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© Sam Ferreira
Global Patterns
Unsustainable exploitation of biodiversity
Rands et al. 2010. Science 329: 1298-1303
End of the line – imagine a world without fish
www.endofthelinemovie.com
Large mammal declines in parks
Craigie et al. 2010. Biological Conservation 123: 45-54
© Sam Ferreira
South Africa may do better sometimes
Golden Gate
Mokala
Kalahari Wet
Kalahari Dry
Kruger
Marakele
Addo Main
Addo-Kuzuko
KarooM
ountain Zebra
Camdeboo
Mapungubwe
Augrabies
Addo-Darlington
Addo-Nyathi
Addo-Zuurberg
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
UnknownDecreaseStableIncrease
La
rge
Ma
mm
al P
op
ula
tion
s
54% increasing or stable 4% decreasing
Ferreira et al. 2009. SANParks, South Africa
The Business of Ecosystem Services
• Carbon sequestration• Community-based ecotourism• Resource use
– Harvesting– Hunting– Water quality
Increased monetary-based values
© Rudi van Aarde
A conflict of interest for conservationists?
• Biodiversity degrades with monetary-based approaches
• Conundrum for protected areas• Protect biodiversity• But also generate revenue
© Sam Ferreira
Mills & Waite 2009. Ecological Economics 68: 2087-2095
© Rudi van Aarde
Why is biodiversity important?
• It has livelihood links– Monetary– Non-monetary
• Threats to biodiversity threatens livelihoods
© Adrian Shrader
Threats are drivers of Global Environmental Change
Gaston et al. 2008. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 39: 93-113
Reduction or Loss of Species in Protected Areas
22%Habitat Change
Fire, prescribed burning, elephant damage,
habitat loss and quality,starvation, declining resources
3%Climate Change
Drought
6%Invasive species
Fish stocking, bush encroachment
25%Over-Exploitation
Hunting, removals for translocation
3%Pollution
Affects resource availability
13%Disease
10%Predation
13%Unknown
54 % of cases involved more than one driver
Ocean acidification• Since 1970 pH dropped by 0.1
Sea-level rise• Cost 5-10% GDP
Africa• 75-250 million people water stress by 2020• Rural agricultural yield drop by 50% by 2020• 5-8% more arid land by 2080
Climate Change as a Driver
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC): 4th Report 2007
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Ups lope s hift (m )
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Num
ber o
f specie
s
Upper altitudinal boundaryc ontrac ted dow ns lope
Upper altitudinal boundaryexpanded ups lope
Plants on the move
Moving upslopeMoving downslope
Num
ber o
f spe
cies
Altitudinal shift (m)
43%Ave. = 69m
Le Roux & McGeoch 2008. Global Change Biology 14: 2950-2962
Biodiversity consequences of Climate Change
Invasive Species as a Driver
Invasive alien plants in KrugerFoxcroft & Richardson 2003. In Plant invasives. Blackhyus Publishers.
Aerial extent of Opuntia stricta Foxcroft et al. 2004. Diversity and Distribution 10: 427-437
© Sam Ferreira
Invaded Not invaded
Richness 21.39 ± 2.31 35.56 ± 2.32*
Abundance 67.49 ± 18.87 19.49 ± 18.88*
Homogenization 0.008 ± 0.002 0.77 ± 0.002**
Biodiversity consequences of Invasive Species
Impact of the Argentine ant on native Fynbos ants
© Melodie McGeogh
McGeoch, Unpublished data
Over-exploitation as a Driver
What does it mean?
Populations harvested unsustainably- Reproduction cannot compensate for mortalities
Wilcove et al. 1998. BioScience 48: 607-615- Resource quality change
Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations 2007
Conceptual driver
Tragedy of the commons- Increase of individual resources
- e.g. herd of cows- Detriment of common resources
- e.g. communal fodderHardin 1968. Science 162: 1243-1248
Frank et al. 2005. Science 308: 1621–1623
Dissolved inorganic nitrogen
Time
NO
3- + N
O2
18/25 cases, 7**
Time
PO43
Phosphorous
23/25 cases, 14**
Fertilizer use
Effluent
deVilliers & Thiart 2007. South African Journal of Science 103: 343-349
State of South Africa’s River Systems
Pollution as a Driver
© Melodie McGeogh
Ma
yJu
nJu
lyA
ug
Se
pO
ctN
ov
De
cJa
nF
eb
Ma
rA
pr
Ma
yJu
nJu
lA
ug
Se
pO
ctN
ov
De
cJa
nF
eb
Ma
rA
pr
Ma
y0
1000
2000
3000Helicopter Spotlight
2008/2009 2009/2010
Num
ber
of
croco
dile
s
Dead170
Dead28
Biodiversity consequences of Pollution
Ferreira & Pienaar 2010. Aquatic Conservation Submitted
© Andrew Deacon
Increase in EIDs
WildlifePlants & animals
HomogenizationMixingLoss of diversity
Increased risk of disease and disease transfer
translocationimpact
Emerging infectious disease
Transfer between domestic animals and wildlifeDaszak et al. 2000. Science 287: 443-449
Human translocation of hosts and parasitesSpear & Chown 2008. Journal of Biogeography
No human or domestic animal involvementMatthee et al. 2004. Journal of Parasitology 90: 1263-1273
Consequences
Direct threat to wildlifeIndirect threat via human antagonism
Disease as a Driver
Belden & Harris 2007. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5: 533-539© Danny Govender
Tree Grass Dynamics
herbivoryfire
soil
rainfall[CO2]
Bond 2008. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 39: 641-659
Management actions
Climate change
Habitat clearing
Fragmentation
Roads
Habitat Change as a Driver
Vehicle numbers
Tourism facilities
Tourist numbers
© Sam Ferreira
Dealing with threats
Climate change – land expansionInvasive species – regulatory and restorationOver-exploitation – regulatory and restorationPollution – regulatory and restorationDisease – regulatory and scenariosHabitat change – protection and restoration
Essentially a social problemgrowth of human populations
per capita consumptionRands et al. 2010. Science 329: 1298-1303
• Integrate conservation friendly land-uses• Socio-economic-ecological complexity
• Conservationists are negotiators
Diversify approaches
MISSION
To manage Golden Gate Highlands National Park in a collaborative learning environment
as part of an ecologically functional and sustainable patchwork of different land uses in the region that ensures the persistence of
the natural and cultural heritage for the benefit and enjoyment of all.
SANParks 2009. Pretoria.
Scenario Planning
Consequences often unknown
Nearly all drivers fall in this category
Disease accentuated
Medical examples to embrace
http://www.physorg.com/news160327953.html
© Markus Hofmeyr
Make links and manage causal mechanisms
Objectives and
outcomes
Drivers and indicators
- impacts on biodiversity- tall trees- aesthetics- conflict
Mechanisms and modulators
- how they use space- water directly modulates - density may override this
Management responses
Induce predationInduce dispersalMimic predationMimic dispersalManipulate birthsManipulate deaths
Restore spaceManipulate resourceExclude resourceRotate resourceExclude impact
Objectives
EcosystemAbiotic – soil nutrientsDecomposers – millipedesProducers – vegetationConsumers – birds
Species of ConcernRare speciesEndemic species
StakeholdersPerceptionsComplaints
TouristsSatisfactionRevisits
Drivers and indicators
ElephantsPatch densityFragstatsLarge treesSize distribution
StakeholdersWildlife conflictDamage to crops
MammalsSightingsDiversityTourist effort
Mechanisms and modulators
ElephantsHome range overlapSeason distribution
Direct modulatorWater availabilityFence distribution
Indirect modulatorAbundanceDensity
HumansLandscape use
Monitoring needs
Gaylard & Ferreira 2010. Koedoe. Submitted
Our legacy?
• Biodiversity begets livelihoods• Livelihoods threaten biodiversity
• The Year of Biodiversity - A way of living
– matrix of different land-usesFerreira et al. 2010. Journal of Environmental Management Submitted
– biodiversity is global public good– integrate biodiversity
• resource production• consumption
– wider institutional and societal changes– enable effective implementation
Rands et al. 2010. Science 329: 1298-1303
© Sam Ferreira
Biodiversity should be an accidental outcome of sustainable livelihoods
© Rudi van Aarde