.•Part I Wastewater Engineering•1 Wastewater Engineering: An Overview

Fig. 1-1 Schematic diagram of a wastewater management infrastructure

1-1 Terminology Table 1-1 Terminology commonly used in the field of wastewater engineering1-2 Impact of Regulations on Wastewater Engineering1-3 Health and Environmental Concerns in Wastewater ManagementFig. 1-2 Covered treatment plant facilities for the control of odor emissions 1-4 Wastewater CharacteristicsTab 1-2 Levels of wastewater treatmentTab 1-3 Unit Operations and Processes used to Remove Constituents Found in Wastewater1-5 Wastewater TreatmentFig 1-3 Facilities used for chemical treatment of odors from treatment facilitiesFig. 1-4 UV lamps used for the disinfection of wastewater1-6 Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse1-7 Biosolids and Residuals ManagementFig. 1-5 Egg-shaped digesters used for the anaerobic treatment of biosolids

2 Constituents in Wastewater

An understanding of the nature of wastewater is essential in the design and operation of wastewater collection, treatment, and reuse facilities, and in the engineering management of environmental quality.

(1) the constituents found in wastewater,

(2) sampling and analytical procedures,

(3) physical characteristics,

(4) inorganic nonmetallic constituents,

(5) metallic constituents,

(6) aggregate organic constituents,

(7) individual organic constituents and compounds,and

(8) biological characteristics.

2-1 Wastewater Constituents2-1 Wastewater Constituents

Constituents Found in WastewaterConstituents Found in Wastewater Table 2-1 Common analyses used to Table 2-1 Common analyses used to assess the constituents found in assess the constituents found in wastewaterwastewater

Many of the physical properties and chemical and Many of the physical properties and chemical and biological characteristics are interrelated. For example, biological characteristics are interrelated. For example, temperature, a physical property, affects both the temperature, a physical property, affects both the amounts of gases dissolved in the wastewater and the amounts of gases dissolved in the wastewater and the

biological activity in the wastewater…biological activity in the wastewater…

Constituents of Concern in Wastewater Treatment

Tab 2-2 Principal constituents of concern in wastewater treatment Suspended solidsSuspended solids can lead to sludge deposition and anaerob can lead to sludge deposition and anaerobic conditions;ic conditions;

Biodegradable organicsBiodegradable organics composed of proteins; carbohydrate composed of proteins; carbohydrates and fats ,and are measured most commonly in terms of Bs and fats ,and are measured most commonly in terms of BOD and COD;OD and COD;

PathogensPathogens can transmite Communicable diseases; can transmite Communicable diseases;

Priority pollutants include carcinogenicity, metogenicity, terPriority pollutants include carcinogenicity, metogenicity, teratogenicity or high acute toxicity;atogenicity or high acute toxicity;

NutrientsNutrients lead to the growth of undesirable aquatic life; lead to the growth of undesirable aquatic life;

Refractory organics include surfactants, phenols, and agricuRefractory organics include surfactants, phenols, and agricultural pesticides. ltural pesticides.

2-2 Sampling and Analytical Procedures2-2 Sampling and Analytical Procedures SamplingSampling (1) routine operating data for (1) routine operating data for accessing overall plant accessing overall plant

performanceperformance

(2) data that can be used to (2) data that can be used to document the performance of a document the performance of a given treatment operation or processgiven treatment operation or process

(3) data that can be used to (3) data that can be used to implement proposed new implement proposed new programsprograms

(4) data needed for (4) data needed for reporting regulatory compliancereporting regulatory compliance..

The data collected must be:The data collected must be:

(1). (1). RepresentativeRepresentative. .

(2).(2).ReproducibleReproducible.The data must be reproducible .The data must be reproducible by others following the same sampling and by others following the same sampling and analytical protocols.analytical protocols.

(3). (3). DefensibleDefensible. The data must have a known . The data must have a known degree of accuracy and precision.degree of accuracy and precision.

(4). (4). UsefulUseful. The data can be used to meet the . The data can be used to meet the objectives of the monitoring plan.objectives of the monitoring plan.

There are no universal procedures for sampling. There are no universal procedures for sampling. Sampling programs must be tailored individually to fit Sampling programs must be tailored individually to fit each situation.each situation.

Quality assurance project plan (QAPP) (known Quality assurance project plan (QAPP) (known previously quality assurance/quality control, QA/QC). previously quality assurance/quality control, QA/QC).

(1).Sampling plan.(1).Sampling plan.

(2).Sample types and size.(2).Sample types and size.

(3).Sample labeling and chain of custody.(3).Sample labeling and chain of custody.

(4).Sampling methods. (4).Sampling methods.

(5).Sampling storage and preservation.(5).Sampling storage and preservation.

(6).Sample constituents. (6).Sample constituents.

(7).Analytical methods. (7).Analytical methods.

If the physical, chemical, and/or biological integrity of If the physical, chemical, and/or biological integrity of the samples is not maintained during interim periods the samples is not maintained during interim periods between sample collection and sample analysis, a between sample collection and sample analysis, a carefully performed sampling program will become carefully performed sampling program will become worthless. worthless.

Prompt analysis is undoubtedly the most positive Prompt analysis is undoubtedly the most positive assurance against error due to sample deterioration. assurance against error due to sample deterioration.

Probable errors due to deterioration of the sample Probable errors due to deterioration of the sample

should be noted in reporting analytical data.should be noted in reporting analytical data.

Methods of AnalysisMethods of Analysis The analyses used to characterize wastewater vary from prThe analyses used to characterize wastewater vary from pr

ecise quantitative chemical determinations to the more quaecise quantitative chemical determinations to the more qualitative biological and physical determinations. litative biological and physical determinations.

The quantitative methods of analysis are either gravimetric,The quantitative methods of analysis are either gravimetric, volumetric, or physicochemical. volumetric, or physicochemical.

Turbidimetry, colorimetry, potentiometry, polarography, aTurbidimetry, colorimetry, potentiometry, polarography, adsorption spectrometry, fluorometry, and nuclear radiation dsorption spectrometry, fluorometry, and nuclear radiation are representative of the physicochemical analyses. are representative of the physicochemical analyses.

Units of Measurement for Physical and ChUnits of Measurement for Physical and Chemical Parametersemical Parameters

kg/mkg/m33 ,%(by volume or by mass), pg/L, ng/L, µg/L, mg/L, ,%(by volume or by mass), pg/L, ng/L, µg/L, mg/L,

g/L, ppb, ppm, mol/L, eq/L, meq/L .g/L, ppb, ppm, mol/L, eq/L, meq/L . The concentration of trace constituents is usually expresseThe concentration of trace constituents is usually expresse

d as micrograms per liter (µg/L) or nanograms per liter (ngd as micrograms per liter (µg/L) or nanograms per liter (ng/L). /L).

For dilute systems, one liter of sample weighs approximatFor dilute systems, one liter of sample weighs approximately one kilogram, the units of mg/L or g/mely one kilogram, the units of mg/L or g/m33 are interchang are interchangeable with ppm. eable with ppm.

"parts per billion" (ppb) and "parts per trillion"(ppt) are us"parts per billion" (ppb) and "parts per trillion"(ppt) are used interchangeably with µg/L and ng/L ed interchangeably with µg/L and ng/L

2-3 Physical Characteristics2-3 Physical Characteristics

The most important physical characteristic of wasteThe most important physical characteristic of wastewater is its total solids content, which is composed water is its total solids content, which is composed of floating matter, settleable matter, colloidal matteof floating matter, settleable matter, colloidal matter, and matter in solution. Other important physical r, and matter in solution. Other important physical characteristics include particle size distribution,turbcharacteristics include particle size distribution,turbidity, color, transntittance, temperature, conductivitidity, color, transntittance, temperature, conductivity, and density, specific gravity and specific weight. y, and density, specific gravity and specific weight. Odor, sometimes considered a physical factor, is diOdor, sometimes considered a physical factor, is discussed in the following section.scussed in the following section.

SolidsSolids

In the characterization of wastewater, coarse materials are usually In the characterization of wastewater, coarse materials are usually

removed before the sample is analyzed for solids.removed before the sample is analyzed for solids.

Tab 2-3 Definitions of solids found in wastewaterTab 2-3 Definitions of solids found in wastewater

Fig. 2-1 Interrelationships of solids found in water and wastewater. In Fig. 2-1 Interrelationships of solids found in water and wastewater. In much of the water quality literature, the solids passing through the much of the water quality literature, the solids passing through the filter are called dissolved solids.filter are called dissolved solids.

A filtration step is used to separate the total suspended solids (TSS) from A filtration step is used to separate the total suspended solids (TSS) from the total dissolved solids (TDS). Filters with nominal pore sizes varying the total dissolved solids (TDS). Filters with nominal pore sizes varying from 0.45 µm to about 2.0 µm have been used for the TSS test. from 0.45 µm to about 2.0 µm have been used for the TSS test.

Fig. 2-2 Size ranges of organic contaminants in wastewater and size Fig. 2-2 Size ranges of organic contaminants in wastewater and size separation and measurement techniques used for their quantificationseparation and measurement techniques used for their quantification

Particle Size DistributionParticle Size Distribution

Information on particle size is of importance in assessing Information on particle size is of importance in assessing the effectiveness of treatment processes (e.g., secondary sethe effectiveness of treatment processes (e.g., secondary sedimentation, effluent filtration and effluent disinfection).dimentation, effluent filtration and effluent disinfection).

The biological conversion rate of these particles is dependThe biological conversion rate of these particles is dependent on size. ent on size.

The methods used most commonly to study and quantify tThe methods used most commonly to study and quantify the particles in wastewater are serial filtration, electronic pahe particles in wastewater are serial filtration, electronic particle counting, and microscopic observation .rticle counting, and microscopic observation .

Serial FiltrationSerial Filtration

2.0 μm as specified in Standard Methods for the TSS test.2.0 μm as specified in Standard Methods for the TSS test. More than 20 mg/L of additional TSS would have been meMore than 20 mg/L of additional TSS would have been me

asured.asured.

Electronic Particle Size CountingElectronic Particle Size Counting Diluted sample through a calibrated orifice . The conductiDiluted sample through a calibrated orifice . The conducti

vity is correlated to the size of an equivalent sphere. vity is correlated to the size of an equivalent sphere. Fig. 2-5 Volume fraction of particle sizes found in the effFig. 2-5 Volume fraction of particle sizes found in the eff

luent from two activated-sludge plants with clarifiers havluent from two activated-sludge plants with clarifiers having different side water depthsing different side water depths

However, the particle size data for the large particles are quHowever, the particle size data for the large particles are qu

ite different, owing primarily to the design and operation oite different, owing primarily to the design and operation of the secondary clarification . f the secondary clarification .

Microscopic ObservationMicroscopic Observation

Various types of stains can be used on a routine basis, to quVarious types of stains can be used on a routine basis, to qualitatively assess microscope slide. alitatively assess microscope slide.

Video camera attached to a microscope and transmitted to Video camera attached to a microscope and transmitted to a computer are dependent on the computer software , the a computer are dependent on the computer software , the mean, minimum, and maximum diameter, length to width rmean, minimum, and maximum diameter, length to width ratio, the circumference, the surface area, the volume, and tatio, the circumference, the surface area, the volume, and the centroid . Particle imaging greatly reduces the time requhe centroid . Particle imaging greatly reduces the time required but the cost of the software and equipment is often proired but the cost of the software and equipment is often prohibitive for many small laboratories.hibitive for many small laboratories.

TurbidityTurbidity

Turbidity, a measure of the light-transmitting properties of Turbidity, a measure of the light-transmitting properties of water, is another test used to indicate the quality of waste dwater, is another test used to indicate the quality of waste discharges and natural waters with respect to colloidal and rischarges and natural waters with respect to colloidal and residual suspended matter. esidual suspended matter.

The results of turbidity measurements are reported as nephThe results of turbidity measurements are reported as neph

elometric turbidity units (NTU). elometric turbidity units (NTU). It should be noted that the presence of air bubbles in the fluIt should be noted that the presence of air bubbles in the flu

id will cause erroneous turbidity readings. In general, there id will cause erroneous turbidity readings. In general, there is no relationship between turbidity and the concentration is no relationship between turbidity and the concentration of total suspended solids in untreated wastewater. of total suspended solids in untreated wastewater.

There is, however, a reasonable relationship between turbidThere is, however, a reasonable relationship between turbidity and total suspended solids for the settled and filtered seity and total suspended solids for the settled and filtered secondary effluent from the activated sludge process.condary effluent from the activated sludge process.

The conservation factors for settled secondary effluent and The conservation factors for settled secondary effluent and

for secondary effluent filtered with a granular-medium depfor secondary effluent filtered with a granular-medium depth filter will typically vary from 2.3 to 2.4 and 1.3 to 1.6, rth filter will typically vary from 2.3 to 2.4 and 1.3 to 1.6, respectively. espectively.

However, turbidity readings at a given facility can be used However, turbidity readings at a given facility can be used

for process control. Some on line turbidity meters used to for process control. Some on line turbidity meters used to monitor the performance of microfiltration units are affectmonitor the performance of microfiltration units are affected by the air used to clean the membranes.ed by the air used to clean the membranes.

Color Color

Condition refers to the age of the wastewater, which is Condition refers to the age of the wastewater, which is determined qualitatively by its color and odor. Fresh determined qualitatively by its color and odor. Fresh wastewater is usually a brownish-gray color ,sequentially wastewater is usually a brownish-gray color ,sequentially from gray to dark gray, and ultimately to black that is from gray to dark gray, and ultimately to black that is often described as septic. often described as septic.

In most cases, the gray, dark gray, and black color of the In most cases, the gray, dark gray, and black color of the wastewater is due to the formation of metallic sulfides, wastewater is due to the formation of metallic sulfides, which form as the sulfide produced under anaerobic which form as the sulfide produced under anaerobic conditions reacts with the metals in the wastewater.conditions reacts with the metals in the wastewater.

Absorption/TransmittanceAbsorption/Transmittance

The absorbance measured using a spectrophotometer and a The absorbance measured using a spectrophotometer and a fixed path length (usually 1.0 cm) is a measure of the amofixed path length (usually 1.0 cm) is a measure of the amount of light, of a specified wave-length, unt of light, of a specified wave-length,

The factors that affect the percent transmission include seleThe factors that affect the percent transmission include sele

cted inorganic compounds (e.g., copper; iron, etc.), organic cted inorganic compounds (e.g., copper; iron, etc.), organic compounds (e.g., organic dyes, humic substances, and conjcompounds (e.g., organic dyes, humic substances, and conjugated ring compounds such as benzene and toluene), and ugated ring compounds such as benzene and toluene), and TSS. TSS.

Iron is considered to be the most important with respect to Iron is considered to be the most important with respect to

UV absorbance because dissolved iron can absorb UV lighUV absorbance because dissolved iron can absorb UV light directly and because iron will adsorb onto suspended solit directly and because iron will adsorb onto suspended solids, bacterial clumps and other organic compounds. ds, bacterial clumps and other organic compounds.

The sorbed iron can prevent the UV light from penetrating The sorbed iron can prevent the UV light from penetrating the particle and inactivating organisms that may be embedthe particle and inactivating organisms that may be embedded within the particle. Dosage control is extremely importded within the particle. Dosage control is extremely important when UV disinfection is to be used. ant when UV disinfection is to be used.

Organic constituents, are compounds with six conjugated cOrganic constituents, are compounds with six conjugated c

arbons or a five- or six-member conjugated ring. The reducarbons or a five- or six-member conjugated ring. The reduction in transmittance observed during storm events is often tion in transmittance observed during storm events is often ascribed to the presence of humic substances from stormwascribed to the presence of humic substances from stormwater flows. ater flows.

Fig. 2-6 Transmittance measured at various wavelengths Fig. 2-6 Transmittance measured at various wavelengths for activated-sludge effluents and lagoon effluentsfor activated-sludge effluents and lagoon effluents

Unfiltered and filtered transmittance are mearsured in wastUnfiltered and filtered transmittance are mearsured in wastewater in connection with the evaluation and design of UV ewater in connection with the evaluation and design of UV disinfection systems.disinfection systems.

TemperatureTemperature

The temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than The temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of the local water supply, because of the addition of that of the local water supply, because of the addition of warm water from households and industrial activities. As warm water from households and industrial activities. As the specific heat of water is much greater than that of air, the specific heat of water is much greater than that of air, the observed wastewater temperatures are lower only the observed wastewater temperatures are lower only during the hottest summer months. during the hottest summer months.

Effects of TemperatureEffects of Temperature The temperature of water is a very important parameter The temperature of water is a very important parameter

because of its effect on chemical reactions and reaction because of its effect on chemical reactions and reaction rates, aquatic life, and the suitability of the water for rates, aquatic life, and the suitability of the water for beneficial uses. beneficial uses.

Industrial establishments that use surface water for cooling Industrial establishments that use surface water for cooling water purposes are particularly concerned with the temperawater purposes are particularly concerned with the temperature of the intake water.ture of the intake water.

In addition, oxygen is less soluble in warm water than in coIn addition, oxygen is less soluble in warm water than in co

ld water. The the rate of biochemical reactions that accompld water. The the rate of biochemical reactions that accompanies an increase in temperature, combined with the decreaanies an increase in temperature, combined with the decrease in the quantity of oxygen present in surface waters, can se in the quantity of oxygen present in surface waters, can often cause serious depletions in dissolved oxygen concentoften cause serious depletions in dissolved oxygen concentrations in the summer months. rations in the summer months.

A sudden change in temperature can result in a high rate of A sudden change in temperature can result in a high rate of

mortality of aquatic life. Moreover, abnormally high tempemortality of aquatic life. Moreover, abnormally high temperatures can foster the growth of undesirable water plants anratures can foster the growth of undesirable water plants and wastewater fungus.d wastewater fungus.

Optimum Temperatures for Biological ActivityOptimum Temperatures for Biological Activity

Optimum temperatures are in the range from 25 to 35 . ℃Optimum temperatures are in the range from 25 to 35 . ℃Aerobic digestion and nitrification stops at50Aerobic digestion and nitrification stops at50℃℃. At 15 , ℃. At 15 , ℃methane-producing bacteria become quite inactive, and at methane-producing bacteria become quite inactive, and at about 5 , the autotrophic-nitrifying bacteria practically ce℃about 5 , the autotrophic-nitrifying bacteria practically ce℃ase functioning. At 2ase functioning. At 2℃℃,even the chemoheterotrophic bacte,even the chemoheterotrophic bacteria dormant. ria dormant.

ConductivityConductivity The conductivity increases as the concentration of ions incrThe conductivity increases as the concentration of ions incr

eases. In effect, the measured EC value is used as a surrogeases. In effect, the measured EC value is used as a surrogate measure of TDS concentration. ate measure of TDS concentration.

2-4 Inorganic Nonmetallic Constituents2-4 Inorganic Nonmetallic Constituents

Inorganic chemical constituents of concern include nutrientInorganic chemical constituents of concern include nutrients, nonmetallic constituents, metals, and gases. s, nonmetallic constituents, metals, and gases.

Inorganic nonmetallic and metallic constituents derive froInorganic nonmetallic and metallic constituents derive fro

m the background levels in the water supply and from the m the background levels in the water supply and from the additions resulting from domestic use, from the addition of additions resulting from domestic use, from the addition of highly mineralized water from private wells and groundwahighly mineralized water from private wells and groundwater, and from industrial use. ter, and from industrial use.

Inorganic nonmetallic consfituents considered in this sectioInorganic nonmetallic consfituents considered in this sectio

n include pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, alkalinity, chlorides, sn include pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, alkalinity, chlorides, sulfur, other inorganic constituents, gases, and odors. ulfur, other inorganic constituents, gases, and odors.

ChloridesChlorides

Chlorides in natural water result from the leaching of Chlorides in natural water result from the leaching of chloride-containing rocks and soils with which the water chloride-containing rocks and soils with which the water comes in contact, and in coastal areas from saltwater comes in contact, and in coastal areas from saltwater intrusion. intrusion.

Human excreta contain about 6 g of chlorides per person Human excreta contain about 6 g of chlorides per person

per day. If hardness of water is high, home regeneration per day. If hardness of water is high, home regeneration type water softeners will also add large quantities of type water softeners will also add large quantities of chlorides. chlorides.

Because conventional methods of waste treatment do not Because conventional methods of waste treatment do not

remove chloride to any significant extent, higher than remove chloride to any significant extent, higher than usual chloride concentrations can be taken as an indication usual chloride concentrations can be taken as an indication that a body of water is being used for waste disposal.that a body of water is being used for waste disposal.

AlkalinityAlkalinity

Alkalinity in wastewater results from the presence of the hydAlkalinity in wastewater results from the presence of the hydroxides [OHroxides [OH--], carbonates [CO], carbonates [CO33

2-2-], and bicarbonates [HCO], and bicarbonates [HCO33-- ] ]

of elements such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium,of elements such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and ammonia. Of these, calcium and magnesium bicarbonat and ammonia. Of these, calcium and magnesium bicarbonates are most common. es are most common.

The alkalinity in wastewater helps to resist changes in pH caThe alkalinity in wastewater helps to resist changes in pH ca

used by the addition of acids. Alkalinity is determined by titrused by the addition of acids. Alkalinity is determined by titrating against a standard acid .ating against a standard acid .

In practice, alkalinity is expressed in terms of calcium carboIn practice, alkalinity is expressed in terms of calcium carbo

nate. 3 meq/L of alkalinity would be expressed as 150 mg/L nate. 3 meq/L of alkalinity would be expressed as 150 mg/L as CaCOas CaCO33..

Nitrogen Nitrogen

Nitrogen is an essential building block in the synthesis of Nitrogen is an essential building block in the synthesis of protein . Insufficient nitrogen can necessitate the addition protein . Insufficient nitrogen can necessitate the addition of nitrogen to make the waste treatable. of nitrogen to make the waste treatable.

Sources of NitrogenSources of Nitrogen

(1) (1) plant and animal origin,plant and animal origin,

(2) sodium nitrate, (2) sodium nitrate,

(3)atomspheric nitrogen. (3)atomspheric nitrogen.

Forms of NitrogenForms of Nitrogen

The chemistry of nitrogen is complex because of the The chemistry of nitrogen is complex because of the several oxidation states .several oxidation states .

The most common and important forms of nitrogen are amThe most common and important forms of nitrogen are ammonia , ammonium, nitrogen gas , nitrite ion , and nitrate imonia , ammonium, nitrogen gas , nitrite ion , and nitrate ion . The oxidation state of nitrogen in most organic compoon . The oxidation state of nitrogen in most organic compounds is -III.unds is -III.

Tab 2-5 Definition of the various terms used to define vaTab 2-5 Definition of the various terms used to define va

rious nitrogen speciesrious nitrogen species

Urea readily converted to ammonium carbonate, is seldom Urea readily converted to ammonium carbonate, is seldom found in untreated municipal wastewaters. Organic nitrogefound in untreated municipal wastewaters. Organic nitrogen is determined analytically using the Kjeldald method. n is determined analytically using the Kjeldald method.

Total Kjeldabl nitrogen is the total of the organic and ammTotal Kjeldabl nitrogen is the total of the organic and amm

onia nitrogen.onia nitrogen.

Ammonia nitrogen exists in aqueous solution as either the Ammonia nitrogen exists in aqueous solution as either the ammonium ion (NHammonium ion (NH44

++) or ammonia gas (NH) or ammonia gas (NH33), depending ), depending on the pH of the solution.on the pH of the solution.

Nitrite nitrogen, determined colorimetrically, is relatively uNitrite nitrogen, determined colorimetrically, is relatively u

nstable oxidized to the nitrate form. Nitrite can be very imnstable oxidized to the nitrate form. Nitrite can be very important in wastewater or water pollution studies because it portant in wastewater or water pollution studies because it is extremely toxic to most fish and other aquatic species . is extremely toxic to most fish and other aquatic species . Nitrites present in wastewater effluents are oxidized by chlNitrites present in wastewater effluents are oxidized by chlorine and thus increase the chlorine dosage requirements aorine and thus increase the chlorine dosage requirements and the cost of disinfection.nd the cost of disinfection.

The U.S. EPA primary drinking water standards limit nitroThe U.S. EPA primary drinking water standards limit nitro

gen to 45 mg/L as NOgen to 45 mg/L as NO33--, because of its serious and occasio, because of its serious and occasio

nally fatal effects on infants. Nitrates may vary in concentrnally fatal effects on infants. Nitrates may vary in concentration from 0 to 20 mg/L as N in wastewater effluents. ation from 0 to 20 mg/L as N in wastewater effluents.

Nitrogen Pathways in NatureNitrogen Pathways in Nature

Fig. 2-7 Generalized nitrogen cycle in the aquatic and Fig. 2-7 Generalized nitrogen cycle in the aquatic and soil environmentsoil environment

    Decomposition by bacteria readily changes the organic Decomposition by bacteria readily changes the organic

form to ammonia. The age of wastewater is indicated by form to ammonia. The age of wastewater is indicated by the relative amount of ammonia that is present. the relative amount of ammonia that is present.

The predominance of nitrate nitrogen in wastewater The predominance of nitrate nitrogen in wastewater

indicates that the waste has been stabilized with respect to indicates that the waste has been stabilized with respect to oxygen demand. Nitrates, however, can be used by plants oxygen demand. Nitrates, however, can be used by plants and animals to form protein. and animals to form protein.

PhosphorusPhosphorus

Municipal wastewaters may contain from 4 to 16 mg/L of Municipal wastewaters may contain from 4 to 16 mg/L of phosphorus as P.phosphorus as P.

The usual forms of phosphorus that are found in aqueous The usual forms of phosphorus that are found in aqueous

solutions include the orthophosphate, polyphosphate, and solutions include the orthophosphate, polyphosphate, and organic phosphate. organic phosphate.

Polyphosphates undergo hydrolysis in aqueous solutions Polyphosphates undergo hydrolysis in aqueous solutions

and revert to the orthophosphate forms; however, this and revert to the orthophosphate forms; however, this hydrolysis is usually quite slow. The organically bound hydrolysis is usually quite slow. The organically bound phosphorus can be an important constituent of industrial phosphorus can be an important constituent of industrial wastes and wastewater sludge.wastes and wastewater sludge.

The polyphosphates and organic phosphates must be The polyphosphates and organic phosphates must be

converted to orthophosphates using an acid digestion step .converted to orthophosphates using an acid digestion step .

SulfurSulfur

The sulfate ion occurs naturally in most water supplies and The sulfate ion occurs naturally in most water supplies and is present in wastewater as well. Sulfur is required in the is present in wastewater as well. Sulfur is required in the synthesis of proteins and is released in their degradation. synthesis of proteins and is released in their degradation.

Hydrogen sulfide gas, which will diffuse into the Hydrogen sulfide gas, which will diffuse into the

headspace above the wastewater sewers that are not headspace above the wastewater sewers that are not flowing full, tends to collect at the crown of the pipe. The flowing full, tends to collect at the crown of the pipe. The accumulated Haccumulated H22S can then be oxidized biologically to S can then be oxidized biologically to sulfuric acid, which is corrosive to concrete sewer pipes. sulfuric acid, which is corrosive to concrete sewer pipes. This corrosive effect, known as "crown rot," can seriously This corrosive effect, known as "crown rot," can seriously threatened the structural integrity of the sewer pipe .threatened the structural integrity of the sewer pipe .

Sulfates may Sulfates may upset the biological processupset the biological process if the sulfide if the sulfide

concentration exceeds 200 mg/L. If burned in gas engines, concentration exceeds 200 mg/L. If burned in gas engines, the products of combustion can damage the engine. the products of combustion can damage the engine.

GasesGases

Gases commonly found in untreated wastewater include Gases commonly found in untreated wastewater include nitrogen (Nnitrogen (N22), oxygen (O), oxygen (O22), carbon dioxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO22), hydrogen ), hydrogen sulfide (Hsulfide (H22S), ammonia (NHS), ammonia (NH33), and methane(CH), and methane(CH44).). The The latter three are derived from the decomposition of the latter three are derived from the decomposition of the organic matter present in wastewater and are of concern organic matter present in wastewater and are of concern with respect to worker health and safety.with respect to worker health and safety.

Environmental engineer must be familiar include chlorine Environmental engineer must be familiar include chlorine

(Cl(Cl22) and ozone (O) and ozone (O33) , and the oxides of sulfur and ) , and the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen .nitrogen .

It will be useful to review the ideal gas law and to consider It will be useful to review the ideal gas law and to consider

the solubility of gases in water and Henry's law as applied the solubility of gases in water and Henry's law as applied to the gases of interest.to the gases of interest.

Solubility of Gases in WaterSolubility of Gases in Water

The actual quantity of a gas that can be present in solution The actual quantity of a gas that can be present in solution is governed by :is governed by :

(1) the solubility of the gas as defined by Henry's law, (1) the solubility of the gas as defined by Henry's law, (2) the partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere, (2) the partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere, (3) the temperature, and (3) the temperature, and (4) the concentration of the impurities in the water (e.g., (4) the concentration of the impurities in the water (e.g.,

salinity, suspended solids, etc.).salinity, suspended solids, etc.).

The Ideal Gas LawThe Ideal Gas Law Boyle'sBoyle's law (volume of a gas is inversely proportional to law (volume of a gas is inversely proportional to

pressure at constant temperature) pressure at constant temperature) Charles' law (volume of a gas is directly proportional to Charles' law (volume of a gas is directly proportional to

temperature at constant pressure) temperature at constant pressure)

Dissolved OxygenDissolved Oxygen

Oxygen is only slightly soluble in water. Dissolved oxygen Oxygen is only slightly soluble in water. Dissolved oxygen levels tend to be more critical in the summer months. The levels tend to be more critical in the summer months. The presence of dissolved oxygen in wastewater is desirable presence of dissolved oxygen in wastewater is desirable because it prevents the formation of noxious odors.because it prevents the formation of noxious odors.

Hydrogen SulfideHydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide is formed from the reduction of mineral Hydrogen sulfide is formed from the reduction of mineral sulfites and sulfates . This gas is a colorless, inflammable sulfites and sulfates . This gas is a colorless, inflammable compound having the characteristic odor of rotten eggs. compound having the characteristic odor of rotten eggs. The loss of smell can lead to a false sense of security that The loss of smell can lead to a false sense of security that is very dangerous. The blackening of wastewater and is very dangerous. The blackening of wastewater and sludge usually results from the formation of hydrogen sludge usually results from the formation of hydrogen sulfide .Various other metallic sulfides are also formed. sulfide .Various other metallic sulfides are also formed.

MethaneMethane

Methane is a colorless, odorless, combustible hydrocarbon Methane is a colorless, odorless, combustible hydrocarbon of high fuel value. of high fuel value.

Because methane is highly combustible and the expolosion Because methane is highly combustible and the expolosion hazard is high, access ports (manholes) and sewer junctionhazard is high, access ports (manholes) and sewer junctions or junction chambers where there is an opportunity for gas or junction chambers where there is an opportunity for gas to collect should be ventilated with a portable blower durs to collect should be ventilated with a portable blower during and before the time required for operating personnel to ing and before the time required for operating personnel to work in them for inspection renewals, or repairs. work in them for inspection renewals, or repairs.

Odors Odors

Odors in domestic wastewater usually are caused by gases Odors in domestic wastewater usually are caused by gases produced by the decomposition of organic matter or by produced by the decomposition of organic matter or by substances added to the wastewater. substances added to the wastewater.

Industrial wastewater may contain either odorous Industrial wastewater may contain either odorous compounds or compounds that produce odors during the compounds or compounds that produce odors during the process of wastewater treatment.process of wastewater treatment.

Odors have been rated as the foremost concern of the public Odors have been rated as the foremost concern of the public relative to the implementation of wastewater treatment relative to the implementation of wastewater treatment facilities. facilities.

Within the past few years, the control of odors has become a Within the past few years, the control of odors has become a major consideration in the design and operation of major consideration in the design and operation of wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal facilities, wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal facilities, especially with respect to the public acceptance of these especially with respect to the public acceptance of these facilities. facilities.

In many areas, projects have been rejected because of the In many areas, projects have been rejected because of the

concern over the potential for odors. concern over the potential for odors.

Effects of OdorsEffects of Odors

Effects of odors is related primarily to the psychological Effects of odors is related primarily to the psychological stress rather than to the harm they do to the body. stress rather than to the harm they do to the body.

Offensive odors can cause poor appetite for food, lowered Offensive odors can cause poor appetite for food, lowered water consumption, impaired respiration, nausea and water consumption, impaired respiration, nausea and vomiting, and mental perturbation,and can lead to the vomiting, and mental perturbation,and can lead to the deterioration of personal and community pride, interfere deterioration of personal and community pride, interfere with human relations, discourage capital investment, lower with human relations, discourage capital investment, lower socioeconomic status, and deter growth. socioeconomic status, and deter growth.

These problems can result in a decline in market and rental These problems can result in a decline in market and rental property values, tax revenues, payrolls, and sales. property values, tax revenues, payrolls, and sales.

Detection of OdorsDetection of Odors

One of the difficulties in developing a universal theory has One of the difficulties in developing a universal theory has been the inadequate explanation of why compounds with been the inadequate explanation of why compounds with similar structures may have different odors and why similar structures may have different odors and why compounds with very different structures may have similar compounds with very different structures may have similar odors. odors.

Tab 2-7 Major categories of odorous compounds Tab 2-7 Major categories of odorous compounds associated with untreated wastewaterassociated with untreated wastewater

Odor Characterization and MeasurementOdor Characterization and Measurement

It has been suggested that four independent factors are requIt has been suggested that four independent factors are required for the complete characterization of all odor: intensity, ired for the complete characterization of all odor: intensity, character, hedonics, and detectability. character, hedonics, and detectability.

Odor can be measured by sensory methods, and specific odOdor can be measured by sensory methods, and specific odorant concentrations can be measured by instrumental metorant concentrations can be measured by instrumental methods .hods .

MDTOC ----minimum detectable threshold odor concentraMDTOC ----minimum detectable threshold odor concentration tion

The EDThe ED5050 value represents the number of times all odorous value represents the number of times all odorous air sample must be diluted before the average person(50 peair sample must be diluted before the average person(50 percentile) can barely detect an odor in the diluted sample. rcentile) can barely detect an odor in the diluted sample.

TON---- threshold odor numberTON---- threshold odor number

2-5 Metallic Constituents2-5 Metallic Constituents

Many of these metals are also classified as priority Many of these metals are also classified as priority pollutants. pollutants.

The presence of any of these metals in excessive quantities The presence of any of these metals in excessive quantities will interfere with many beneficial uses of the water will interfere with many beneficial uses of the water because of their toxicity; therefore, it is frequently because of their toxicity; therefore, it is frequently desirable to measure and control the concentrations of desirable to measure and control the concentrations of these substances. these substances.

Importance of MetalsImportance of Metals

All living organisms require varying amounts (macro and All living organisms require varying amounts (macro and micro) of metallic elements, such as iron, chromium, micro) of metallic elements, such as iron, chromium, copper,zinc,and cobalt,for proper growth,but the same copper,zinc,and cobalt,for proper growth,but the same metals can be toxic when present in elevated metals can be toxic when present in elevated concentrations. concentrations.

Where composted sludge is applied in agricultural Where composted sludge is applied in agricultural applications, arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, applications, arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, and zinc must be molybdenum, nickel, selenium, and zinc must be determined.determined.

Sources of MetalsSources of Metals These are found particularly in metal-plating wastes and shThese are found particularly in metal-plating wastes and sh

ould be removed by pretreatment at the site of the industry ould be removed by pretreatment at the site of the industry rather than be mixed with the municipal wastewater. Fluorirather than be mixed with the municipal wastewater. Fluoride, a toxic anion, is found commonly in wastewater from ede, a toxic anion, is found commonly in wastewater from electronics manufacturing facilities.lectronics manufacturing facilities.

Tab 2-9 Typical waste compounds produced by commerciTab 2-9 Typical waste compounds produced by commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities that have been clal, industrial, and agricultural activities that have been classified as priority pollutantsassified as priority pollutants

Sampling and Methods of AnalysisSampling and Methods of Analysis Metals are determined typically by flame atomic absorptioMetals are determined typically by flame atomic absorptio

n, electrothermal atomic absorption, inductively coupled pln, electrothermal atomic absorption, inductively coupled plasma, or IPC/mass spectrometry. asma, or IPC/mass spectrometry.

2-6 Aggregate Organic Constituents2-6 Aggregate Organic Constituents

The organic matter in wastewater typically consists of The organic matter in wastewater typically consists of proteins (40 to 60 percent), carbohydrates (25 to 50 per proteins (40 to 60 percent), carbohydrates (25 to 50 per cent), and oils and fats (8 to 12 percent). Because urea cent), and oils and fats (8 to 12 percent). Because urea decomposes rapidly it is seldom found in other than very decomposes rapidly it is seldom found in other than very fresh wastewater. fresh wastewater.

In general, the analyses may be classified into those used to In general, the analyses may be classified into those used to measure aggregate organic matter comprising a number of measure aggregate organic matter comprising a number of organic constituents with similar characteristics that cannot organic constituents with similar characteristics that cannot be distinguished separately.be distinguished separately.

Measurement of Organic ContentMeasurement of Organic Content Gross concentrations of organic matter are greater than aboGross concentrations of organic matter are greater than abo

ut 1.0 mg/L and trace concentrations are in the range of l0 ut 1.0 mg/L and trace concentrations are in the range of l0 –12–12 to 10 to 1000 mg/L. mg/L.

Laboratory methods include: Laboratory methods include: (1) biochemical oxygen demand(BOD), (1) biochemical oxygen demand(BOD), (2) chemical oxygen demand (COD), (2) chemical oxygen demand (COD), (3) total organic carbon (TOC). (3) total organic carbon (TOC). Complementing these laboratory tests is the theoretical oxyComplementing these laboratory tests is the theoretical oxy

gen demand (ThOD), which is determined from the chemicgen demand (ThOD), which is determined from the chemical formula of the organic matter.al formula of the organic matter.

Trace organics in the range of 10Trace organics in the range of 10–12–12 to 10 to 10-13-13 mg/L are deter mg/L are determined using instrumental methods including gas chromotomined using instrumental methods including gas chromotography and mass spectroscopy.graphy and mass spectroscopy.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Despite the widespread use of the BOD test, it has a Despite the widespread use of the BOD test, it has a

number of limitations. BOD test results are now used number of limitations. BOD test results are now used

(1) to determine the approximate quantity of oxygen that (1) to determine the approximate quantity of oxygen that will be required to biologically stabilize the organic matter will be required to biologically stabilize the organic matter present, present,

(2) to determine the size of waste treatment facilities, (2) to determine the size of waste treatment facilities,

(3) to measure the efficiency of some treatment processes, (3) to measure the efficiency of some treatment processes,

(4) to determine compliance with wastewater discharge (4) to determine compliance with wastewater discharge permits. permits.

Basis for BOD TestBasis for BOD Test

The term COHNS(which represents the elements carbon, oThe term COHNS(which represents the elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur) represent the organxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur) represent the organic waste and the term Cic waste and the term C55HH77NONO22 (first proposed by Hoover a (first proposed by Hoover a

nd Porges) to represent cell tissue.nd Porges) to represent cell tissue.

If only the oxidation of the organic carbon , The oxygen dIf only the oxidation of the organic carbon , The oxygen demand is known as the ultimate carbonaceous or first-stage emand is known as the ultimate carbonaceous or first-stage BOD, and is usually denoted as UBOD. BOD, and is usually denoted as UBOD.

BOD Test ProcedureBOD Test Procedure

To ensure that meaningful results are obtained, the samples To ensure that meaningful results are obtained, the samples must be suitably diluted with a specially prepared dilution must be suitably diluted with a specially prepared dilution water so that adequate nutrients and oxygen will be water so that adequate nutrients and oxygen will be available during the incubation period. Normally, several available during the incubation period. Normally, several dilutions are prepared to cover the complete range of dilutions are prepared to cover the complete range of possible values.possible values.

Tab 10 Measurable of BOD using various dilutions of Tab 10 Measurable of BOD using various dilutions of samplessamples

The BOD of the sample is the difference in the dissolved The BOD of the sample is the difference in the dissolved oxygen concentration values, expressed in milligrams per oxygen concentration values, expressed in milligrams per liter, divided by the decimal fraction of sample used. liter, divided by the decimal fraction of sample used.

When testing waters with low concentrations of When testing waters with low concentrations of microorganisms, a seeded BOD test is conducted . microorganisms, a seeded BOD test is conducted .

Fig. 2-8 Procedure for settling up BOD test bottles: Fig. 2-8 Procedure for settling up BOD test bottles: (a)with unseeded dilution water and (b) with seeded (a)with unseeded dilution water and (b) with seeded dilution waterdilution water

The organisms contained in the effluent from primary The organisms contained in the effluent from primary sedimentation facilities are used commonly as the seed for sedimentation facilities are used commonly as the seed for the BOD test. Seed organisms can also be obtained the BOD test. Seed organisms can also be obtained commercially. When the sample contains a large commercially. When the sample contains a large population of microorganisms (e.g., untreated wastewater), population of microorganisms (e.g., untreated wastewater), seeding is not necessary. seeding is not necessary. 

Longer time periods (typically 7 days), which correspond tLonger time periods (typically 7 days), which correspond to work schedules, are often used, especially in small plants o work schedules, are often used, especially in small plants where the laboratory staff is not available on the weekends.where the laboratory staff is not available on the weekends.

The 20The 20℃℃ temperature used is an average value for slow-m temperature used is an average value for slow-moving streams in temperate climates and is easily duplicateoving streams in temperate climates and is easily duplicated in an incubator. d in an incubator.

After incubation, the dissolved oxygen of the sample is meAfter incubation, the dissolved oxygen of the sample is measured and the BOD is calculated using the following Eq.:asured and the BOD is calculated using the following Eq.:

BOD,mg/L = (DBOD,mg/L = (D11-D-D22)/P)/P

When diluted water is seeded:When diluted water is seeded:

BOD,mg/L = [(DBOD,mg/L = [(D11-D-D22)-(B)-(B11-B-B22)]f/P)]f/P

Within a 20-day period, the oxidation of the carbonaceous Within a 20-day period, the oxidation of the carbonaceous organic matter is about 95 to 99 percent complete, and in organic matter is about 95 to 99 percent complete, and in the 5-day period used for the BOD test, oxidation is from the 5-day period used for the BOD test, oxidation is from 60 to 70 percent complete.60 to 70 percent complete.

Effect of particle size on BOD Reaction RatesEffect of particle size on BOD Reaction Rates

The observed BOD reaction rate coefficients are affected The observed BOD reaction rate coefficients are affected significantly by the size of the particles in wastewater. significantly by the size of the particles in wastewater.

Limitations in the BOD testLimitations in the BOD test

The limitations of the BOD test are as followingsThe limitations of the BOD test are as followings

(1)a high concentration of active, acclimated seed bacteria (1)a high concentration of active, acclimated seed bacteria is required; is required;

(2)pretreatment is needed when dealing with toxic wastes, (2)pretreatment is needed when dealing with toxic wastes, and the effects of nitrifying organisms must be reduced;and the effects of nitrifying organisms must be reduced;

(3)only the biodegradable organics are measured; (3)only the biodegradable organics are measured;

(4)the relatively long period of time required to obtain test (4)the relatively long period of time required to obtain test results. results.

Of the above, perhaps the most serious limitation is that the Of the above, perhaps the most serious limitation is that the 5-day period may or may not correspond to the point wher5-day period may or may not correspond to the point where the soluble organic matter that is present has been used.e the soluble organic matter that is present has been used.

Total and soluble chemical oxygen demand(COD Total and soluble chemical oxygen demand(COD and SCOD)and SCOD) The COD test is used to measure the oxygen equivalent of tThe COD test is used to measure the oxygen equivalent of t

he organic material in wastewater that can be oxidized chehe organic material in wastewater that can be oxidized chemically using dichromate in an acid solution. mically using dichromate in an acid solution.

CCnnHHaaOObbNNcc + dCr + dCr22OO772-2- + (8d+c)H + (8d+c)H++ → NCO → NCO22 + [(a+8d-3c)/2] + [(a+8d-3c)/2]

HH22O + cNHO + cNH44++ + 2dCr + 2dCr33

++

Some of the reasons for the observed difference are as folloSome of the reasons for the observed difference are as follo

ws:(1)many organic substances which are difficult to oxidiws:(1)many organic substances which are difficult to oxidize biologically, such as lignin,can be oxidized chemically,ze biologically, such as lignin,can be oxidized chemically,(2)inorganic substances that are oxidized by the dichromat(2)inorganic substances that are oxidized by the dichromate increase the apparent organic content of the sample,(3)cee increase the apparent organic content of the sample,(3)certain organic substances may be toxic to the microorganisrtain organic substances may be toxic to the microorganisms used in the BOD testms used in the BOD test

One of the main advantages of the COD test is that it can bOne of the main advantages of the COD test is that it can be completed in about 2.5 h, To reduce the time further, a rae completed in about 2.5 h, To reduce the time further, a rapid COD test that takes only about 15 min has been developid COD test that takes only about 15 min has been developed. ped.

The principal fractions are particulate and soluble COD.The principal fractions are particulate and soluble COD.

Fractions that have been used include:Fractions that have been used include: (1)readily biodegradable soluble COD,(1)readily biodegradable soluble COD, (2)slowly biodegradable colloidal and particulate COD, (3)(2)slowly biodegradable colloidal and particulate COD, (3)

nonbiodegradable soluble COD,and nonbiodegradable soluble COD,and (4)nonbiodegradable colloidal and particulate COD. The re(4)nonbiodegradable colloidal and particulate COD. The re

adily biodegradable soluble COD is often fractionated furtadily biodegradable soluble COD is often fractionated further into complex COD that can be fermented to volatile father into complex COD that can be fermented to volatile fatty acids(VFAs) and short chain VFAs. Unfortunately, as nty acids(VFAs) and short chain VFAs. Unfortunately, as noted previous oted previous

Oil and GreaseOil and Grease

The term oil and grease, as commonly used, includes the faThe term oil and grease, as commonly used, includes the fats, oils, waxes, and other related constituents found in wastts, oils, waxes, and other related constituents found in wastewater .ewater .

The oil and grease content of a wastewater is determined bThe oil and grease content of a wastewater is determined by extraction of the waste sample with trichlorotrifluoroethay extraction of the waste sample with trichlorotrifluoroethane ne

Other extractable substances include mineral oils. such as kOther extractable substances include mineral oils. such as kerosene and lubricating and road oils. Oil and grease are qerosene and lubricating and road oils. Oil and grease are quite similar chemically; they are compounds (esters) of alcuite similar chemically; they are compounds (esters) of alcohol or glycerol(glycerin) with fatty acids. The glycerides ohol or glycerol(glycerin) with fatty acids. The glycerides of fatty acids that are liquid at ordinary temperatures are caof fatty acids that are liquid at ordinary temperatures are called oils, and those that are solids are called grease (or fats).lled oils, and those that are solids are called grease (or fats).

If grease is not removed before discharge of treated If grease is not removed before discharge of treated wastewater, it can interfere with the biological life in the wastewater, it can interfere with the biological life in the surface waters and create films.surface waters and create films.

The low solubility of fats and oils reduces their rate of The low solubility of fats and oils reduces their rate of microbial degradation. Mineral acids attack them, microbial degradation. Mineral acids attack them, however, resulting in formation of glycerin and fatty acid. however, resulting in formation of glycerin and fatty acid. In the presence of alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide, In the presence of alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide, glycerin is liberated, and alkali salts of the fatty acids are glycerin is liberated, and alkali salts of the fatty acids are formed. These alkali salts are known as soaps. formed. These alkali salts are known as soaps.

They are soluble in water, but in the presence of hardness They are soluble in water, but in the presence of hardness constituents,the sodium salts are changed to calcium and constituents,the sodium salts are changed to calcium and magnesium salts of the fatty acids, or so-called mineral magnesium salts of the fatty acids, or so-called mineral soaps. These are insoluble and are precipitated. soaps. These are insoluble and are precipitated.

Kerosene, lubricating, and road oils are derived from Kerosene, lubricating, and road oils are derived from petroleum and coal tars and contain essentially carbon and petroleum and coal tars and contain essentially carbon and hydrogen. These oils sometimes reach the sewers in hydrogen. These oils sometimes reach the sewers in considerable volume from shops, garages, and streets. considerable volume from shops, garages, and streets.

To an even greater extent than fats, oils, and soaps, the To an even greater extent than fats, oils, and soaps, the mineral oils tend to coat surfaces. The particles interfere mineral oils tend to coat surfaces. The particles interfere with biological action and cause maintenance problems.with biological action and cause maintenance problems.

SurfactantsSurfactants

Surfactants, or surface-active agents cause foaming in Surfactants, or surface-active agents cause foaming in wastewater treatment plants and in the surface waters into wastewater treatment plants and in the surface waters into which the waste effluent is discharged. Surfactants are which the waste effluent is discharged. Surfactants are most commonly composed of a strongly hydrophobic most commonly composed of a strongly hydrophobic group combined with a strongly hydrophilic group. group combined with a strongly hydrophilic group.

In the United States, ionic surfactants amount to about In the United States, ionic surfactants amount to about two-thirds of the total surfactants .two-thirds of the total surfactants .

Surfactants tend to collect at the air-water interface with Surfactants tend to collect at the air-water interface with the hydrophilic in the water and the hydrophobic group in the hydrophilic in the water and the hydrophobic group in the air the air

During aeration of wastewater, these compounds collect on During aeration of wastewater, these compounds collect on the surface of the air bubbles and thus create a very stable fthe surface of the air bubbles and thus create a very stable foam.oam.

ABS was especially troublesome because it resisted breakdABS was especially troublesome because it resisted breakdown by biological means.As a result of legislation in 1965, own by biological means.As a result of legislation in 1965, ABS has been replaced in detergents by lineax-alkyl-sulfoABS has been replaced in detergents by lineax-alkyl-sulfonate (LAS), which is biodegradable . So-called "hard" syntnate (LAS), which is biodegradable . So-called "hard" synthetic detergents axe still used extensively in many foreign hetic detergents axe still used extensively in many foreign countries.countries.

Two tests are now used to determine the presence of surfacTwo tests are now used to determine the presence of surfactants in water and wastewater. The MBAS (methylene blue tants in water and wastewater. The MBAS (methylene blue active substances) test is used for anionic surfactans. Noniactive substances) test is used for anionic surfactans. Nonionic surfactants are measured using the CTAS (cobalt thioonic surfactants are measured using the CTAS (cobalt thiocyanate active substances) test.cyanate active substances) test.

2-7 Individual Organic Compounds2-7 Individual Organic Compounds

Individual organic compounds are determined to assess the Individual organic compounds are determined to assess the presence of priority pollutants identified by the U.S. Envirpresence of priority pollutants identified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) and a number of onmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) and a number of new emerging compounds of concern. new emerging compounds of concern.

Priority pollutants (both inorganic and organic) have been Priority pollutants (both inorganic and organic) have been and are continuing to be selected on the basis of their knoand are continuing to be selected on the basis of their known or suspected carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicwn or suspected carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, or high acute toxicity. ity, or high acute toxicity.

Priority PollutantsPriority Pollutants

The Environmental Protection Agency has identified approThe Environmental Protection Agency has identified approximately 129 priority pollutants in 65 classes to be regulateximately 129 priority pollutants in 65 classes to be regulated by categorical discharge standards.d by categorical discharge standards.

Two types of standard are used to control pollutant discharTwo types of standard are used to control pollutant discharges to publicly owned treatment works (POTWs). ges to publicly owned treatment works (POTWs).

One is prohibited discharge standards,the other is CategorOne is prohibited discharge standards,the other is Categorical standards ical standards

Disinfection ByproductsDisinfection Byproducts

It has been found that when chlorine is added to water contIt has been found that when chlorine is added to water containing organic matter a variety of organic compounds containing organic matter a variety of organic compounds containing chlorine are formed. Collectively, these compounds, aining chlorine are formed. Collectively, these compounds, along with others, are known as disinfection byproducts (Dalong with others, are known as disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Although general present in low concentrations, they BPs). Although general present in low concentrations, they are of concern because many of them are known as suspectare of concern because many of them are known as suspected potential human carcinogens. Typical classes of compoed potential human carcinogens. Typical classes of compounds include trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (Hunds include trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), trichlorophenol, and aldehydes.AAs), trichlorophenol, and aldehydes.

More recently, N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) has been More recently, N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) has been

found in the effluent from wastewater-treatment plants. found in the effluent from wastewater-treatment plants.

Nitrosamines are among the most powerful carcinogens knNitrosamines are among the most powerful carcinogens known. The U.S. EPA action limit for NDMA is 2 parts per trown. The U.S. EPA action limit for NDMA is 2 parts per trillion. NDMA appears to be formed during the chlorinatioillion. NDMA appears to be formed during the chlorination process, in treated effluent, the nitrite ion can react with n process, in treated effluent, the nitrite ion can react with hydrochloric acid.hydrochloric acid.

Dimethylamine is also part of polymers used for water treaDimethylamine is also part of polymers used for water treatment and for ion-exchange resins. tment and for ion-exchange resins.

Considerable attention has been focused over the past five Considerable attention has been focused over the past five years on the use of ultraviolet disinfection as a possible repyears on the use of ultraviolet disinfection as a possible replacement for chlorine. lacement for chlorine.

2-8 Biological Characteristics2-8 Biological Characteristics

The biological characteristics of wastewater are of The biological characteristics of wastewater are of fundamental importance in the control of diseases caused fundamental importance in the control of diseases caused by pathogenic organisms of human origin, and because of by pathogenic organisms of human origin, and because of the extensive and fundamental role played by bacteria and the extensive and fundamental role played by bacteria and other microorganisms in the decomposition and other microorganisms in the decomposition and stabilization of organic matter, both in nature and in stabilization of organic matter, both in nature and in wastewater treatment plants. wastewater treatment plants.

Microorganisms Found in Surface Waters and Microorganisms Found in Surface Waters and WastewaterWastewater

Organisms found in surface water and wastewater include Organisms found in surface water and wastewater include bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, plants and animals, and virbacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, plants and animals, and viruses. uses.

Living single-cell microorganisms that can only be seen wiLiving single-cell microorganisms that can only be seen with a microscope are responsible for the activity in biologicth a microscope are responsible for the activity in biological wastewater treatment. al wastewater treatment.

The prokaryotes have the simplest cell structure and includThe prokaryotes have the simplest cell structure and include bacteria, blue green algae (cyanobacter), and archaea. e bacteria, blue green algae (cyanobacter), and archaea.

Many archaea are bacteria that can grow under extreme coMany archaea are bacteria that can grow under extreme conditions of temperature and salinity, and also include methnditions of temperature and salinity, and also include methanogethc methane-producing bacteria, important in anaeroanogethc methane-producing bacteria, important in anaerobic treatment processes.bic treatment processes.

The absence of a nuclear membrane to contain the cell DNThe absence of a nuclear membrane to contain the cell DNA is also a distinguishing feature of the prokaryota organisA is also a distinguishing feature of the prokaryota organisms. ms.

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that require the Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that require the machinery of a host cell to support their growth. Although machinery of a host cell to support their growth. Although viruses contain the genetic information (either DNA or RNviruses contain the genetic information (either DNA or RNA) needed to replicate themselves, they are unable to reproA) needed to replicate themselves, they are unable to reproduce outside of a host cell. Viruses are classified separatelduce outside of a host cell. Viruses are classified separately according to the host infected. Bacteriophage, as the namy according to the host infected. Bacteriophage, as the name implies, are viruses that infect bacteria.e implies, are viruses that infect bacteria.

3 Analysis and Selection of Wastewater Flowrates and 3 Analysis and Selection of Wastewater Flowrates and Constituent LoadingsConstituent Loadings

Reliable data for Reliable data for existing and projected flowratesexisting and projected flowrates affect the affect the hhydraulic characteristics, sizing, and operational considerationydraulic characteristics, sizing, and operational considerationss of the treatment system components. of the treatment system components.

Constituent mass 1oadingConstituent mass 1oading, the product of constituent concent, the product of constituent concentration and flowrate, is necessary to determine capacity and oration and flowrate, is necessary to determine capacity and operational characteristics of the treatment facilities and ancillperational characteristics of the treatment facilities and ancillary equipment to ensure that treatment objectives are met.ary equipment to ensure that treatment objectives are met.

3-1 Components of Wastewater Flows3-1 Components of Wastewater Flows

1. 1. DomesticDomestic (also called sanitary) wastewater. (also called sanitary) wastewater. 2. 2. IndustrialIndustrial wastewater. wastewater. 3. 3. Infiltration/inflowInfiltration/inflow (I/I) (I/I) 4. 4. StormwaterStormwater. Infiltration is extraneous water that enters t. Infiltration is extraneous water that enters t

he collection system through leaking joints, cracks and brehe collection system through leaking joints, cracks and breaks, or porous walls. aks, or porous walls.

Wastewater flows in sanitary collection systems consist of Wastewater flows in sanitary collection systems consist of three major components: three major components:

(1) domestic wastewater, (1) domestic wastewater, (2) industrial wastewater, and (2) industrial wastewater, and (3) infiltration/inflow. (3) infiltration/inflow.

3-2 Wastewater Sources and Flowrates3-2 Wastewater Sources and Flowrates

Domestic Wastewater Sources and FlowratesDomestic Wastewater Sources and Flowrates

The principal sources of domestic wastewater in a communThe principal sources of domestic wastewater in a community are the ity are the residentialresidential areas and areas and commercialcommercial districts. Other districts. Other important sources include important sources include institutionalinstitutional and and recreationalrecreational fac facilities.ilities.

For areas now served with collection systems, wastewater fFor areas now served with collection systems, wastewater flowrates are commonly determined lowrates are commonly determined from existing records ofrom existing records or by direct field measurements. r by direct field measurements.

For new developments, wastewater flowrates are derived frFor new developments, wastewater flowrates are derived from an om an analysis of population data and estimates of per capianalysis of population data and estimates of per capita wastewater flowrates from similar communities. ta wastewater flowrates from similar communities.

on the average on the average about 60 to 90 percent of the per capita watabout 60 to 90 percent of the per capita water consumption becomes wastewater.er consumption becomes wastewater.

The higher percentages(90%) apply to The higher percentages(90%) apply to the northern states dthe northern states during cold weatheruring cold weather; the lower percentages(60%) are applic; the lower percentages(60%) are applicable to the semiarid region of able to the semiarid region of the southwestern United Statthe southwestern United States where landscape irrigation is used extensively. es where landscape irrigation is used extensively.

Residential AreasResidential Areas

Wastewater flowrates can Wastewater flowrates can varyvary depending on vario depending on various situations such as us situations such as economic, social, and other ceconomic, social, and other characteristics of the community.haracteristics of the community.

Tab 3-1 Typical wastewater flowrates from urbaTab 3-1 Typical wastewater flowrates from urban residential sources in the U.S.n residential sources in the U.S.

Reduced household water use Reduced household water use changes not only thchanges not only the quantity of wastewater generated but also the che quantity of wastewater generated but also the characteristics of wastewater as well.aracteristics of wastewater as well.

Commercial DistrictsCommercial Districts

Depending on the function and activity, unit flowrates for cDepending on the function and activity, unit flowrates for commercial facilities can vary widely. Because of the wide ommercial facilities can vary widely. Because of the wide variations that have been observed, every effort should be variations that have been observed, every effort should be made to obtain records from actual or similar facilities. made to obtain records from actual or similar facilities.

Unit----passenger, bedroom, vehicle serviced, employee, sUnit----passenger, bedroom, vehicle serviced, employee, seat, guest. eat, guest.

Flowrates were generally expressed in terms of quantity of Flowrates were generally expressed in terms of quantity of flow per unit area. flow per unit area.

Institutional FacilitiesInstitutional Facilities

Tab 3-2 Typical wastewater flowrates from institutional sTab 3-2 Typical wastewater flowrates from institutional sources in the U.S.ources in the U.S.

Recreational FacilitiesRecreational Facilities

Wastewater flowrates from many recreational facilities are Wastewater flowrates from many recreational facilities are highly subject to seasonal variations. highly subject to seasonal variations.

Tab 3-3 Typical wastewater flowrates from recreational fTab 3-3 Typical wastewater flowrates from recreational facilities in the U.S.acilities in the U.S.

Strategies for Reducing Interior Water Use and WaStrategies for Reducing Interior Water Use and Wastewater Flowratesstewater Flowrates

Tab 3-4 Typical rates of water use for various devices Tab 3-4 Typical rates of water use for various devices and appliances in the U.S.and appliances in the U.S.

Tab 3-5 Flow-reduction devices and appliances in the Tab 3-5 Flow-reduction devices and appliances in the U.S. U.S.

Water Use in Developing CountriesWater Use in Developing Countries

Water use and, consequently, wastewater-generation rates Water use and, consequently, wastewater-generation rates in developing countries, however, are significantly lower. in developing countries, however, are significantly lower. In some cases, the water supply is only available for In some cases, the water supply is only available for limited periods of the day. limited periods of the day.

Sources and Rates of Industrial (Nondomestic) WaSources and Rates of Industrial (Nondomestic) Wastewater Flowsstewater Flows

Extremely high peak flowrates may be reduced by the use Extremely high peak flowrates may be reduced by the use of onsite detention tanks and equalization basins. of onsite detention tanks and equalization basins.

Typical design values are 7.5 to 14 mTypical design values are 7.5 to 14 m33/ha/ha··d for light indud for light industrial developments and 14 to 28 mstrial developments and 14 to 28 m33/ha/ha··d for medium indd for medium industrial developments. ustrial developments. For industries without internal water For industries without internal water recycling or reuse programs, it can be assumed that about recycling or reuse programs, it can be assumed that about 85 to 95 percent of the water used in the various operations 85 to 95 percent of the water used in the various operations and processes will become wastewater.and processes will become wastewater.

Average domestic (sanitary) wastewater contributed from iAverage domestic (sanitary) wastewater contributed from industrial facilities may vary from 30 to 95 L/capita·d.ndustrial facilities may vary from 30 to 95 L/capita·d.

Infiltration/InflowInfiltration/Inflow

Fig. 3-1 Graphic identification of infiltration/inflowFig. 3-1 Graphic identification of infiltration/inflow

Infiltration. Water entering a collection system Infiltration. Water entering a collection system from a variety of entry points including from a variety of entry points including service service connectionsconnections and from the ground through such and from the ground through such means as means as defective pipes, pipe joints, connections, defective pipes, pipe joints, connections, or access port (manhole) walls.or access port (manhole) walls.

Steady inflow. Water discharged from Steady inflow. Water discharged from cellar and cellar and foundation drains, cooling-water discharges, and foundation drains, cooling-water discharges, and drains from springs and swampy areas.drains from springs and swampy areas. This type This type of inflow is steady and is identified and measured of inflow is steady and is identified and measured along with infiltration.along with infiltration.

Direct inflow. Those types of inflow that haDirect inflow. Those types of inflow that have a direct ve a direct stormwater runoffstormwater runoff' connection to ' connection to the sanitary collection system and cause an the sanitary collection system and cause an almost almost immediate increase in wastewater flimmediate increase in wastewater flowratesowrates. Possible sources are . Possible sources are roof leaders, yroof leaders, yard and areaway drains, access port covers, ard and areaway drains, access port covers, cross connections from storm drains and catcross connections from storm drains and catch basins, and combined systems.ch basins, and combined systems.

Infiltration into Collection SystemsInfiltration into Collection Systems

The proportion of the rainfall that percolates into the The proportion of the rainfall that percolates into the ground depends on ground depends on the character of the surface and soil the character of the surface and soil formation and on the rate and distribution of the formation and on the rate and distribution of the precipitation.precipitation. Any reduction in Any reduction in permeabilitypermeability, such as that , such as that due to due to buildings, pavements, or frostbuildings, pavements, or frost, decreases the , decreases the opportunity for precipitation to become groundwater and opportunity for precipitation to become groundwater and increases the surface runoff correspondingly, increases the surface runoff correspondingly,

The presence of high groundwater results in leakage into The presence of high groundwater results in leakage into the collection systems and in an increase in the quantity of the collection systems and in an increase in the quantity of wastewater and the expense of disposing of it. wastewater and the expense of disposing of it.

Infiltration/inflow is a variable part of the wastewater, Infiltration/inflow is a variable part of the wastewater, depending on depending on the quality of the material and workmanship the quality of the material and workmanship in constructing the collection systems and building in constructing the collection systems and building connections, the character of the maintenance, and the connections, the character of the maintenance, and the elevation of the groundwaterelevation of the groundwater compared with that of the compared with that of the collection system. collection system.

The rate and quantity of infiltration depend on The rate and quantity of infiltration depend on the length of the length of the collection system, the area served, the soil and the collection system, the area served, the soil and topographic conditionstopographic conditions, and, to a certain extent, the , and, to a certain extent, the population density (which affects the number and total population density (which affects the number and total length of house connections). length of house connections).

The use of high quality pipe with dense The use of high quality pipe with dense walls, pre-cast access port sections, and walls, pre-cast access port sections, and joints sealed with rubber or synthetic joints sealed with rubber or synthetic gaskets is standard practice in modern gaskets is standard practice in modern collection-system design to reduce collection-system design to reduce infiltration. infiltration.

Exfiltration from Collection SystemsExfiltration from Collection Systems

Collection systems that have high infiltration rates Collection systems that have high infiltration rates and are in need of rehabilitation also may exhibit hand are in need of rehabilitation also may exhibit high exfiltration.igh exfiltration.

If the piping and joints are in poor condition, signiIf the piping and joints are in poor condition, significant quantities of wastewater may seep into the gficant quantities of wastewater may seep into the ground, travel through the gravel bedding of the pipround, travel through the gravel bedding of the piping system, or even surface in extreme cases. ing system, or even surface in extreme cases.

Combined System FlowratesCombined System Flowrates During a rainfall event, the amount of storDuring a rainfall event, the amount of stor

m flow is normally much larger than the drm flow is normally much larger than the dry-weather wastewater flow, and the observey-weather wastewater flow, and the observed flows during wet weather can mask compld flows during wet weather can mask completely the dry weather flow patterns.etely the dry weather flow patterns.

When the collection system capacity is When the collection system capacity is exceeded, a portion of the flow may be exceeded, a portion of the flow may be discharged directly into a receiving body discharged directly into a receiving body through overflows(through overflows(maybe intentionally maybe intentionally most of timesmost of times), or routed to a special ), or routed to a special combined sewer overflow (CSO) treatment combined sewer overflow (CSO) treatment facility. facility.

In some cases where the combined system In some cases where the combined system is is undersizedundersized, flooding or surcharging may , flooding or surcharging may occur at various occur at various upstream locationsupstream locations within within the system.the system.

In contrast, the hydrograph at the treatment In contrast, the hydrograph at the treatment plant shows less distinct flow peaks and plant shows less distinct flow peaks and a laa lag time of several hoursg time of several hours for flows to return to for flows to return to normal dry-weather levels following rainfall normal dry-weather levels following rainfall cessation. cessation.

The peak flowrates and accompanying masThe peak flowrates and accompanying mass loadings, however, must be accounted for s loadings, however, must be accounted for in the hydraulic design of the treatment planin the hydraulic design of the treatment plant and in the selection of appropriate unit opet and in the selection of appropriate unit operations and processes.rations and processes.

3-3 Analysis of Wastewater Flowrate Data3-3 Analysis of Wastewater Flowrate Data

In cases where only flowrate data in the collection system iIn cases where only flowrate data in the collection system is available, it must be recognized that the flowrates may dis available, it must be recognized that the flowrates may differ somewhat from the flowrate entering the treatment plaffer somewhat from the flowrate entering the treatment plant because of nt because of the flow-dampening effect of the sewer systethe flow-dampening effect of the sewer system. m.

Peak hourly flowrates may also be attenuated by the availaPeak hourly flowrates may also be attenuated by the available storage capacity in the sewer system.ble storage capacity in the sewer system.

Definition of TermsDefinition of Terms

Tab 3-6Tab 3-6 Terminology used to quantify observed variation Terminology used to quantify observed variations in flowrate and constituent concentrations s in flowrate and constituent concentrations

Wastewater flowrates vary during the time of day, day of tWastewater flowrates vary during the time of day, day of the week, season of the year, or depending upon the nature he week, season of the year, or depending upon the nature of the dischargers to the collection system. of the dischargers to the collection system.

Short-Term VariationsShort-Term Variations

Fig. 3-3 Typical hourly variations in domestic wastewateFig. 3-3 Typical hourly variations in domestic wastewater flowratesr flowrates

Minimum flows occur during the early morning hours wheMinimum flows occur during the early morning hours when water consumption is lowest and when the base flow conn water consumption is lowest and when the base flow consists of infiltration and small quantities of sanitary wastewsists of infiltration and small quantities of sanitary wastewater. ater.

A second peak flow generally occurs in the early evening bA second peak flow generally occurs in the early evening between 7 and 9 P.M. The time of occurrence and the amplitetween 7 and 9 P.M. The time of occurrence and the amplitude of the peak flowrates vary with the size of the commuude of the peak flowrates vary with the size of the community and the length of the collection system. nity and the length of the collection system.

As the community size increases, the variations between thAs the community size increases, the variations between the high and low flows decrease due to (1) the increased store high and low flows decrease due to (1) the increased storage in the collection system of large communities that tendage in the collection system of large communities that tends to equalize flowrates and (2) changes in the economic ans to equalize flowrates and (2) changes in the economic and social makeup of the community. When extraneous flowd social makeup of the community. When extraneous flows are minimal, wastewater discharge curves resemble water s are minimal, wastewater discharge curves resemble water consumption curves, but with a lag of several hours.consumption curves, but with a lag of several hours.

Seasonal VariationsSeasonal Variations Seasonal variations in domestic wastewater flows are comSeasonal variations in domestic wastewater flows are com

monly observed at resort areas, in small communities with monly observed at resort areas, in small communities with college campuses, and in communities that have seasonal ccollege campuses, and in communities that have seasonal commercial and industrial activities. ommercial and industrial activities.

Industrial VariationsIndustrial Variations Industrial wastewater discharges are difficult to predict. MIndustrial wastewater discharges are difficult to predict. M

any manufacturing facilities generate relatively constant flany manufacturing facilities generate relatively constant flowrates during production, but the flowrates change markeowrates during production, but the flowrates change markedly during cleanup and shutdown. dly during cleanup and shutdown.

Industrial discharges are most troublesome in smaller wastIndustrial discharges are most troublesome in smaller wastewater-treatment plants where there is limited capacity to aewater-treatment plants where there is limited capacity to absorb shock loadings.bsorb shock loadings.

Wastewater Flowrate FactorsWastewater Flowrate Factors

Peaking factorsPeaking factors can be developed based on can be developed based on maximum hour, maximum day, maximum maximum hour, maximum day, maximum month, or other time periodsmonth, or other time periods,and are applie,and are applied most frequently to determine the peak houd most frequently to determine the peak hourly flowrate. rly flowrate.

The most common method of determining tThe most common method of determining the peaking factor is from the he peaking factor is from the analysis of floanalysis of flowrate data. wrate data.

3-5 Analysis of Constituent Mass Loading Data3-5 Analysis of Constituent Mass Loading Data

From the standpoint of treatment processes, one of the mosFrom the standpoint of treatment processes, one of the most serious deficiencies results when the design of a treatment serious deficiencies results when the design of a treatment plant is t plant is based on average flowrates and average BOD and based on average flowrates and average BOD and TSS loadings, with little or no recognition of peak conditioTSS loadings, with little or no recognition of peak conditions. ns.

In many communities, peak influent flowrates and BOD anIn many communities, peak influent flowrates and BOD and TSS loadings can reach d TSS loadings can reach two or more times average valuetwo or more times average values, it must also be emphasized that, in nearly all cases, peak s, it must also be emphasized that, in nearly all cases, peak flowrates and BOD and TSS mass-loading rates do not occflowrates and BOD and TSS mass-loading rates do not occur at the same time.ur at the same time.

Wastewater Constituent ConcentrationsWastewater Constituent Concentrations

Composite samplesComposite samples made up of portions of samples collected made up of portions of samples collected at regular intervals during a day are used. at regular intervals during a day are used.

Quantity of Waste Discharged by Individuals in the Quantity of Waste Discharged by Individuals in the United States. United States.

Tab. 3-7 Quantity of waste discharged by individual on a Tab. 3-7 Quantity of waste discharged by individual on a dry weight basisdry weight basis

If one or more members of a family are ill and shedding If one or more members of a family are ill and shedding pathogens, the number of measured organisms can increase pathogens, the number of measured organisms can increase by several orders of magnitude.by several orders of magnitude.

Composition of Wastewater in Collection SystemsComposition of Wastewater in Collection Systems

Tab. 3-8 Typical composition of untreated domestic wastTab. 3-8 Typical composition of untreated domestic wastewaterewater

Because there is no "typical" wastewater, it must be emphaBecause there is no "typical" wastewater, it must be emphasized that the typical data presented in Table 3-8 should onsized that the typical data presented in Table 3-8 should only be used as a guide. ly be used as a guide.

Mineral Increase Resulting from Water UseMineral Increase Resulting from Water Use Tab. 3-9 Typical mineral increase from domestic water uTab. 3-9 Typical mineral increase from domestic water u

sese Increases in the mineral content of wastewater may be due Increases in the mineral content of wastewater may be due

in part to addition of highly mineralized water from private in part to addition of highly mineralized water from private wells and groundwater and from industrial use. Domestic awells and groundwater and from industrial use. Domestic and industrial water softeners also contribute significantly tnd industrial water softeners also contribute significantly to the increase in mineral content. o the increase in mineral content.

Variations in Constituent ConcentrationsVariations in Constituent Concentrations

Short-Term Variation in Constituent ValuesShort-Term Variation in Constituent Values

Fig. 3-4 Typical hourly variations in flow and strength of Fig. 3-4 Typical hourly variations in flow and strength of domestic wastewaterdomestic wastewater

The BOD variation generally follows the flow. The peak The BOD variation generally follows the flow. The peak BOD (organic matter) concentration often occurs in the BOD (organic matter) concentration often occurs in the evening.evening.

Seasonal Variation in Constituent Values.Seasonal Variation in Constituent Values.

Variations in Industrial WastewaterVariations in Industrial Wastewater

In some cases, flow values and water quality measurements In some cases, flow values and water quality measurements may may vary by several orders of magnitudevary by several orders of magnitude over a period of a over a period of a year. year.

For example, the BOD and TSS concentrations contributed For example, the BOD and TSS concentrations contributed from from vegetable-processing facilities during the noon wash-vegetable-processing facilities during the noon wash-up periodup period may far exceed those contributed during may far exceed those contributed during working hours. Problems with high short-term loadings working hours. Problems with high short-term loadings most commonly occur in most commonly occur in small treatment plants that have small treatment plants that have limited reserve capacity to handle "shock loadings."limited reserve capacity to handle "shock loadings." The The seasonal impact of industrial wastes such as canneries can seasonal impact of industrial wastes such as canneries can cause both the flow and BOD loadings to increase from cause both the flow and BOD loadings to increase from two to five times average conditions.two to five times average conditions.

If industrial wastes are to be discharged to the collection If industrial wastes are to be discharged to the collection system for treatment in a municipal wastewater facility, it system for treatment in a municipal wastewater facility, it will be necessary to characterize the wastes adequately to will be necessary to characterize the wastes adequately to identify the ranges in constituent concentrations and mass identify the ranges in constituent concentrations and mass loadings. Such characterization is also needed to determine loadings. Such characterization is also needed to determine if pretreatment is required before the waste is permitted to if pretreatment is required before the waste is permitted to be discharged into the collection system. be discharged into the collection system.

With sufficient characterization of the wastewater from With sufficient characterization of the wastewater from industrial discharges, suitable pretreatment facilities can be industrial discharges, suitable pretreatment facilities can be provided and plant upsets can be avoided.provided and plant upsets can be avoided.

Variations in Constituent Values in Combined Variations in Constituent Values in Combined Collection Systems.Collection Systems.

Tab. 3-10 Typical factors influencing the characteristics Tab. 3-10 Typical factors influencing the characteristics of combined wastewater of combined wastewater

Fig. 3-5 Typical variations of flowrate, BOD, TSS, and feFig. 3-5 Typical variations of flowrate, BOD, TSS, and fecal coliform in a combined collection system during a stocal coliform in a combined collection system during a storm eventrm event

As shown, the BOD and fecal coliform bacteria concentratiAs shown, the BOD and fecal coliform bacteria concentrations are low during the storm when runoff flows are high. ons are low during the storm when runoff flows are high. After the storm, when runoff subsides and the flow consistAfter the storm, when runoff subsides and the flow consists primarily of wastewater, concentrations rise significantly.s primarily of wastewater, concentrations rise significantly.

Unlike BOD and fecal coliform bacteria, TSS concentratioUnlike BOD and fecal coliform bacteria, TSS concentrations rise slightly during the storm, and remain unchanged aftns rise slightly during the storm, and remain unchanged after the storm.er the storm.

The slight rise in the TSS concentration during the peak floThe slight rise in the TSS concentration during the peak flow may be due to a phenomenon common to many combinew may be due to a phenomenon common to many combined sewer systems known as the d sewer systems known as the "first flush”."first flush”.

Much of the accumulated surface contaminants are washeMuch of the accumulated surface contaminants are washed into the combined system. In combined collection systed into the combined system. In combined collection systems, the increased flows may be capable of resuspending mms, the increased flows may be capable of resuspending material deposited previously during low-flow periods. aterial deposited previously during low-flow periods.

Factors known to contribute to the magnitude and Factors known to contribute to the magnitude and frequency of the first-flush effect include combined sewer frequency of the first-flush effect include combined sewer slopes; street and catch basin cleaning frequency and slopes; street and catch basin cleaning frequency and design; rainfall intensity and duration; and surface buildup design; rainfall intensity and duration; and surface buildup of debris and contaminants.of debris and contaminants.

Wastewater from combined collection systems usually Wastewater from combined collection systems usually contains more inorganic matter than wastewater from contains more inorganic matter than wastewater from sanitary collection systems because of the larger quantities sanitary collection systems because of the larger quantities of storm drainage that enter the combined sewer system. of storm drainage that enter the combined sewer system.

Effect of Mass Loading Variability on Treatment Effect of Mass Loading Variability on Treatment Plant PerformancePlant Performance

Fig. 3-6 Illustration of diurnal Wastewater flow,BOD and Fig. 3-6 Illustration of diurnal Wastewater flow,BOD and Mass loading variabilityMass loading variability

The variations are more pronounced in small collection The variations are more pronounced in small collection systems where the collection system storage capacity does systems where the collection system storage capacity does not provide a significant dampening effect. The impact of not provide a significant dampening effect. The impact of these load variations is seen most dramatically in the these load variations is seen most dramatically in the effects on biological treatment operating conditionseffects on biological treatment operating conditions. .

Fig. 3-7 Example variations of TSS and BOD Fig. 3-7 Example variations of TSS and BOD concentrations and mass loadings over a monthly periodconcentrations and mass loadings over a monthly period

3-6 Selection of Design Flowrates and Mass Loadings3-6 Selection of Design Flowrates and Mass Loadings

The rated capacity of wastewater-treatment plants is normaThe rated capacity of wastewater-treatment plants is normally lly based on the average annual daily flowrate at the design based on the average annual daily flowrate at the design year plus an allowance for future growth.year plus an allowance for future growth.

Conditions that must be considered include peak and miniConditions that must be considered include peak and minimum hydraulic flowrates and the maximum, minimum and mum hydraulic flowrates and the maximum, minimum and sustained process constituent mass loading rates. Additionsustained process constituent mass loading rates. Additionally, periods of initial operation and low flows and loads mally, periods of initial operation and low flows and loads must be taken into consideration in design. ust be taken into consideration in design.

Tab. 3-11 Typical flowrates and mass loading factors useTab. 3-11 Typical flowrates and mass loading factors used for the design and operation of wastewater-treatment fad for the design and operation of wastewater-treatment facilities cilities

The overall objective of wastewater treatment is to provide The overall objective of wastewater treatment is to provide a wastewater-treatment system that is capable of coping wia wastewater-treatment system that is capable of coping with a wide range of probable wastewater conditions while cth a wide range of probable wastewater conditions while complying with the overall performance requirements.omplying with the overall performance requirements.

Design Flowrates Design Flowrates

Flowrates need to be developed both for the initial period Flowrates need to be developed both for the initial period of operation and for the future (design) period. of operation and for the future (design) period.

Consideration of the flowrates during the early years of opeConsideration of the flowrates during the early years of operation is often overlooked, and oversizing of equipment anration is often overlooked, and oversizing of equipment and inefficient operation can result. d inefficient operation can result.

Rationale for the Selection of FlowratesRationale for the Selection of Flowrates The process units and hydraulic conduits must be sized to aThe process units and hydraulic conduits must be sized to a

ccommodate the anticipated peak flowrates . Provisions haccommodate the anticipated peak flowrates . Provisions have to be made to ensure bypassing of wastewaterve to be made to ensure bypassing of wastewater does not does not occur either in the collection system or at the treatment plaoccur either in the collection system or at the treatment plant. nt.

Forecasting FlowratesForecasting Flowrates A yardstick by which total dry-weather base flow can be mA yardstick by which total dry-weather base flow can be m

easured is 460 L/capitaeasured is 460 L/capita··d, established by the U.S. EPA as d, established by the U.S. EPA as a historical average where infiltration is not excessive. a historical average where infiltration is not excessive.

Minimum FlowrateMinimum Flowrate In cases where very low nighttime flow is expected, provisiIn cases where very low nighttime flow is expected, provisi

ons for recycling treated effluent may have to be included tons for recycling treated effluent may have to be included to sustain the process.o sustain the process.

In the absence of measured flowrate data, minimum daily fIn the absence of measured flowrate data, minimum daily flowrates may be assumed to range from 30 to 70 percent olowrates may be assumed to range from 30 to 70 percent of average flowrates for medium- to large size communities, f average flowrates for medium- to large size communities, respectively.respectively.

Peak Flowrate FactorsPeak Flowrate Factors Tab. 3-11 Typical flowrates and mass loading factors useTab. 3-11 Typical flowrates and mass loading factors use

d for the design and operation of wastewater-treatment fad for the design and operation of wastewater-treatment facilitiescilities

Peak hourly flowrates are used to size the hydraulic conveyPeak hourly flowrates are used to size the hydraulic conveyance system and other facilities such as sedimentation tankance system and other facilities such as sedimentation tanks and chlorine contact tanks where little volume is availabls and chlorine contact tanks where little volume is available for flow dampening.e for flow dampening.

Other peaking factors such as maximum week or maximuOther peaking factors such as maximum week or maximum month may be used for treatment facilities such as pond m month may be used for treatment facilities such as pond systems that have long detention times or for sizing solids systems that have long detention times or for sizing solids and biosolids processing facilities that also have long detenand biosolids processing facilities that also have long detention times or ample storage. tion times or ample storage.