh, 2009).

Methods that aid self-direction and self-regulation, such as self-directed learning, can

motivate learners through achievement of goals (Ames, 1992). As Garrison’s comprehensive

model (1997) identified, cognitive dimensions to self-direction were key in understanding

learner’s engagement in self-directed learning, both in self-monitoring and in establishing

their own motivations for study.

Self-monitoring, according to Garrison (1997) focusses on reasoning processes – he argues

the importance of the learner in understanding the task, in assessing the strategies available,

and in being aware of and having an ability to think critically about what they are learning.

Therefore, SDL requires a learner to be self-reflective and self-appraising. In support of this,

Garrison and Archer (2000) identified that a learner who has learnt to think critically and

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construct meaning, can plan and modify their thinking in accordance with their objective or

goal and to act in an autonomous way; a key skill required in organisational life (Kuchinke

and Park, 2012) . Garrison saw motivation as essential for triggering interest and sustaining

focus, and having considerable influence on cognitive activities. Clearly, learning as an

ongoing process requires sustained effort and to achieve this, the learner needs to have

positive perceptions of their ability or self-efficacy to maintain their volition or persistence in

reaching their learning goals (Corno, 1993).

Accepting that self-directed learning can offer learners opportunities for engagement and key

employability skills (Ames, 1992; Joseph and Joseph, 1997; Fallows and Steven, 2000;

Ellinger, 2004), then it is significant to explore how the teachers can foster SDL through their

pedagogic practice.

Murad et al’s (2010) research, employing Knowle’s (1975) three components of SDL –

teachers as facilitators, learners involved in selecting resources and in self-assessing learning

outcomes, reviewed the effectiveness of SDL in the training of health professionals. Whilst

this study utilised a traditional definition, it identified that by involving learners in the

selection of learning resources that best fit their personal learning styles, as well as the

learning objective, made SDL more effective than traditional teaching. Additionally, Mahler

et al’s (2011) study recognised the role of teachers in supporting and facilitating the selection

of appropriate learning resources and strategies with medical students required to self-direct

as part of their programme of study. As a final point, Lefroy et al’s (2011) study recognised

that in a group setting, choice and control were key, as was self-esteem and self-awareness –

they identified how individuals in the groups gauged their own capabilities, but also by

observing their peers, noting therefore the significance of the group as part of the process

(Bandura, 1997). Each of the factors identified in these three studies conducted US or UK

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medical schools, emphasises how the teacher can orchestrate SDL in their planning and

delivery of learning interventions.

Whilst considering how a teacher might enable self-directed learning through task control

(Garrison, 1997), it is important to recognise how the individual characteristics of the learner

and learner group can impact upon this process, as methods to foster lifelong self-directed

learning continue to be advocated globally (Gwee, 2008). Indeed, Brockett and Hiemstra

(1991) identified the need for further investigation into how cross-cultural factors influenced

SDL. Hofstede’s (1984) seminal work into cultural dimensions identified differences in

national cultures which in part, can be attributed to hierarchical relationships seen in

education, between teacher and student. Furthermore, Deveney (2005) evaluated in Thai

schools how learner passivity may be demonstration of respect, rather than intentional non-

contribution. She reported how prevailing culture suppressed initiative, self-responsibility

and individual maturation, all significant characteristics required for self-directed learning to

succeed. In addition, Frambach et al’s (2012) comparative study focussed on the cross-

cultural applicability of student-centred methods to foster lifelong self-directed learning.

They investigated how student’s cultural backgrounds impacted on SDL and how this impact

affected students. They identified that uncertainty in terms of approaching a self-directed

task (self-management, Garrison, 1997) and tradition, based on their previous teacher-centred

educational experience, posed a challenge to Middle Eastern students’ SDL, although they

adapted over time. Framback et al. acknowledged the challenge hierarchy posed to Asian

students, whereby the use of tutorial sessions and peer group working had created uncertainty

about “the truth” (p.743), due a dependency on ‘experts’ in their teachers to provide

authoritative statements rather than themselves or their peers as a source. Evidently, with the

growth in numbers of non-western students in UK HE institutions presently (UNESCO,

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2015), this presents a significant issue. Finally, achievement, in the pressure to pass

examinations had impacted upon both sets of non-Western students studied, by distracting

learners from their own intrinsic motivations to learn (self-motivation, Garrison, 1997) and

exploration of the wider topic area, to focussing their efforts on examination content. Each of

the four factors had been previously identified as more prominent in non-Western cultures.

(Hofstede, 2001; Leung et al, 2008).

It can be said therefore, that differences exist that might impact on the implementation of

self-directed learning, from both contextual and cultural perspectives. What is clear then, is

that students should be gradually exposed to SDL, with relatively strong guidance and

support from teachers in the initial stages (Mifflin et al, 2000).

Warring’s (2010) research into teachers facilitation of independent learning with Chinese

students in New Zealand reflects Garrison’s (1997) three components in her findings.

Warring used Hershey and Blanchard’s (1996) Situational Leadership model with her

business students, by employing initial high levels of task direction and low levels of

supportive behaviour moving to lower levels of direction, and higher levels of supportive

behaviour. She discovered whilst complete independence had not been achieved by the end of

the degree programme, the use of self-directed learning had led to improved confidence

levels, increased belief in their own responsibility for learning, but resulted in lower levels of

motivation in finding learning satisfying and wanting to study topics in depth. Warring’s

(2010) conclusions provide further support for Garrison’s (1997) motivation dimension, and

the need for university students to develop volition or persistence in undertaking educational

programmes of study, whatever their culture or previous experience.

Given the cultural differences identified and their potential impact on SDL effectiveness,

conducting a UK based university study of mixed nationality PG HRD students was deemed

to be valuable. As a university lecturer, conducting a piece of action-oriented ‘insider’

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research on SDL – would serve both scholarly activity and teaching practice, with a clear

overlap into HRD. By utilising Garrison’s (1997) three dimensional approach as the

foundation for investigation, both teacher and student factors would be incorporated to

provide a comprehensive model as the basis for analysis.

Research Question

To what extent can teachers make a difference through their pedagogic practice to aid the

development of self-directed learning in PG HRD students?

Methodology

Informal action research (Argyris, Putnam and Smith, 1985) took place during autumn 2014

with a cohort of five PG mixed part time and full time students of varied nationalities,

studying a PG HRD module.

Respondent One UK British nationality; female; part-time; first time study

Respondent Two UK British nationality; female; part-time; first time study

Respondent Three Chinese nationality; female; full-time; resitting the module

Respondent Four Indian nationality; male; part-time; first time study

Respondent Five UK British nationality; female; full-time; first time study

The purpose of the research was to evaluate my own pedagogic practice, specifically;

The provision of a wider range of resources including use of a virtual learning

environment,

The facilitated discussion in class time of individual reflections from reading

The provision of feedback and tutorial support.

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It was hoped that these acts of teaching aided the development of self-directed learning. In

understanding their potential impact better, it was anticipated that implications for other

cohorts and wider teaching practices would be gleaned (Eden and Huxham, 1996).

By using group-based semi-structured discussions as the research method, I could explore

and reflect upon my students’ perceptions of the learning experience (Winter, 1989) using

Garrison’s (1997) three-dimensional model as the basis for exploration.

Group discussions were held at three intervals during class time over the semester to;

Week 1 (T1) : Establish joint expectations and ground rules for partnership working

(Garrison’s motivation dimension)

Week 7 (T2) : Gauge students’ perceptions of my teaching practice to date –

specifically intended SDL activities, how these activities had supported/hindered their

learning process so far and students’ views whether their own SDL skills were

developing (self-management dimension)

Week 11 (T3): Gather learner’s reflections about their progress in developing self-

directed learning and whether or how they felt SDL had contributed to their overall

learning (self-monitoring dimension).

By discussing both my teaching intervention (external task control - self-management

dimension) and their own internal cognition and motivational factors (self-management and

self-monitoring dimensions) during the period of study with learners, Garrison’s (1997)

model could be directly applied. Use of this comprehensive model would thus develop a

well-rounded analysis of SDL in this context.

Analysis

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In examining my own emphasis in preparation to aid self-directed learning, most additional

effort went into managing the external task (Garrison, 1997) through five distinct acts of

teaching;

1) Developing additional structured research activities online using the virtual learning

environment (VLE) with the intention to give learners if needed, a focal point to help

structure and guide their self-study time.

2) Providing facilitative guidance to learners in how to utilise these additional resources

during class time – in line with Mahler et al (2011)

3) Sourcing a broader range of reading and resources provided online through the VLE

as a resource bank, with the intention to give learners options in line with their learning

styles – consistent with Murad et al (2010)

4) Providing experiential learning activities and opportunities to learn by doing (Kolb,

1984)

5) The provision of one to one tutorials outside of class time.

T1 - At our initial session together, expectations of each other were discussed. Students

requested feedback through tutorial support for their draft coursework. They requested an

open and honest learning environment, and teaching which was practical (experiential –

Kolb, 1984), wrapped around organisational experience (Knowles, 1975), which to them

would provide ‘added-value’. We agreed our ‘rules of engagement’ in working in this

facilitative way and wrote them down for future reference (Rogers, 1969).

T2 - At the midpoint of their studies, all students felt there had been some progress in the

development of their own skills in self-direction, but had faced challenges in engaging with

the online resources, due to the lack of synchronous online interaction. They also noted

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reduced motivation as a result of other calls on their time, turning their focus to coursework

submissions for other modules. In exploring their reduced motivation to self-direct,

respondent 1 commented that they ‘get more out of face to face learning’ and respondent 2

stated that they ‘need to make more of an effort to read more articles’. However, a

respondent 3 reported that the online activities had helped her ‘find more information and

references’ and that this had given her “more time to undertake study”. Given her need to

translate articles for better comprehension, she felt this out of class structured activity had

aided her understanding of key theories presented in class time. However she also

commented on her own reduced level of motivation saying ‘I don’t have enough patience to

read all the article’. Her response here aligned with Warring’s (2010) study where Chinese

students benefitted from a higher level of task direction at the outset of their learning.

T3 - In the final week of study, all students felt the provision of optional wider reading

activities following class input had aided their self-direction. Respondent 1 felt that

discussions around ideas taken from their reading in later classes, had enabled her to ‘think

more about the topic and to debate current work practices with her work colleagues’. She

described this action as increasing her ‘desire to read, as it was more purposive’ and how the

learning had become more ‘relevant once we’ve had the chance to see how it fits’. It was

evident therefore that her self-motivation dimension (Garrison, 1997) had developed, as she

saw her ability to discuss matters learnt with work colleagues as motivational and that this

had driven her persistence to continue (Corno, 1993). It also identified that by using teaching

methods that made the learning come to life and relevant to her work role, that she had

bought-in to the subject of study – a key principle of adult learning (Knowles, 1984). As the

class size had been small, providing flexible lesson structure to facilitate such discussion was

relatively straightforward. The degree of additional reading that had been undertaken by

students did differ, as respondent 2 commented ‘I would have loved to done the reading, but

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life gets in the way’. This comment reflects the individual nature of self-management,

motivation (Pilling-Cormick and Garrison, 2007) and volition (Corno, 1993) within a given

group studying together and how teachers through their pedagogy can thus only ameliorate in

certain ways to aid this (Midgley, 2014)

When asked what else had enabled self-directed learning, all students agreed that the ‘human

interactions’ and tutorial meetings had offered reassurance, consistent with Pilling-Cormick’s

contextual influences (1997). Each learner had participated in a one to one tutorial and

utilised the time with their tutor to focus on their assessment. When probed, students

identified that having had the time to get to know the people in the group had been key to

their motivation to participate in the learning process; the power of the group was highlighted

as a motivating factor (Bandura, 1977; Pilling-Cormick, 1997). Respondent 1 reflected that

she had taken part in the self-directed learning activities because if she hadn’t she would have

‘felt I’d let the group down’. This clearly linked with her own drive to persist in SDL activity

(Corno, 1993; Garrison, 1997) and the motivation she felt from perceived peer pressure

(Brophy, 2004).

The learner went on to explain how the network of peer support had developed over time,

whilst the group studied together; this factor is supported by Kek and Huijser’s (2011)

Malaysian study of medical students, who recognised the significance of a sense of belonging

and peer support in delivering SDL outcomes. All students agreed the relationship with the

tutor as key, ‘[there is] something about hearing your voice that makes you buy-in’ a UK

student said. ‘….because we’ve bought into you’, respondent 1 commented. Clearly,

Cormick-Pilling’s (1997) contextual factors in exploring the relationship between learner and

teacher were evident in this comment. The desire for relatedness, as an innate need, was

however not expected. (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Ali and El Sebai’s (2010) study of female

medical students in Saudi Arabia also highlighted the significance of the tutorial process in

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driving a sense of relatedness formed between tutor and membership of a group in self-

directed activity. This internal motivation for relatedness, could explain the lack of

engagement witnessed in the forum established for this cohort. Her view reinforced how the

electronic teaching resources such as student discussion forums provided via the VLE,

needed to be synchronous where possible to enable the group to interact and learn together

(Bandura, 1977).

In exploring this viewpoint, students described and all agreed that how through studying

learning theory as part of the curriculum, I as their tutor had role modelled the behaviours

they expected from humanistic approach to learning (Rogers, 1969). One student noted, ‘as

an advocate of SDL and by being passionate in [my] communications about HRD in general’

– this had been achieved by facilitating learning and through providing options for learning -

both core components of SDL (Knowles, 1975). Students felt this had driven their motivation

to adopt self-directed learning for themselves and to continue to participate.

As part of the formal learning assessment, all students were encouraged to keep a weekly

reflective log of their experiences studying HRD in order to present a summative written

reflection of their personal and professional learning. Each student reflected upon

interventions of their choice. Whilst this was not intended to be part of the data gathered for

this research, upon reading the reflections, it became evident that narrative written following

the completion of the taught programme had further evidenced students’ experiences of self-

directed learning.

In the first report, respondent 4 reflected upon writing his first assignment. ‘[I] felt I was

getting confused’ he stated. However following his tutorial, ‘I felt as if something had clicked

in my head – I was able to see how it had all linked together’. Clearly the use of experiential

learning methods and discovery learning techniques (Bruner, 1957; Kolb, 1984) had aided his

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cognition and the opportunity to discuss his views and opinions had supported this (Knowles,

1984). In evaluating the ways he felt he could have further developed, he stated, ‘I felt I

could have benefitted from doing more reading/research’ and ‘I would also ask for another

meeting with my lecturer for some more verbal feedback’. It is evident that upon reflection,

the student saw the benefit of the tutorial meetings in helping his cognition of learning – a

key feature of self-monitoring (Garrison, 1997).

Secondly, respondent 2 observed in deliberating over verbal feedback received following a

practical activity; ‘I asked for peer feedback – I was particularly encouraged by this’. This

peer feedback it can be argued, helped her cultivate self-esteem, exemplifying how this can

serve to drive ongoing motivation. (Lefroy et al ,2011). The same student then focussed her

considerations on the tutor/student relationship (Pilling-Cormick, 1997). She revealed, ‘I

have easy, direct access to the tutor …she sat at the table with us…this has made the module

more enjoyable… it has felt personal…the tutors style was approachable…there was

nowhere to hide in class and I felt that I worked really hard in every session - it felt like a

real step up to PG study’. This insightful commentary again reflected the need for relatedness

(Deci and Ryan, 2000) as core to motivation of learners. In contrast however, respondent 1

did note that ‘the tutor expected a lot of us especially through SD learning and although a lot

of resources were made available online, there needed to be some motivation on my part to

actually use them, and this was not always the case’. Clearly, these comments highlight the

need for volition (Corno, 1993) in driving ongoing motivation in student behaviours, but also

that the provision of tutor-created resources is not necessarily motivating in its own right,

whereas the earlier student had felt she would let the side down if she hadn’t participated in

the online forum. This distinguishes the drive to undertake SDL motivated by the peer group

from completing SDL motivated by the Tutor (Bandura, 1977; Lefroy et al, 2011)

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Evidently, the student concerned felt she had the autonomy to select what activities and

resources she utilised; itself a characteristic of SDL (Knowles, 1975; 1984).

Of particular interest in reading the reflections provided, was how the UK students identified

the impact of cultural diversity within the group. Respondent 1 noted, ‘As the weeks have

gone on, [Chinese student’s] relationship with the group has changed and she has begun to

trust us and as a result, has begun to contribute’. This insight demonstrated how peer support

(Lefroy et al, 2011), and the gradual shift towards SDL by the tutor over time (Garrison,

1997) had impacted upon their perceptions of the Chinese student’s contribution levels in

class. This seemed to go against the prevailing culture of Asian students (Deveney, 2005;

Hofstede, 2010; Frambach, 2012) that had been originally witnessed, and implied this

particular learner was developing her SDL skills as a result. In fact, in her respondent 5’s

reflection, she commented, ‘as we had a small class; the learning environment is relaxed - as

a result, teacher pays us more attention and we have more chance to communicate (no

communication with others is a barrier to my learning) and teacher care about what we

learning’. This reflection highlighted for me that SDL techniques, combined with a

conducive peer group network in class time, could have significant potential for international

students who typically, might demonstrate passive behaviours in class and thus, low levels of

engagement. (Deveney, 2005; Hofstede, 2010; Warring, 2010)

She acknowledged her concerns about achievement; ‘I don’t want to fail the course again,

this has fuelled my self-directed learning at home’. Whilst concerns around achievement have

been highlighted to distract from SDL (Frambach et al. 2012), in this instance, respondent 5

felt, controversially, that it had increased her motivation. She noted that the use of learning

logs in preparation for her reflective assessment had aided her focus. Fundamental to her

experience, she noted, was the opportunity to work one to one with the tutor. “Personal

tutorial also can help me study effectively….. previously I feared communication with the

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teacher – the tutorial helped [me] understand the assignment and helped me to ask

questions. As a result my coursework was good beyond my expectation and it helped me

engage in the following lectures.” This deliberation again reinforced the importance of

relatedness (Deci and Ryan, 2000) as crucial to maintaining her motivation and self-

monitoring (Garrison, 1997).

Conclusions

In analysing the common factors, three of the five acts of teaching had proven to be

beneficial in aiding SDL; the provision of tutorials out of class time, the use of experiential

learning methods in class and the provision of optional reading resources. As well as these

three intended practices, it was evident that the facilitation of peer-group working and the

development of relations with the tutor, resulting in a sense of relatedness or belonging, had

aided the learners in their self-directed learning. For both UK, Indian and Chinese students,

male and female, the ability to build a more personal working relationship with both the tutor

and the study group seemed to enable the cognition of what had been read, far more than any

VLE intervention had enabled. Finally, the use of methods to capture reflections of student’s

learning as they occurred had proven both insightful and critical, retrospectively.

In contrast however, there was a clear mismatch between tutor and learner perceptions with

two further acts of pedagogic practice. Firstly, in clarifying expectations at the

commencement of teaching this mixed group, it was noted that students did not ask for

additional activities to be provided to structure their self-directed study time. Typically, this

was not something students experienced in other parts of their course programme. This was

the first instance of a mismatch between my acts of teaching practice to aid development of

SDL and their perceived requirements for support in self-directed learning. More specifically,

the UK and Indian students had not found these online research activities beneficial,

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especially in their asynchronous form. It is worthy of note that, in being presented with the

tasks set, the peer group relationship did encourage the participation evidenced online in

forums. Conversely, the Chinese student did feel the VLE resources had been useful in

providing wider sources of help. This links with Warring’s (2010) recognition of a need for

higher levels of task direction and the provision therefore, of facilitative guidance in how to

use the resources as an intended act.

Student feedback indicated that the initial ground rules discussion had not enabled the power-

distance hierarchy to be broken down adequately with the Chinese student (Hofstede et al,

2010). This clearly needed time to develop. What became evident was the need for a

personalised relationship between student and tutor to enable clear understanding of their

motivations and goals and thus, for a true facilitative approach to be offered (Rogers, 1969).

Finally, with reference to Garrison’s comprehensive model (1997), it is posited that there are

differences in the way SDL should be facilitated between different groups of learners. These

can be summarised as:

1) In setting expectations, this should be done as much as possible in small groups or

individually to build rapport (relatedness) between tutor and student.

2) Where possible, a peer network in small groups should be facilitated to develop a

sense of belonging and to enable feedback and support amongst learners themselves.

3) In using VLE resources, tutors should create synchronous online activities where face

to face intervention does not permit, and continue to provide additional resources to

direct and support all learners in their knowledge and understanding.

4) The use of reflective logs by all enabled self- management and self-monitoring skills.

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5) Experiential learning and reflective discussion in class time assists self-monitoring

and drives motivation by volition, by providing relevance to the workplace and the

opportunity to connect theory to practice (Knowles, 1975; 1984; Kolb, 1984).

This research offers an insight into how post graduate students of HRD within a British

university can be appropriately supported through particular acts of teaching practice, to

enhance their capacity to self-direct. Self-directed learning has been identified as key to both

employability and learner engagement. Recent studies into SDL have focussed typically on

medical education elsewhere in the world. Clearly, the development of SDL has an additional

benefit to students of HRD in developing their critical perspectives and in challenging current

practices as they enter the world of employment (Sambrook, 2006).

Limitations

Of course, it may be that my role as an ‘insider’ action researcher impacted upon the learners

behaviours, in their awareness of my research aims and/or due to my prevailing interest in

developing my own practice - as Zeni (1998, p.9) states “action research is never detached”.

As Carr and Kemis (1986) identified, if action research is about the improvement of practice,

then by nature, this type of research can only be contingent upon the practitioners’ intentions,

values and beliefs and the situation in which those elements are given form. Therefore, it

would be inappropriate to form generalisations that were universally generalizable.

Further Research

Due to the small sample size involved in this action research, it is suggested however, that a

repeat study with a larger group of learners should be conducted to allow for additional

20 | P a g e

findings to be reported. This should include a range of nationalities and genders to further

explore cultural and gender differences. Due consideration to how the tutorial process be

facilitated with a larger cohort is necessary; potentially managed in small groups. The

facilitation of the ground rules discussion would also be held in small groups to enable more

contact with individuals from the outset. External task management would be replicated.

Research output from this broader study would aim to develop a teacher’s toolkit to aid

students in developing their self-directed learning abilities.

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