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- Warrior- Divine Lover/Cowherd

1.iii) Appeal of characters to whom and why? ..............................................................8- Cowherd/Divine Lover to women and lower classes,- Warrior to men and upper classes

All taken in relation to the relevant texts

2) Emotional and intellectual bhakti…………………………………………………9

2.i) utline of !oth forms of !hakti…………………………………………………..10

- "motional !hakti- #ntellectual !hakti

2.ii) Devotees interaction…………………………………………………………….12 - With emotional !hakti- With intellectual !hakti

2.iii) "valuation of their purpose…………………………………………………….14

3) The roles and positions of omen in bhakti……………………………….…….1!3.i) Male and female appeal of !hakti………………………………………..………1!

3.ii) $oles and characters of women in poetry…………………………………….…1!

3.iii) %wo way relationship nature of !hakti…………………………………………1"

- Devotee identification with the female aspect - Devotee identification with the deity

3.iv) "vidence of &emale dominance/shifts in 'ender dominance within (indu texts .1#

3.v) )i'nificance of $*dh* as separate from the other 'op+s………………………..19

$onclusion…………………………………………………………………………...20

%ma&e reference……………………………………………………………………...20

'iblio&raph( ………………………………………………………………………...20

%ntroduction

This discussion aims to compare two forms of Hindu devotion and the characters used todistinguish them in relation to the specific texts in which they are portrayed. The term !haktimeaning devotion comes from the )anskritic root !ha literally meaning “to share or participatein.1 !n essence this descri"es devotional worship in which "oth the devotee and deity #in thiscase $ RSNa) participate e%ually. &arly !hakti was "ased on meditation and concentration "utwas not necessarily focused on a deity' however with the rise of texts that did focus the devotionthus' the general aim of !hakti reformed. !t was eventually esta"lished as the third path toli"eration along with the paths of arma #action) and .*na #(nowledge.)2 The main focus of

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this wor( is on the 0aiSNava !hakti traditions/ the devotional movements attached to the deity0iSNu and his avat*ras #incarnations.) articular reference will "e made to !hakti in thedevotional texts of oo( of the “ 1ha'avata 2ur ANa3 and the “ 1ha'*vad-3+t*44 5urther tothese original texts' others were inspired "y the devotional movements which will "e referencedwithin this discussion where appropriate. 6ne of the first texts to "ecome truly devotional within

the 0aiSNava tradition was the 1ha'*vad-3+t* within the epic “ 5ah*!h*rata.7

8ater various 2ur ANa texts were pic(ed up for their devotional appeal. 9ith reference to $ RSNa the mostrelevant 2ur ANa is the 1h*'avata 2ur ANa' and in particular the : $*s* L+l*; section containedwithin oo( which discusses the relationships "etween $ RSNa and the cowherd girls # 'op+s).

The great wor(s of Hindu traditions are divided into two categories< 6ruti and =mRti

loosely defined as “that which has "een perceived through hearing+ and “that which has "een

remem"ered. Traditionally 6ruti was all that was contained in the 0edas. This information had

"een revealed to the sages #öSis) and )mRti was essentially all else., )mRti has come to

encompass everything' excluding the 0edas' from the )7tras to the Laws of 5an7' the 2ur ANas

to the "pics.*

>s far as devotional texts go' the 1ha'*vad-3+t* had a fairly general popularitydespite not "eing particularly well (nown in any sort of detail. !t really came to the forefront of

traditions with the rise of ritish colonialism in !ndia' which set a"out translating texts and

ma(ing them more accessi"le to the :everyday; population. 1? The 3+t* itself is located within the

5ah*!h*rata' the great epic that outlines the civil war "etween the ANDavas and $auravas.

The suggested dates for this text are "etween the 4 th century @& and 4th century @&.11 The 3+t*

within it is thought to "e dated alongside the conflict itself' "etween 14?? and *?? @& which

hugely predates the 5ah*!h*rata as a whole. The 5ah*!h*rata was constantly amended' and

the 3+t* it is assumed was one of these amendments added to the text around 2??@&.12

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4 Aohnson 1**4

7 0an uitenen 1*3

+ $lostermaier 1**,' 17

$lostermaier 1**,' 17

, Boodall 1**+' xx* aehner 1*++' 1?

1? Aohnson 1**4' viii

11 >rcher 1*7' 1

12 @ross 1**4' ,

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The 2ur ANas are a collection of eighteen volumes of smRti text containing 4?????verses' and are the largest "ody of scriptural writings in )anskrit .13 &ach 2ur ANa detailsmythological and legendary stories of (ings and deities. 6ne god will always come to theforefront of these stories/ in the earlier 2ur ANas' these were either 0iSNu or Civa' then later DevE also "ecame an eminent figure.14 The 1h*'avata 2ur*Na details the experiences and life

stories of the incarnations of 0iSNu from Matsya the 5ish to $al(i who will “terminate this present age.17 The 1h*'avata consists of 12 "oo(s or skandhas' each with a primary focus on adifferent avatara of 0iSNu.1+ oo( is the largest of the skandhas' disproportionatelycontaining almost F of the entire text. The incarnation of 0iSNu as $ RSNa dominates oo( and gives “his title of 1ha'avan1 #8ord) to the complete episode of 2ur*Na. This text was slowto "e translated into &nglish' since most texts that were translated seemed to the ritish to cover Hinduism completely' the 2ur ANas however appeared as more of a fairy tale than religious textto the 0ictorians. Dating translations of such texts is relatively easy' however dating the textssuch as the 1h*'avata in its original form can "ecome highly %uestiona"le' and they have comeunder much de"ate to the extent that the precise dates are still disputed today. Dates suggestedfor this particular text/ the 1h*'avata 2ur ANa for example stretch from 12??@& to 13??@& "ut

"ased on references to =outhern !ndian %amil poetry sung "y the 8lv*rs #saints) they are mostcommonly attri"uted to the * th or 1?th century @&.1, Go specific dates can "e assigned to the text'as it is a “fluid "ody of literature1* which has continued to "e adapted throughout the centuries.2?

9ithin the 0aiSNava !hakti traditions concerned with this essay' there are two (ey roles portrayed "y $ RSNa' in the relevant texts. The first is the intellectual image of $ RSNa as thewarrior of the 1ha'*vad-3+t*' second is that of the emotional devotion "etween the cowherd$ RSNa gopala' and the 'op+s in the 1h*'avata 2ur*Na. The first chapter of this essay willinvestigate the two characters of $ RSNa and how they are each portrayed in Hindu art andliterature in order to set the scene as to how they are in turn worshipped within the !haktitraditions. The discussion will lead to the %uestion of which of these two characters is more

accessi"le' and to whom they appeal' for instance whether the Divine 8over must appeal only towomen and lower classes' and the 9arrior to men and the upper intellectual classes or whether there may "e some transition >ll of this investigation will "e ta(en with reference to theappropriate text of the 1ha'*vad-3+t* and 1h*'avata 2ur*Na' and with a view towards loo(ing

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17 $lostermaier 2???' 34

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1, Boodall 1**+' xl

1* ryant 2??3' xiii

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at the issue of intellectual !hakti verses emotional !hakti which will "e loo(ed at in the followingchapter.

&arly devotional texts li(e the 1ha'*vad-3+t* were more intellectual in design as theycame to the forefront at a time when those most a"le to read and interpret such texts were only

the intellectual elite. 8ater as lower classes "ecame more devotionally involved' texts with moresimplistic stories "ecame the focus of devotion. 5or example the 1h*'avata 2ur*Na tellingstories of "attles with demons and the success of good over evil tied with relationships anddevotion on a humanistic level despite the main character;s reality of "eing a deity. The secondchapter will loo( at the distinctions "etween intellectual and emotional !hakti. !t will discusshow the different characters of $ RSNa fit into them along with the other characters thatsurround him' and how they interact with the deity. How do the devotees interact with thesetraditions >re there gender differences or caste allocations to "e (ept in mind when studyingsuch forms of !hakti These issues will "e discussed here. To support these issues' the !haktitraditions of @aitanya and IJmJnuKa will "e touched upon to highlight the use of emotional andintellectual approaches. The two formats of !hakti will "e evaluated to ascertain for what

purpose they are used.The final chapter will discuss the role and position of women within !hakti' loo(ing at the

apparent appeal of the Divine lover in particular. The %uestion will "e raised as to what role thefemale characters in the stories fulfil' "y loo(ing at women in poetry and how they are defined/)vak+y* women :"elonging to one;s own; whereas parak+y* women :"elonging to another;21 utwhat relevance does this have to the way they are portrayed and the way in which they "ehavetowards the deity in the 1h*'avata 2ur*Na This lin(s into the nature of the two-wayrelationship of !hakti and the emotional experiences that come from such a relationship. Doesthe !hakta #devotee) always need to identify with the female characters within the story' or canthey identify with the deity himself How does this relate to male and female devotees

specifically 5urther to support the idea of the 1h*'avata9s appeal to women in particular'%uestions of gender dominance will "e raised' and how it has changed through scripturaltraditions. This will "e loo(ed at with specific reference to the significance of IJdhJ as separatefrom the other 'op+s.

ain contents*

1) The characters of + RSNa in , aiSNava de-otion

:4i; #dentification of the characters of RSNaThe very earliest references to : RSNa9 in any form of Hindu literature fall within the ö '

0eda' however here RSNa is merely given in its adKective form/ the word meaning :"lac(; in

=ans(rit' without any inference to the deity.22 The first plausi"le mention that might imply$ RSNa as a deity is found in the Ch*ndo'ya <paniSad of around the +th century @& "ut this

21 Dimoc( 1*+,' 77

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portrayal still remains inconclusive.23 0arious fragmentary references are made thereafter' "ut

nothing truly conclusive is mentioned of $ RSNa as deity or avat*ra until the 5ah*!h*rata.

There are at around this time also some passing comments within Bree( literature that have "een

ta(en with reference to $ RSNa. >n !ndian tri"e is mentioned as a "ranch of the =adu dynasty to

which $ RSNa "elonged. Heracles is seen as a specific character among these people' and is

thought to "e synonymous with $ RSNa as Hari.24 The first true mention of $ RSNa in the

5ah*!h*rata descri"es him as a human warrior with some supernatural powers that ma(e him

stand out from the crowd. He has fre%uently "attled and defeated numerous demons' and thus his

fame has spread. 8ittle is mentioned of his youth or childhood in this text' and it is not until his

later appearances within 2ur*nic texts that any details of these elements are given at all' however

mention is made for the first time of $ RSNa in his full divine form.

0arious 2ur ANas offer descriptions of the young $ RSNa' "ut the “most explicitly

devoted to glorifying $ RSNa27 of these has to "e the 1h*'avata 2ur ANa that even ta(es its

name from $ RSNa as avat*ra.2+ The 1h*'avata descri"es the "irth of $ RSNa' and how he was

already threatened with death' and then through an exchange with another child he was saved.

8iving amongst the cowherds' the young $ RSNa is descri"ed as a mischievous playful "oy who

steals "utter to feed to the mon(eys.2 He "attles with demons again although in this character the

demons are made part of $ RSNa;s fun' and appear in a dreamli(e fashion as oversiLed animals

or friends in disguise. 8ater as a young adult the nature of his play or l+l* with the 'op+s aroundhim in the 0rndJvana forest is ela"orated upon' and turns more towards an erotic love play with

the 'op+s.2, 5or the purposes of this essay' the characters of $ RSNa as warrior in the 3+t*' and

divine lover in the later episodes of : $*s* L+l*; in the 1h*'avata will "e focused upon.

:4ii; %he portrayal of each in art and literature!n Hindu poetic tradition' the most common form used is that of courtly poetry' and this is

often tied in with aspects of religious and fol( traditions. The literary tradition of )anskritic court poetry was designed to "e “impersonal' learned' artificial and conventional'2* a design thatcan easily "e e%uated with the 1ha'*vad-3+t*. !t contained mostly aspects descri"ing secular

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27 $lostermaier 2???' 332+ ryant 2??3' xiii

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“worldly activity3? rather than the divine' although this said' they often dealt with gods as well.Aust "ecause it had a secular outloo( did not necessarily imply a similarly secular theme as can "e seen in more 2ur*Nic literature that follows this courtly tradition. “rofane manifestations of the sacred31 were often used in courtly poetry' especially depictions of the gods; sex lives. Thissecular outloo( on the "ehaviour of the divine is one of the main appeals of the 1h*'avata

2ur AN

a. !ndian love poetry was academically written a"out love "y scholars never written "y alover a"out his own feelings. =iegel claims that “)anskrit love-poetry generally is ornamentaland sensual rather than discursive or philosophical.32 This suggests that although a divinecharacter is represented' and any action relating to them must "e seen as divine also' it isdepicted in a truly secular fashion. >ny philosophical or moral instruction that may "e foundwithin it is "ound up within the simple depiction of the couple in love.

The love that might otherwise "e seen as profane is made sacred not simply "y the factthat a deity is participating' "ut also through the religious phraseology that is used. 8ove inseparation #vipralam!ha; and love in enKoyment # sam!ho'a) that is love in union with thegodhead in L+l* aided "y 5*y*' are "oth discussed. assionate love and sexual relationships

"ecome sacred as an expression of !hakti< “the loving-woman;s longing Nfor her partnerO "ecamedevotion and love-ma(ing "ecame worship.33 8iterature surrounding $ RSNa gopala of the 1h*'avata originated initially from fol( traditions descri"ing the sexually heightenedrelationships of $ RSNa and the 'op+s. These were composed in vernacular languages' andalthough this tradition did not hold for the 2ur*Nic literature' many aspects of their formationdid' including aspects such as the repetitive refrain #dhruva-padam) rhythmic measure #t*la) andsignature lines #!hanita) that are often repeated

!n the 1ha'*vad-3+t* $ RSNa is portrayed as the charioteer' friend and adviser to >rKuna'one of the sons of ANDu in their fight to rule “what is now Delhi.34 !n the 3+t* >rKuna is seenas a warrior who is suddenly overta(en "y “apparently disa"ling moral scruples37 when faced

with an army of friends' relatives and tutors'“and in despair he said<

:$rishna' when ! see these my own people eager to fightmy lim"s grow heavy

my "ody trem"les and my hair "ristlesmy mind is reeling.;3+

3? =iegel 1*,' 32

31 =iegel 1*,' 32

32 =iegel 1*,' 3333 =iegel 1*,' 3

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>t this point' time apparently stops while $ RSNa tac(les the dispassionate >rKuna andexplains to him why it is his dharmic duty to fight.

The 3+t* holds to the theme of "attle' "e it the physical "attle "etween enemies or the

internal "attle faced "y >rKuna over his scruples. 9ith each "attle' $ RSN

a is seen to lend themoral guiding hand' counselling >rKuna through. $ RSNa is portrayed as a character of securemoral conduct. >s a human he is a prince of a neigh"ouring land' and a good friend and relativeto the ANDus. He is a dedicated warrior' courteous and gracious who wor(s without attachmentto his goals as he tries to teach >rKuna to do li(ewise. 9ithin this text as the final push inconvincing >rKuna of his duty to fight' $ RSNa reveals himself in his multiform capacity<

“>lthough ! am un"orn and have a self that is eternal'although ! am lord of all "eings'

"y controlling my own material nature ! come into "eingage after age' to protect the virtuous and to destroy evil-doers.3

!n art the warrior $ RSNa is portrayed as a solemn yet (ind faced man of "lue s(in to define hisstatus as deity compared to the other characters around him. He is often "edec(ed with gold and Kewels to display his wealth

3 Aohnson 1**4' 1* >1ha'*vad-3+t* E-;

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