UNIT III

LECTUREChapter’s 7-Thinking,

Language and Intelligence

Chapter 9-Lifespan Development

Thinking, Language and Intelligence

Chapter 7

Definition-Cognition is mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge. ***Cognitive abilities are key to intelligence.

Definition-Thinking is the manipulation of mental representations to draw inferences and conclusions. ***Involves mental images and concepts.

Question-does anyone have problems going to sleep because of thinking too much before bedtime?

Definition-Mental image is a representation of objects or events that are not present-not limited to visual images. Mental image of taste of lemon.

Definition-Concept is a mental category of objects or ideas based on shared properties. Such as food or birds.

Mental Image and a Concept

Definition-Formal concept—mental category formed by learning rules. ***shape of a square.

Definition-Natural concept—mental category formed by everyday experience. ◦ ***Question: vehicle (name them)

Types of Concepts

Definition-Formal concept—follows rigid rules, not usually intuitive (A polygon is… or a triangle is…)

Definition-Natural concept—results from everyday experience (Name some mammals…)

Examples of Concepts

Definition-The most typical instance of a particular concept.◦Examples: Fruit-apple, banana or orange. Some

poor prototypes might be olive or tomato.

◦What are prototypes of a vehicle?◦What are prototypes of a bird?

Prototypes

Definition-Individual instance of a concept or category, held in memory.◦We compare a new object to previously

stored exemplars of that concept. Example-if the concept is vehicle and

the new item was boat, we would compare this to all previous memories of vehicles, such as cars, ships, airplanes and trucks.

Exemplars

Definition-Trial & error is attempting different solutions and eliminating those do not work. ***Example would be trying different types of screwdrivers on screws until finding the correct fit.

Definition-Algorithm is a problem solving strategy that involves following a specific rule, procedure, or method that inevitably produces the correct solution. ***Math formulas are examples of algorithms.

Definition-Heuristic is a problem solving strategy that involves following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutions. ***Example is breaking down an assignment into sub-goals, like the parts of a paper.

Problem Solving

Definition-Insight is the sudden realization of how a problem can be solved.

Definition-Intuition is coming to a conclusion without conscious awareness of thought processes involved. ***Do you believe in women’s intuition?

Insight and Intuition

Solving Problems

Definition-Functional fixedness is the tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual way. ***Question-what other uses are there for a screwdriver?

Definition-Availability heuristic is judging the probability of an event by how easily you can recall previous occurrences of that event.

Example: Most will overestimate deaths from natural disasters because disasters are frequently on TV. People over-estimate plane crashes

Definition-Representative heuristic is estimating an event by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of the event.

Heuristics

Definition-Language is a system for combining arbitrary symbols to produce an infinite number of meaningful statements.

◦ The purpose of language is to communicate in a meaningful way that can be understood by others.

◦ Baby Sign Language 10 min.

Language and Thinking

Animals clearly communicate with each other, but is that language?

Some primates that have been trained demonstrate the same level of language comprehension as that of an average 2-year-old child

Non-primates can also acquire some language abilities, i.e., dolphins, parrots

PARROT AND INTELLIGENCE.

Animal Communication

Global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with

the environment

Intelligence

Alfred Binet-developed procedures to ID kids that needed special help in school. Made first intelligence test.

Thurman developed the IQ or intelligence quotient.

IQ-derived by dividing the individual’s mental age by the chronological age and multiplying by 100.

Measuring Intelligence

Modern Intelligence TestsThe Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)-used more widely now than Stanford-Binet test and modeled after Binet’s test.

Achievement test-designed to measure skill in a particular area.

Aptitude test-designed to assess a person’s capacity to benefit from education or training.

Reliability and Validity

Valid—ability to measure what the test is intended to measure

Reliable—ability to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions

Standardized—administered to large groups of people under uniform conditions to establish norms.

Question: Are these IQ test valid for minorities such as native Americans?

Qualities of Good Tests

Analytic-mental processes in solving problems. Example: Rubics cube.

Creative-using past experiences, knowledge and skills to cope with new situations.

Practical-ability to adapt to the environment and example would be “street smarts.”

Mensa Testing (2 min.)

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Nature vs. Nurture in IQ

Are differences between people due to environmental or genetic differences?

Misunderstanding the question◦ “Is a person’s intelligence due more to genes

or to environment?”◦ both genes & intelligence crucial for any trait

Heritability◦ degree to which variation in trait stems from

genetic, rather than environmental, differences among individuals

Environment◦ degree to which variation is due to environmental

rather than genetic differences

Heredity and Environment

To enhance your creativity◦ Creativity as a goal◦ Reinforce creative behavior◦ Engage in problem finding◦ Acquire relevant knowledge◦ Try different approaches◦ Exert effort and expect

setbacks

Creativity

Lifespan Development

Chapter #9

What shapes the way we change over time?

Focus on psychological changes across the entire life span

Every area of psychology can be looked at from this perspective◦ biological development◦ social development◦ cognitive/perceptual development◦ personality development

Developmental Psychology

What is role of heredity vs. environment in determining psychological makeup?◦ Is IQ inherited or determined by early

environment?◦ Is there a ‘criminal’ gene?◦ Is sexual orientation a choice or genetically

determined? These are some of our greatest societal

debates Mistake to pose as ‘either/or’ questions

Fundamental Issues: Nature vs. Nurture

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes Chromosomes are long twisted strands

of DNA DNA is the chemical basis of heredity

and carries instructions Genes are the basic unit of heredity;

single unit of DNA on the chromosome

Overview of Genetics

Conception—when a sperm penetrates the ovum

Zygote—a fertilized egg Germinal period—first two weeks after

conception Embryonic period—weeks three through

eight after conception Fetal period—two months after conception

until birth

Prenatal Development

Nutrition Anxiety Mother’s general health Maternal age Teratogens—any agent that causes a birth defect (e.g., drugs, radiation, viruses)

Prenatal Influences on Development

Rooting—turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek

Sucking—sucking rhythmically in response to oral stimulation

Babinski—fanning and curling toes when foot is stroked

Infant Reflexes

Intense emotional bond between infant and caregiver

Mary Ainsworth-attachment

Infant Attachment

Easy—adaptable, positive mood, regular habits

Slow to warm up—low activity, somewhat slow to adapt, generally withdraw from new situations

Difficult—intense emotions, irritable, cry frequently

Average—unable to classify (1/3 of all children)

Temperament

Securely attached—explores the room when mother is present, becomes upset and explores less when mother is not present, shows pleasure when mother returns

Avoidantly attached—a form of insecure attachment in which child avoids mother and acts coldly to her

Forms of Attachment

Anxious resistant attachment—a form of insecure attachment where the child remains close to mother and remains distressed despite her attempts to comfort

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU

Forms of Attachment

Learning, Reasoning, and Language Development

over the Life Span

Language Development

MONTH Speech Characteristic

2 Cooing vowel sounds 4 Babbling consonant/vowel 10 Babbling native language sounds12 One-word stage 24 Two-word stage24+ Sentences

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4zPHAhj_Cio

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Swiss psychologist who became leading theorist in 1930’s

Piaget believed that “children are active thinkers, constantly trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world”

These “understandings” are in the form of structures he called schemas

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Biological in belief that there are innate drives to develop social relationships and that these promote survival (Darwinism)

Divided life span into eight psychosocial stages, each associated with a different drive and a problem or crisis to resolve

Outcome of each stage varies along a continuum from positive to negative

Erikson’s Theory

Infants must rely on others for care

Consistent and dependable caregiving and meeting infant needs leads to a sense of trust

Infants who are not well cared for will develop mistrust

Stage 1 (Birth–1)Trust vs. Mistrust

Children are discovering their own independence

Those given the opportunity to experience independence will gain a sense of autonomy

Children that are overly restrained or punished harshly will develop shame and doubt

Stage 2 (1–3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Children are exposed to the wider social world and given greater responsibility

Sense of accomplishment leads to initiative, whereas feelings of guilt can emerge if the child is made to feel too anxious or irresponsible

Stage 3 (3–5 years)Initiative vs. Guilt

Stage of life surrounding mastery of knowledge and intellectual skills

Sense of competence and achievement leads to industry

Feeling incompetent and unproductive leads to inferiority

Stage 4 (5–12 years) Industry vs. Inferiority

Developing a sense of who one is and where one is going in life

Successful resolution leads to positive identity

Unsuccessful resolution leads to identity confusion or a negative identity

Stage 5 (Adolescence)Identity vs. Confusion

Time for sharing oneself with another person

Capacity to hold commitments with others leads to intimacy

Failure to establish commitments leads to feelings of isolation

Stage 6 (Young adulthood)Intimacy vs. Isolation

Caring for others in family, friends, and work leads to sense of contribution to later generations

Stagnation comes from a sense of boredom and meaninglessness

Stage 7 (Middle adulthood)Generativity vs. Stagnation

Successful resolutions of all previous crises leads to integrity and the ability to see broad truths and advise those in earlier stages

Despair arises from feelings of helplessness and the bitter sense that life has been incomplete

Stage 8 (Late adulthood to Death)Integrity vs. Despair

Genetics and lifestyle combine to determine course of physical changes

Social development involves marriage and transition to parenthood

Paths of adult social development are varied and include diversity of lifestyles

Adult Development

Old age as a time of poor health, inactivity, and decline is a myth.

Activity theory of aging—life satisfaction is highest when people maintain level of activity they had in earlier years.

Late Adulthood

In general, anxiety about dying tends to decrease in late adulthood

Kubler-Ross stages of dying◦ Denial◦ Anger◦ Bargain◦ Depression◦ Acceptance

Stages of grief

Death and Dying