,ldr3IX.fm.14814 Page 579 Thursday, January 27, 2005 …lwn.net/images/pdf/LDD3/ldr3IX.fm.pdf · ,ldr3IX.fm.14814 Page 581 Thursday, ... card select number (CSN), 321 ... 458 clearing

This is the Title of the Book, eMatter EditionCopyright © 2005 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.

579

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Index

Numbers16-bit ports, 240, 24232-bit ports, 240

accessing, 240string functions for, 242

8-bit ports, 240reading/writing, 240string functions for, 242

Aabstractions (hardware), 318access

blocking open requests, 176character (char) drivers, 6, 43–49to device files, 173–179DMA (see DMA)to drivers, 47interfaces, 7I/O memory, 249, 250, 252ISA memory, 253kobjects, 365locking, 121management, 108NUMA systems, 216, 417PCI, 305

configuration space, 315I/O and memory spaces, 316

policies, 3ports, 255

different sizes, 240from user space, 241

restriction of, 144, 174

seqlocks, 127unaligned data, 300

access_ok function, 142ACTION variable, 399adding

devices, 392–395drivers, 396locking, 109VMAs, 426

Address Resolution Protocol (see ARP)addresses

bounce buffers, 445bus (see bus addresses)buses, 443hardware, 508, 515hardware (see hardware addresses)MAC, 504, 532–534PCI, 303, 452remapping, 434resolution (network management), 5resolving, 532spaces, generic I/O, 316types, 413virtual (conversion), 444

aio_fsync operation, 438algorithms (lock-free), 123alignment

of data, 293unaligned data access, 300

allocatingmajor device numbers, 46–49memory, 60–62

by page, 221

,ldr3IX.fm.14814 Page 579 Thursday, January 27, 2005 12:29 PM


580 | Index

allocation, 249, 255of block drivers, 468of buffers, 530of device numbers, 45of DMA buffers, 442dynamic allocation of major numbers, 46of gendisk structures, 468of I/O ports, 239of memory, 60–63

boot time, 230, 234flags, 215, 218, 231I/O, 249, 255kmalloc allocation engine, 213–217lookaside caches, 217–224, 232per-CPU variables, 228–230vmalloc allocation function, 224–228

page-oriented functions, 221, 233of snull drivers, 503of socket buffers, 522, 530structures (registration), 55–57of urbs, 354

alloc_netdev function, 504alloc_pages interface, 223alloc_skb function, 530alloc_tty_driver function, 549Alpha architecture, porting and, 243alternatives to locking, 123–130API (application programming interface)

spinlocks, 117timers, 198

application programming interface (see API)applications versus kernel modules, 18–22architecture

EISA, 323M68k (porting and), 243MCA, 322NuBus, 324PCI, 302–319PowerPC (porting and), 244S/390, 402SBus, 324SPARC, 244Super-H, 244VLB, 323x86 (interrupt handlers on), 268zSeries, 402

argumentscache, 218flags, 213interrupt handlers, 272ioctl method, 141

kmalloc size, 216sfile, 87

ARM architecture, porting and, 243ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), 504

Ethernet and, 532IFF_NOARP flag and, 504, 509overriding, 533

arraysbi_io_vec, 482block drivers, 468memory maps, 417parameters (declaration of), 37quantum sets (memory), 61

asm directory, 19assignment

dynamic allocation of major numbers, 46of hardware addresses, 515of IP numbers, 499of parameter values, 35–37

asynchronous DMA, 441asynchronous I/O, 437–440asynchronous notification, 169–171asynchronous running of timers, 197asynctest program, 169atomic context (spinlocks), 118atomic variables, 124atomic_add operation, 125atomic_dec operation, 125atomic_dec_and_test operation, 125atomic_inc operation, 125atomic_inc_and_test operation, 125atomic_read operation, 125atomic_set operation, 125atomic_sub operation, 125atomic_sub_and_test operation, 125atomic_t count field (memory), 417attributes

binary (kobjects), 374buses, 380data (firmware), 407default (kobjects), 372deleting, 374, 381devices, 383, 407drivers, 386loading (firmware), 407nondefault (kobjects), 373

authorization, 8autodetection, 264automatic, IRQ number detection, 264



Index | 581

Bback-casting kobject pointers, 365barriers

memory, 237, 238, 255requests, 485

base module parameter, 247baud rates (tty drivers), 562BCD (binary-coded decimal) forms, 346bEndpointAddress field (USB), 330bibliography, 575big-endian byte order, 293bi_io_vec array, 482binary attributes (kobjects), 374binary-coded decimal (BCD) forms, 346bin_attribute structure, 374bInterval field (USB), 331bio structure, 482, 487bitfields (ioctl commands), 137, 180bits

clearing, 269operations, 126specifications, 246

BLK_BOUNCE_HIGH symbol, 480blk_cleanup_queue function, 479blkdev_dequeue_request function, 479blk_queue_hardsect_size function, 470blk_queue_segment_boundary function, 481block devices, 7block drivers

command pre-preparation, 491functions, 494–496operations, 471–474registration, 465–470request processing, 474–491TCQ, 492–493

block_fsync method, 167blocking

I/O, 147–162, 176open method, 176operations, 151release method, 176

bmAttributes field (USB), 330BogoMips value, 195boot time (memory allocation), 230, 234booting (PCI), 306bottom halves

interrupt handlers, 275–278tasklets and, 276

bounce buffers, 445block drivers, 480streaming DMA mappings and, 449

bridges, 303

BSS segments, 419buffers

allocation of, 530bounce, 445

block drivers, 480streaming DMA mappings and, 449

circular, 78, 123DMA (unmapping), 449freeing, 531I/O, 151large (obtaining), 230, 234output, 152overrun errors, 9, 95for printk function, 78ring (DMA), 441socket (see socket buffers)sockets, 522, 528–532synchronization, 452transfers, 448tty drivers, 558USB, 338user space (direct I/O), 436write-buffering example, 282

bugs (see debugging; troubleshooting)BULK endpoints (USB), 330bulk urbs (USB), 343bus_add_driver function, 396BUS_ATTR macro, 380bus_attribute type, 380buses

addresses, 413, 443attributes, 380functions, 409IEEE1394 (Firewire), 400iteration, 379Linux device model, 377–381match function, 379methods, 379PCI (see PCI)registers, 445registration, 378USB (see USB)

bus_for_each_dev function, 380bus_register function, 378bus_type structure, 378busy loops, 191busy-waiting implementation, 190bytes

CSIZE bitmask, 561order, 293orders, 300



582 | Index

Ccaches

argument, 218coherency issues, 445lookaside, 217–224, 232troubleshooting, 237, 425

callingcurrent process, 21firmware, 407ioctl method, 136ioremap function, 249memory barriers, 238perror calls, 93preparation functions, 492release, 174

cancellation of urbs, 345capabilities, restricted operations and, 144capability.h header file, 144, 181capable function, 145, 181CAP_DAC_OVERRIDE capability, 144

single-user access to devices, 175CAP_NET_ADMIN capability, 144CAP_SYS_ADMIN capability, 144CAP_SYS_MODULE capability, 144CAP_SYS_RAWIO capability, 144CAP_SYS_TTY_CONFIG capability, 144card select number (CSN), 321cardctl utility, 3carrier signals, 528cdev structure, 56change_bit operation, 126change_mtu method, 513

improving performance using socketbuffers, 522

channels, DMA, 454–456char *buffer field (request structure), 477char bus_id field, 382char disk_name field (gendisk), 467char (character) drivers, 6

access, 43–49asynchronous notification, 169–171defining mechanism of, 42files

access to, 173–179operations, 49–53structures, 53

inode structure, 55I/O, 147–162ioctl method, 135–147llseek method, 171memory usage (scull), 60–63open method, 58–59

poll method, 163–169read method, 63–69readv calls, 69registration, 55–57release method, 59scull (design of), 42select method, 163–169testing, 70version numbers, 43write method, 63–69writev calls, 69

char name field (net_device structure), 506char *name variable (USB), 352character drivers (see char drivers)chars_in_buffer function, 558check_flags method, 52CHECKSUM_ symbols, 523circular buffers, 123

DMA ring buffers, 441implementing interrupt handlers, 270for printk function, 78

claim_dma_lock function, 457class register (PCI), 309classes

devices, 5, 362, 390functions, 410interfaces, 391Linux device model, 387–391management, 389modules, 5–8

class_id field, 390class_simple interface, 388class_simple_create function, 404class_simple_device_add function, 404class_simple_device_remove function, 405cleanup function, 32clear_bit operation, 126clear_dma_ff function, 458clearing bits on interface boards, 269clock ticks (see jiffies, values)clocks, 208

cycles (counting), 186(see also time)

cloning devices, 177close function (tty drivers), 553–556close method, 59

vm_operations_struct structure, 421cmd field (request structure), 492coarse-grained locking, 122code

concurrency in, 20delaying execution of, 196



Index | 583

execution, 190–196, 209hello world module, 16–18inline assembly (example), 187ISA, 321kernels (see kernels)memory (scull), 107module requirements, 30runtime, 5scilluid, 175sleeps, 158test system setup, 15user space programming, 19, 37–39

coherencycaches, 445DMA, 446

command pre-preparation (blockdrivers), 491

command-oriented drivers, 146commands

dmesg, 77FIOASYNC, 141FIOCLEX, 141FIONBIO, 141FIONCLEX, 141FIOQSIZE, 141F_SETFL fcntl, 169F_SETOWN, 169gdb, 99ifconfig

net_device structure and, 506opening network drivers, 515–516snull interfaces, 501

ioctl, 137, 140creating, 180customizing for networking, 535implementation, 145

printk (see printk function)SIOCDEVPRIVATE, 535strace, 91wc, 92(see also functions)

communication with user space, 362compilers

gcc, 188optimizations, 236

compilingchar drivers, 70modules, 23–25

complete function (urbs), 345complete module, 115

completionof DMA, 458request functions, 486semaphores, 114–116urbs, 345

concurrencyalternatives to locking, 123–130controlling transmission, 518debugging, 21in kernel programming, 20locking

adding, 109traps, 121–123

management, 107–109scull (troubleshooting memory), 107semaphores

completion, 114–116implementation, 110–114

spinlocks, 116–121transmission, 518

CONFIG_ACPI_DEBUG option, 75CONFIG_DEBUG_DRIVER option, 75CONFIG_DEBUG_INFO option, 74CONFIG_DEBUG_KERNEL option, 73CONFIG_DEBUG_PAGEALLOC option, 74CONFIG_DEBUG_SLAB option, 73CONFIG_DEBUG_SPINLOCK option, 74CONFIG_DEBUG_SPINLOCK_SLEEP

option, 74CONFIG_DEBUG_STACKOVERFLOW

option, 74CONFIG_DEBUG_STACK_USAGE

option, 74CONFIG_IKCONFIG option, 75CONFIG_IKCONFIG_PROC option, 75CONFIG_INIT_DEBUG option, 74CONFIG_INPUT_EVBUG option, 75CONFIG_KALLSYMS option, 74CONFIG_MAGIC_SYSRQ option, 74CONFIG_PROFILING option, 75CONFIG_SCSI_CONSTANTS option, 75configuration

cdev structure, 56char drivers, 45

dynamic allocation of majornumbers, 46

internal representation of devicenumbers, 44

major/minor numbers, 43(see also char drivers)



584 | Index

configuration (continued)coherent DMA mappings, 446critical sections, 109DMA controllers, 456–459drivers, 35–37ether_setup function, 507–514interrupt handlers, 259–269kernels, 73–75line settings (tty drivers), 560–566multicasting, 539net_device structure, 502network devices, 512parameter assignment, 35–37PCI, 306

accessing configuration space, 315registers, 308

serial lines, 565single-page streaming mappings, 450snull drivers, 498–502streaming DMA mappings, 448test system setup, 15timeouts, 193USB interfaces, 332version dependency, 26

CONFIG_USB_DYNAMIC_MINORSconfiguration option, 353

connectionsFirewire, 400IP numbers, 500network drivers to kernels, 502–514PCI (see PCI)/proc file hierarchies, 86USB (see USB)(see also hotplugs)

connectors (ISA), 323console_loglevel variable, 77

debugging system hangs, 97consoles

messages (redirecting), 77wrong font on, 147

const char *dev_name functions, 260const char *name field (PCI registration), 311const char *name function, 348const struct pci_device_id *id_table field (PCI

registration), 311const struct usb_device_id *id_table

function, 348constructor function

(kmem_cache_create), 218CONTROL endpoints (USB), 329control functions (queues), 480control urbs (USB), 343

controllers (PCI), 318controlling

transmission concurrency, 518urbs (USB), 354by writing control sequences, 146

conventional memory, I/O registers, 236(see also memory)

conversion (virtual addresses), 444copying (cross-space), 64core files, 99counters

jiffies, 184reference (kobjects), 366registers, 186TSC, 186

counts (interrupts), 566CPU modalities (levels), 20create_module system call, 226create_proc_read_entry function, 86creating

queues, 479urbs (USB), 341

critical sections, 109cross-space copying, 64CRTSCTS bitmask, 561CSIZE bitmask, 561CSN (card select number), 321CSTOPB bitmask, 561current process, 21, 40current time, retrieving, 188–190current.h header file, 21currentime file (jit module), 189custom

data types, 291ioctl methods for networking, 535

cycles_t type, 187

Ddaemons

klogd, 17, 77syslogd, 79

dataexplicitly sizing, 290physical packet transport, 501transferring with DMA, 440–459unaligned, portability and, 293

data attribute (firmware), 407data functions (USB), 358data structures, 49

file operations, 49–53portability of, 294



Index | 585

data typesfor explicitly sizing data, 290inptr_t (C99 standard), 289int, 289interface-specific, 291loose typing for I/O functions, 292mixing different, 289portability and, 288–292standard C types, 288u8, u16, u32, u64, 290uint8_t/unit32_t, 290

dataalign program, 294datasize program, 288dd utility and scull driver example, 61deadline schedulers (I/O), 478deadlocks, avoiding, 117

(see also locking)debugging, 73–105

concurrency, 21using a debugger, 99–105using Dynamic Probes, 105interrupt handlers, 273with ioctl method, 90using kdb kernel debugger, 101–103kernels

monitoring, 91by printing, 75–82by querying, 82–91support, 73–75

using kgdb, 103levels (implementation of), 81using LTT, 105locked keyboard, 97by printing, 81by querying, 91system faults, 93–98system hangs, 96using User-Mode Linux, 104(see also troubleshooting)

declaration of array parameters, 37DECLARE_TASKLET macro, 276default attributes (kobjects), 372default_attrs field (kobjects), 372DEFAULT_CONSOLE_LOGLEVEL, 77DEFAULT_MESSAGE_LOGLEVEL, 77delaying execution of code, 190–196, 209deleting

attributes, 374, 381devices, 395drivers, 396mappings (DMA), 448/proc files, 86

queues, 479symbolic links, 375

del_timer_sync function, 200dentry field (file structure), 54dependency

platform, 27version, 26

dereferencing memory addresses, 289descriptors (USB), 358design

concurrency, 107–109policy-free drivers, 3of scull, 42(see also configuration)

desktopsPCI (see PCI)USB (see USB)

destroying urbs (USB), 341destructor function

(kmem_cache_create), 218/dev directory, 43/dev nodes, 6

char devices and, 43dynamic major number allocation, 46/dev/random device, 260/dev/urandom device, 260

/dev tree, 403dev_alloc_skb function, 530development community (kernel),

joining, 12development kernels, 10device attribute (firmware), 407DEVICE variable, 402deviceID register (PCI), 309devices

access to files, 173–179adding, 392–395allocation of numbers, 45attributes, 383block (see block drivers)caching problems, 425char drivers (see char drivers)character (see char drivers)classes of, 5–8, 362, 390cloning, 177concurrency, 107–109control operations, 5deleting, 395DMA and, 440–459drivers, 385dynamic, 397dynamic allocation of major numbers, 46



586 | Index

devices (continued)FIFO, 43file operations on, 49files, 43functions, 409hotpluggable, 362identifying type with ls command, 43initialization, 503input (hotplugging), 401internal representation of numbers, 44ioctl method, 135–147ISA, 320iteration, 379Linux device model, 362–364, 381–387

buses, 377–381classes, 387–391firmware, 405–407hotplug events, 375hotplugging, 397–405kobjects, 364–371lifecycles, 391–397low-level sysfs operations, 371–375

methods, 511names of, 46network, 400network drivers, 497numbers (printing), 82operations, 513reading and writing, 63reading data from, 166registration, 382, 502SCSI, 402scullpipe (example), 153–162scullsingle, 174seeking, 171single-open, 173structures (embedding), 383truncating on open, 59USB (see USB)version (see versions, numbering)writing

control sequences to, 146data to, 166

(see also drivers)dev_id pointer (installing shared

handlers), 278dev_kfree_skb function, 524, 531dev_mc_list structure, 538DEVPATH variable, 399dev_t i_rdev (inode structure field), 55

direct I/O, 435–440implementation, 460(see also I/O)

direct memory access (see DMA)directories

/dev, 43entries (file structure), 54of kernel headers, 19misc-progs source, 77, 162/proc file hierarchy connections, 86/proc/tty/driver, 547sysfs

low-level operations, 371–375tty driver, 552USB, 333–335

tty drivers, 566*dir_notify method, 52disable_dma function, 458disable_irq function, 279disabling

interrupt handlers, 273packet transmissions, 518print statements, 79

disclosure of data, 9disconnect function (USB), 349, 353disks

files versus open files, 53freeing, 468registration, 466

distribution, writing drivers for, 28DMA (direct memory access), 440–459, 461

block requests and, 489configuring controller, 456–459for ISA memory, 454–459mappings (scatter-gather), 450PCI devices and, 453registering usage, 455ring buffers, 441

dma_addr_t setup_dma field (USB), 338dma_addr_t transfer_dma field (USB), 338DMA_BIDIRECTIONAL symbol, 448, 461DMAC (DMA controller), 454DMA-capable memory zone, 215

SLAB_CACHE_DMA flag and, 218dma_free_coherent function, 447DMA_FROM_DEVICE symbol, 448, 461dma.h header file, 455DMA_NONE symbol, 448, 461dma_spin_lock, 457DMA_TO_DEVICE symbol, 448, 461



Index | 587

dmesg command, 77do_close function, 556do_gettimeofday function, 188do_ioctl method, 513, 535do_IRQ function, 268do-it-yourself probing, 266double underscore (_ _) functions, 22double-address cycle mappings (PCI), 452doubly linked lists (portability), 299, 300down function, 111DRIVER_ATTR macro, 386drivers

adding, 396asynchronous notification and, 170attributes, 386block (see block drivers)char (see char drivers)command-oriented, 146configuring, 35–37deleting, 396devices, 385file operations, 49FireWire, 7functions, 409I2O, 7ioctl numbers for, 137iteration, 379lddbus, 379mechanism, 42

policy versus, 2separation from policies, 2–4

modules, 7monitoring with preprocessor, 79–81network, 497

connecting to kernels, 502–514functions, 542–545interrupt handlers for, 523ioctl commands, 535link state (changes in), 528MAC addresses (resolution

of), 532–534multicasting, 537–540opening, 515–516snull, 498–502statistics, 536

sbullinitialization, 468request method, 475

SCSI, 7scull (see scull)scullc (example), 219scullp (example), 223

scullv (example), 227, 233security issues, 8short (example), 246

accessing I/O memory, 252implementing interrupt handlers, 270installing interrupt handlers, 261probing, 266

shortprint, 282–286structures (embedding), 386tty, 546–550

buffers, 558directories, 566functions, 573line settings, 560–566pointers, 553–560struct termios, 550–553tty_driver structure, 567tty_operations structure, 569tty_struct structure, 571

USB (see USB)user-space, 37version (see versions, numbering)

driver_unregister function, 397dynamic devices, 397Dynamic Probes debugging tool, 105

EEBUSY error, 176EISA (Extended ISA), 323elevators (I/O), 478elv_next_request function, 476, 479, 492embedding

device structures, 383driver structures, 386kobjects, 365

enable_dma function, 458enable_irq function, 279enabling

configuration for kernels, 73–75interrupt handlers, 273PCI drivers, 314

endless loops, preventing, 97end-of-file

poll method and, 165seeking relative to, 172

endpointsinterfaces, 331USB, 328

entropy pool and SA_SAMPLE_RANDOMflag, 260

errno.h header file, 33error handling during initialization, 32



588 | Index

errorsbuffer overrun, 95codes, 33handling at module initialization, 32–35read/write, 65values (pointers), 295(see also troubleshooting)

/etc/networks file, 500/etc/syslog.conf file, 79ETH_ALEN macro, 515Ethernet

address resolution, 532ARP and, 532non-Ethernet headers, 534non-Ethernet interfaces, 507snull interfaces, 501

ether_setup function, 504, 507–514eth_header method, 512Ethtool, 541events

hotplug, 375race conditions, 107

exclusive waits, 159execution

asynchronous (interrupt mode), 197of code (delaying), 190–196, 209modes, 20shared interrupt handlers, 279threads, 109

experimental kernels, 10exporting symbols, 28–29EXPORT_SYMBOL macro, 32, 41EXPORT_SYMBOL_GPL macro, 41extended buses, 325Extended ISA (EISA), 323

Ffast interrupt handlers, 268FASYNC flag, 52, 169fasync method, 52fasync_helper function, 170, 182fasync_struct structure, 170faults, 19, 93–98faulty module (oops messages), 94faulty_read function, 96faulty_write function, 96fcntl system call, 141, 169fcntl.h header file, 151fc_setup function, 507fdatasync system call, 167FDDI networks, configuring interfaces, 507fddi_setup function, 507

f_dentry pointer, 54f_flags field (file structure), 54

O_NONBLOCK flag, 141, 151fiber channel devices, initializing, 507FIFO (first-in-first-out) devices, 43

poll method and, 165File System header (fs.h), 71file_operations structure, 49, 54

declaring using tagged initialization, 53mmap method and, 424

filesaccess to, 173–179capability.h header file, 144, 181devices, 43/etc/networks, 500flags, 54inode structure, 55interrupts, 262ioctl. header file, 179kmsg, 78ksyms, 32modes, 53net_int c, 507open, 53operations, 49–53poll.h header file, 163, 182/proc, 84stat, 263structure, 53structures, 49uaccess.h header file, 180

filesystems, 4char drivers, 43–49modules, 8nodes, 4, 7/proc, 86–90

installing interrupt handlers, 262shared interrupts and, 280

sysfs, 409filp pointer, 53

in ioctl method, 136in read/write methods, 63

filp->f_op, 54filter hotplug operation, 376fine-grained locking, 122FIOASYNC command, 141FIOCLEX command, 141FIONBIO command, 141FIONCLEX command, 141FIOQSIZE command, 141FireWire, 400

drivers, 7



Index | 589

firmwarecalling, 407functions, 411interfaces, 405Linux device model, 405–407PCI boot time configuration, 307

first-in-first-out (FIFO) devices (see FIFOdevices)

flagsargument, 213FASYNC, 169file, 54GFP_ATOMIC, 214, 222GFP_COLD, 215GFP_DMA, 215GFP_HIGH, 215GFP_HIGHMEM, 215GFP_HIGHUSER, 214GFP_KERNEL, 221GFP_NOFAIL, 215GFP_NOFS, 214GFP_NOIO, 215GFP_NORETRY, 215GFP_NOWARN, 215GFP_REPEAT, 215GFP_USER, 214GTP_KERNEL, 214IFF_ALLMULTI, 509IFF_AUTOMEDIA, 510IFF_BROADCAST, 509IFF_DEBUG, 509IFF_DYNAMIC, 510IFF_LOOPBACK, 509IFF_MASTER, 510IFF_MULTICAST, 509IFF_NOARP, 504, 509IFF_NOTRAILERS, 510IFF_POINTTOPOINT, 509IFF_PORTSEL, 510IFF_PROMISC, 509IFF_RUNNING, 510IFF_SLAVE, 510IFF_UP, 509media_change, 473memory allocation, 215, 218, 231for net_device structure, 509O_NONBLOCK (f_flags field), 166PACKET_HOST, 530PG_locked, 417POLLERR, 164POLLHUP, 164POLLIN, 164

POLLOUT, 164POLLPRI, 164POLLRDBAND, 164POLLRDNORM, 164POLLWRBAND, 164POLLWRNORM, 164resource (PCI), 317SA_INTERRUPT, 260, 286SA_SAMPLE_RANDOM, 260SA_SHIRQ, 260, 278SLAB_CACHE_DMA, 218SLAB_CTOR_CONSTRUCTOR, 218SLAB_HWCACHE_ALIGN, 218SLAB_NO_REAP, 218TTY_DRIVER_NO_DEVFS, 553TTY_DRIVER_REAL_RAW, 553TTY_DRIVER_RESET_TERMIOS, 552VM_IO, 421Wall, 291

flips (tty drivers), 559flow of data (tty drivers), 556flush method, 51

close system call and, 60flush operation, 51flushing pending output, 167f_mode field (file structure), 53fonts (incorrect on console), 147f_op pointer, 54fops pointers, 49forms (BCD), 346f_pos field (file structure), 54

read_proc function and, 84fragmentation, 442free command, 70free_dma function, 455freeing

buffers, 531device numbers, 45disks, 468DMA pools, 447semaphores, 111

free_irq function, 279free_netdev functions, 505free_pages function, 222F_SETFL command, 141

fcntl system call and, 169F_SETFL fcntl command, 169F_SETOWN command, 169

fcntl system call and, 169fs.h header file, 71, 179

asynchronous notification and, 170blocking/nonblocking operations, 151



590 | Index

fsync method, 51, 167full class interfaces, 389functions

access_ok, 142alloc_netdev, 504alloc_skb, 530alloc_tty_driver, 549blk_cleanup_queue, 479blkdev_dequeue_request, 479blk_queue_hardsect_size, 470blk_queue_segment_boundary, 481block drivers, 494–496bus_add_driver, 396buses, 409bus_for_each_dev, 380bus_register, 378calling from modules/applications, 18capable, 145, 181chars_in_buffer, 558claim_dma_lock, 457classes, 410class_simple_create, 404class_simple_device_add, 404class_simple_device_remove, 405cleanup, 32clear_dma_ff, 458close (tty drivers), 553–556complete (urbs), 345const char *dev_name, 260const char *name, 348const struct usb_device_id*id_table, 348constructor (kmem_cache_create), 218create_proc_read_entry, 86del_timer_sync, 200dev_alloc_skb, 530devices, 409dev_kfree_skb, 524, 531disable_dma, 458disable_irq, 279disconnect (USB), 349, 353dma_free_coherent, 447do_close, 556do_gettimeofday, 188do_IRQ, 268double underscore (_ _), 22down, 111drivers, 409driver_unregister, 397elv_next_request, 476, 479, 492enable_dma, 458enable_irq, 279

ether_setup, 504, 507–514fasync_helper, 170, 182faulty_read, 96faulty_write, 96fc_setup, 507fddi_setup, 507firmware, 411free_dma, 455free_irq, 279free_netdev, 505free_pages, 222get_cycles, 187get_dma_residue, 458get_fast_time, 189get_free_page, 221get_free_pages, 214, 221, 225get_page, 427get_unaligned, 293get_user, 143, 180get_user_pages, 435get_zeroed_page, 221handle_IRQ_event, 269hello world module, 16hippi_setup, 508in_atomic, 198inb, 240inb_p, 242in_interrupt, 198initialization, 31–35inl, 240insb, 242inserting schedules, 97insl, 242insw, 242int pci_enable_device, 314int printk_ratelimit(void), 81int seq_escape, 88int seq_path, 89int seq_printf, 88int seq_putc, 88int seq_puts, 88int (USB), 348inw, 240ioctl (tty drivers), 564ioremap, 226, 249, 256ioremap_nocache, 250iounmap, 225, 250irqreturn_t, 260isa_readb, 254kfree_skb, 531kill_fasync, 170, 182



Index | 591

kmalloc, 61allocation engine, 213–217performance degradation issues, 222

kmap, 418kmap_skb_frag, 532kmem_cache_alloc, 218kmem_cache_create, 217kmem_cache_t type, 217list_add, 297list_add_tail, 297list_del, 297list_empty, 297list_move, 297list_splice, 297locking, 121match (buses), 379mod_timer, 200, 202module_init, 31netif_carrier_off, 528netif_carrier_ok, 528netif_carrier_on, 528netif_start_queue, 515netif_stop_queue, 516, 518netif_wake_queue, 518network drivers, 542–545open (tty drivers), 553–556outb, 240outb_p, 242outl, 240outsb, 242outsl, 242outsw, 242outw, 240page-oriented allocation, 221, 233pci_map-sg, 451pci_remove_bus_device, 395pci_resource_, 317pfn_to_page, 417poll_wait, 163, 182printk, 17, 76–82

circular buffers for, 78logging messages from, 78seq_file interface (avoiding in), 88turning debug messages on/off, 79

probe (USB), 350probe_irq_off, 265probe_irq_on, 265put_unaligned, 293put_user, 143, 180queues, 479rdtscl, 187read (tty drivers), 558

read_proc, 85register_blkdev, 465register_chrdev, 404register_netdev, 503relaease_dma_lock, 457release (kobjects), 367remap_pfn_range, 424remove_proc_entry, 86request (block drivers), 474–491request_dma, 455request_firmware, 406SAK, 97sbull_request, 469schedule, 181

execution of code (delaying), 193preventing endless loops with, 97

schedule_timeout, 194scull

open method, 58–59release method, 59

scull_cleanup, 179scull_getwritespace, 158semaphores (see semaphores)set_dma_addr, 457set_dma_count, 457set_dma_mode, 457set_mb, 238set_multicast_list, 539set_rmb, 238set_termios, 560set_wmb, 238sg_dma_address, 462sg_dma_len, 462show, 386skb_headlen, 532skb_headroom, 531skb_is_nonlinear, 532skb_pull, 532skb_push, 531skb_put, 531skb_reserve, 531skb_tailroom, 531sleep_on, 162acting on socket buffers, 530spinlocks, 119struct module *owner, 348sysfs filesystem, 409sys_syslog, 77tasklet_schedule, 276tiny_close, 556tiocmget, 562tiomset, 562



592 | Index

functions (continued)tr_configure, 508tty drivers, 573tty_driver (pointers), 553–560tty_get_baud_rate, 562tty_register_driver, 549unregister_netdev, 505unsigned int irq, 260unsigned long flags, 260unsigned long pci_resource_end, 317unsigned long pci_resource_start, 317unsigned pci_resource_flags, 317up, 111urbs_completion, 345usb_alloc_urb, 342usb_bulk_msg, 356usb_control_msg, 357usb_fill_bulk_urb, 343usb_fill_control_urb, 343usb_fill_int_urb, 342usb_get_descriptor, 358usb_kill_urb, 345usb_register_dev, 352usb_set_intfdata, 351usb_string, 359usb_submit_urb, 344usb_unlink_urb, 345vfree, 225virt_to_page, 417vmalloc allocation, 224–228void, 348void barrier, 237void blk_queue_bounce_limit, 480void blk_queue_dma_alignment, 481void blk_queue_hardsect_size, 481void blk_queue_max_hw_segments, 480void blk_queue_max_phys_segments,

480void blk_queue_max_sectors, 480void blk_queue_max_segment_size, 480void blk_start_queue, 480void blk_stop_queue, 480void mb, 237void read_barrier_depends, 237void rmb, 237void smp_mb, 238void smp_rmb, 238void smp_wmb, 238void tasklet_disable, 204void tasklet_disable_nosync, 204void tasklet_enable, 204void tasklet_hi_schedule, 204

void tasklet_kill, 204void tasklet_schedule, 204void wmb, 237void*dev_id, 260wait_event_interruptible_timeout, 194wake-up, 150, 181wake_up, 159, 181wake_up_interruptible, 181wake_up_interruptible_sync, 181wake_up_sync, 181workqueues, 206write (tty drivers), 556xmit_lock, 514

Ggcc compiler, 188gdb commands, 99, 103gendisk structure, 467general distribution, writing drivers for, 28General Public License (GPL), 11generic DMA layers, 444generic I/O address spaces, 316geographical addressing, 305get_cycles function, 187get_dma_residue function, 458get_fast_time function, 189get_free_page function, 221get_free_pages function, 214, 221, 225get_kernel_syms system call, 25get_page function, 427get_stats method, 512, 536get_unaligned function, 293get_user function, 143, 180get_user_pages function, 435get_zeroed_page function, 221GFP_ATOMIC flag, 214

page-oriented allocation functions, 221preparing for allocation failure, 222

GFP_COLD flag, 215GFP_DMA flag, 215gfp.h header file, 214GFP_HIGH flag, 215GFP_HIGHMEM flag, 215GFP_HIGHUSER flag, 214GFP_KERNEL flag, 214, 221GFP_NOFAIL flag, 215GFP_NOFS flag, 214GFP_NOIO flag, 215GFP_NORETRY flag, 215GFP_NOWARN flag, 215GFP_REPEAT flag, 215GFP_USER flag, 214



Index | 593

global information (net_devicestructure), 506

global memory areas, 43global messages (enabling/disabling), 79GNU General Public License (GPL), 11goto statement, 33GPL (GNU General Public License), 11group, device, 47

Hhacking kernels options, 73–75handle_IRQ_event function, 269hangs (system), 96–98hard_header method, 512, 532hard_start_transmit method, 516hard_start_xmit method, 512, 517hardware

addresses, 508assignment of, 515modification of, 513

DMA, 440, 444headers, 533

adding before transmittingpackets, 531

building, 512encapsulating information, 534

ioctl method, 135–147ISA, 320management, 235–254, 255net_device structure, 506PCI (abstractions), 318removable media (supporting), 472

header_cache method, 513header_cache_update method, 514headers

Ethernet (see Ethernet)files, 19, 29hardware, 533non-Ethernet, 534

hello world module, 16–18hierarchies

kobjects, 368ksets, 370/proc file connections, 86(see also filesystems)

high memory, 216, 415HIPPI drivers, preparing fields for, 508hippi_setup function, 508hostnames (snull interfaces), 500hotplugs

devices, 362events, 375

Linux device model, 397–405scripts, 403

hubs (USB), 334hung system, 96hyperthreaded processors, avoiding

deadlocks, 117HZ (time frequency) symbol, 183, 292

II2O drivers, 7IA-64 architecture

porting and, 243/proc/interrupts file, snapshot of, 263

IEEE1394 bus (Firewire), 400ifconfig command

net_device structure and, 506opening network drivers, 515–516snull interfaces, 501

IFF_ symbols, 509, 538IFF_ALLMULTI flag, 509IFF_AUTOMEDIA flag, 510IFF_BROADCAST flag, 509IFF_DEBUG flag, 509IFF_DYNAMIC flag, 510IFF_LOOPBACK flag, 509IFF_MASTER flag, 510IFF_MULTICAST flag, 509IFF_NOARP flag, 504, 509IFF_NOTRAILERS flag, 510IFF_POINTOPOINT flag, 509IFF_PORTSEL flag, 510IFF_PROMISC flag, 509IFF_RUNNING flag, 510IFF_SLAVE flag, 510IFF_UP flag, 509if.h header file, 509, 535ifreq structure, 535implementation

asynchronous I/O, 437busy-waiting, 190of classes, 5of debugging levels, 81direct I/O, 460of files in /proc filesystems, 84interrupt handlers, 269–275ioctl commands, 145ISA (PCI), 319–322llseek method, 171mmap, 412–416, 460multicasting, 539of policies, 3removable media (supporting), 472



594 | Index

implementation (continued)semaphores, 110–114timers, 201

in_atomic function, 198inb function, 240inb_p function, 242infinite loops, preventing, 97information leakage, 9in_interrupt function, 198init scripts and loading/unloading

modules, 48init.h header file, 39initialization

completions (semaphores), 115devices, 503gendisk structure, 468interrupt handlers, 261kobjects, 366modules, 31–35mutexes, 110net_device structure, 503PCI, 306reader/writer semaphores, 113registers (PCI), 308sbull drivers, 468seqlocks, 128struct usb_driver structure, 349structures (registration), 55–57

INIT_LIST_HEAD macro, 296inl function, 240inline assembly code (example), 187inode pointer in ioctl method, 136inode structure, 55input devices (hotplugging), 401input files, enabling asynchronous

notification from, 169input module, 28input pins, 235, 245

reading values from parallel port, 248insb function, 242insl function, 242insmod program, 5, 17, 25

assigning parameter values, 36dynamically allocating major

numbers, 48modprobe program versus, 29testing modules using, 17

installationinterrupt handlers, 259–269, 278mainline kernels, 15

insw function, 242

int actual_length field (USB), 339int data type, 289int error_count field (USB), 341int field

net_device structure, 506PCI registration, 312

int flags field (gendisk), 467int function (USB), 348int interval field (USB), 341int major field (gendisk), 467int minor field (USB), 332int minor_base variable (USB), 353int minors field (gendisk), 467int number_of_packets field (USB), 341int pci_enable_device function, 314int printk_ratelimit(void) function, 81int seq_escape function, 88int seq_path function, 89int seq_printf function, 88int seq_putc function, 88int seq_puts function, 88int start_frame field (USB), 341int status field (USB), 339int transfer_buffer_length field (USB), 338interactive kernel debugger (kdb), 101–103INTERFACE variable, 401interfaces

alloc_pages, 223block drivers

command pre-preparation, 491functions, 494–496operations, 471–474registration, 465–470request processing, 474–491TCQ, 492–493

classes, 391class_simple, 388cleanup function, 32configuration (USB), 332firmware, 405flags for net_device structure, 509full class, 389interface-specific data types, 291ksets, 370loopback, 498MII, 540networks, 7non-Ethernet, 507older

char device registration, 57/proc file implementation, 85



Index | 595

parallel ports (see parallel ports)PCI, 302–319reader/writer semaphores, 114seq_file, 87–90snull, 498–502spinlocks, 117timers, 198USB, 331version dependency, 26VLB, 323

interface-specific data types, 291internal functions (locking), 121internal representation of device

numbers, 44Internet protocol (IP), 498interrupt handlers

autodetecting IRQ numbers, 264sharing interrupts, 281

interrupt modeand asynchronous execution, 197tasklets, 202–204

interrupt request lines (see IRQs)interruptible sleeps, 157interrupts

counts, 566file, 262handlers

implementation of, 269–275installation of, 259–269I/O, 281–286management, 286for network drivers, 523preparing parallel ports, 259/proc files for, 262registration, 286sharing, 278–281tasklets, 276top and bottom halves, 275–278

installation at, 261mitigation of, 525for network drivers, 523PCI, 317reports, 261shared interrupts and, 280timers, 183tty drivers, 556urbs, 342

intervals of time (data type portability), 292intptr_t type (C99 standard), 289inw function, 240

I/O, 167asynchronous, 437–440blocking, 147–162direct, 435–440, 460flushing pending, 167generic address spaces, 316hardware management, 235–254interrupt handlers, 281–286mapping, 249, 255memory (access), 249pausing, 242PCI, 305, 316regions, 429registers, 236scatter/gather, 520schedulers, 478string operations, 241transferring data with DMA, 440–459

I/O Memory Management Unit (seeIOMMU)

I/O ports, parallel (see parallel ports)I/O registers versus RAM, 236_IOC_DIRBITS macro, 180_IOC_NRBITS macro, 180_IOC_SIZEBITS macro, 180_IOC_TYPEBITS macro, 180ioctl commands (creating), 180ioctl function (tty drivers), 564ioctl method, 51, 135–147

using bitfields to define commands, 137block drivers, 473controlling devices without, 146customizing for networking, 535debugging with, 90network devices and, 513TIOCLINUX command, 77

ioctl.h header file, 137, 179setting up command numbers, 138

ioctl-number.txt file, 137IOMMU (I/O memory management unit),

413, 445ioremap function, 226, 249, 256ioremap, 225ioremap_nocache function, 250iounmap function, 225, 250IP (Internet protocol), 498IP numbers, resolving to physical

addresses, 532ip_summed field (sk_buff), 522, 530irq argument (interrupt number), 260



596 | Index

irq.h header file, 267irqreturn_t function, 260IRQs (interrupt request lines)

autodetecting, 264statistics on, 263

ISAbus master DMA, 454devices, DMA for, 454–459I/O (pausing devices), 242memory (access), 253

below IMB, 252–254DMA for, 454–459

PCI, 319–322isa_readb function, 254ISOCHRONOUS endpoints (USB), 330isochronous urbs (USB), 344iteration of buses, 379

Jjiffies

in busy-waiting implementation, 191counters, 184no solution for short delays, 195values, 184, 514

jit (just in time) modulecurrent time (retrieving), 189delaying code execution, 191

jitbusy program, 191joysticks (hotplugging), 401just in time (jit) module (see jit module)

Kkcore file, 99kdataalign program, 294kdatasize module, 289kdb kernel debugger, 101–103KERN_ALERT macro, 76KERN_CRIT macro, 76KERN_DEBUG macro, 76kernel-assisted probing, 265kernels

applications (comparisons to), 18–22capabilities and restricted operations, 144code requirements, 30concurrency, 20

adding locking, 109alternatives to locking, 123–130locking traps, 121–123management of, 107–109semaphore completion, 114–116semaphore implementation, 110–114

current process and, 21data structures, 49data types in

assigning explicit sizes to, 290interface-specific, 291linked lists, 295–299portability, 292–295standard C types, 288

debuggers, 99–105development community, joining, 12developmental (experimental), 10exclusive waits, 160filesystem modules, 8handling system faults (see system faults)headers, 19inode structure, 55interrupts

implementing handlers, 269–275installing handlers, 259–269

introduction to, 1kgdb patch and, 103linked lists, 295–299Linux device model, 362–364

buses, 377–381classes, 387–391devices, 381–387firmware, 405–407hotplugging, 375, 397–405kobjects, 364–371lifecycles, 391–397low-level sysfs operations, 371–375

loading modules into (see loading,modules)

logical addresses, 413mainline (installation of), 15messages, 18modules

loading, 25–28unloading, 25

monitoring, 91multicasting support, 538network driver connections, 502–514platform dependency, 27printing, 75–82querying, 82–91security, 8sources, 575space, 19splitting role of, 4–5support, 73–75symbols, 28–29system hangs, 96



Index | 597

tasklets, 202–204, 211test system setup, 15time, 208

measurement of lapses, 183–188retrieving current time, 188–190

timers, 196–202, 210USB

sysfs directory trees, 333–335transfers without urbs, 356–359urbs, 335–346writing, 346–355

versionsdependency, 26numbering, 10–11

viewing, 5virtual addresses, 414, 434VMAs, 419–422workqueues, 205–208, 211(see also modules)

kernel_ulong_t driver_info field (USB), 347KERNEL_VERSION macro, 27KERN_EMERG macro, 76KERN_ERR macro, 76KERN_INFO macro, 76KERN_NOTICE macro, 76KERN_WARNING macro, 76keyboards

debugging when locked, 97hotplugging, 401

keys (magic SysRq), 97kfree, 61kfree_skb function, 531kgdb patch, 103kill_fasync function, 170, 182killing urbs, 345klogd daemon, 17, 77

logging messages, 78, 79kmalloc

flags argument, 213returning virtual addresses, 225versus vmalloc, 225

kmalloc function, 61allocation engine, 213–217performance degradation issues, 222

kmap function, 418kmap_skb_frag function, 532kmem_cache_alloc function, 218kmem_cache_create function, 217kmem_cache_t type function, 217kmsg file, 78

kobjects, 364–371hotplug event generation, 375low-level sysfs operations, 371–375nondefault attributes, 373release functions, 367store method, 373symbolic links, 375

kset_hotplug_ops structure, 376ksets, 368

operations on, 370subsystems, 370

ksyms file, 32

Llapses of time, measurement of, 183–188laptop docking stations, 402large buffers, obtaining, 230, 234large file implementations (/proc files), 87layers

generic DMA, 444modularization, 28

lddbus driver, 379ldd_driver structure, 386LEDs, soldering to output pins, 247levels

CPU (modalities), 20debugging, 81message priority (see loglevels)

libraries, 19license terms, 11lifecycles

Linux device model, 391–397objects, 363urbs, 335

limitations of debug messages (prinkfunction), 81

line settings (tty drivers), 560–566line status register (LSR), 564link state (changes in), 528linked lists, 295–299

traversal of, 298linking libraries, 18links (symbolic), 375Linux

license terms, 11version numbering, 10

Linux device model, 362–364buses, 377–381classes, 387–391devices, 381–387



598 | Index

Linux device model (continued)firmware, 405–407hotplugging, 397–405kobjects, 364–371

hotplug events, 375low-level sysfs operations, 371–375

lifecycles, 391–397Linux Documentation Project web site, 576Linux Trace Toolkit (LTT), 105linux-kernel mailing list, 12, 299LINUX_VERSION_CODE macro, 27, 40list_add function, 297list_add_tail function, 297list_del function, 297list_empty function, 297list_entry macro, 297list_for_each macro, 299list.h header file, 299list_head data structure, 299list_move function, 297lists, linked, 295–299lists (PCI), 326list_splice function, 297little-endian byte order, 293llseek method, 50, 171loadable modules, 5loading

attribute (firmware), 407drivers, 46modules, 25–28

dynamically assigned devicenumbers, 47

parameters, 35–37races, 35

local0 (IP number), 499LocalTalk devices, setting up fields for, 507lock method, 52locked keyboard (debugging), 97lock-free algorithms, 123locking, 108

adding, 109alternatives to, 123–130atomic variables, 124rules for, 122seqlocks, 127traps, 121–123

lockmeter tool, 123loff_t f_pos (struct file field), 54loff_t (long offset), 50, 54LOG_BUF_LEN circular buffer, 78logging messages (printk function), 78logical addresses, 413

logical units (USB), 332login process, 173loglevels, 76

message priorities, 17long data type, 289long delays (of code execution), 190lookaside caches, 217–224, 232loopback interfaces, 498loops

busy, 191endless, 97software, 195

loops_per_jiffy value, 196low memory, 415low-level sysfs operations, 371–375ls command, identifying device type, 43LSR (line status register), 564ltalk_setup, 507ltalk_setup function, 507LTT (Linux Trace Toolkit), 105

MM68k architecture (porting and), 243MAC (medium access control)

addresses, 504, 508resolution of, 532–534set_mac_address method and, 513

macrosBUS_ATTR, 380completion, 115DECLARE_TASKLET, 276DIVER_ATTR, 386hello world module, 16INIT_LIST_HEAD, 296internal representation of device

numbers, 44ioctl commands (creating), 180KERN_ALERT, 76KERN_CRIT, 76KERN_DEBUG, 76KERN_EMERG, 76KERN_ERR, 76KERN_INFO, 76KERN_NOTICE, 76KERN_WARNING, 76list_entry, 297list_for_each, 299MINOR, 71MODULE_DEVICE_TABLE, 311page_address, 417PAGE_SHIFT, 415PCI_DEVICE, 310



Index | 599

PCI_DEVICE_CLASS, 310RELEVANT_IFLAG, 560sg_dma_address, 451sg_dma_len, 451symbols, 29UBS_DEVICE_VER, 347USB_DEVICE, 347USB_DEVICE_INFO, 347USB_INTERFACE_INFO, 347version dependency, 26wait queues, 156wait-event, 149

magic SysRq key, 97mailing list, linux-kernel, 12mainline kernels, installation of, 15major device numbers, 44

dynamic allocation of, 46–49MAJOR macro, 71major numbers

char drivers, 43–49dynamic allocation of, 46

make command, 24makefiles, 24

printk function, 80management, 4

classes, 389concurrency, 107–109

alternatives to locking, 123–130locking traps, 121–123

fragmentation, 442hardware (I/O ports and I/O

memory), 235–254interrupt handlers, 286memory, 4, 412–416

direct I/O, 435–440DMA, 440–459, 461mapping, 416–418mmap device operations, 422–434page tables, 418process memory maps, 422scull, 60–63, 107VMAs, 419–422

networks, 5physical memory, 216power, 362process, 4security, 8tasklets, 202–204

manual sleeps, 156mapper program, 430

mappingdeleting, 448DMA, 445I/O, 249, 255memory, 416–418

mmap device operations, 422–434process memory maps, 422

PCI double-address cycle, 452registers, 445, 450scatter-gather DMA, 450scatterlists and, 450single-page streaming, 450software-mapped memory, 250streaming DMA configuration, 448video memory, 423

match function (buses), 379MCA (Micro Channel Architecture), 322mdelay, 196measurement of time lapses, 183–188Media Independent Interface (MII), 540media_changed method, 472medium access control addresses (see MAC

addresses)memory

allocation, 60–62boot time, 230, 234flags, 215, 218, 231I/O, 249, 255kmalloc allocation engine, 213–217lookaside caches, 217–224, 232by page, 221per-CPU variables, 228–230performance degradation issues, 222vmalloc allocation function, 224–228

barriers, 237, 238, 255block drivers, 468DMA (see DMA)global areas, 43hardware, 506high, 415I/O, 235–254, 255ISA

access, 253memory range, 252–254

limitations on, 415locking, 109low, 415management, 4, 412–416

direct I/O, 435–440DMA, 440–459, 461



600 | Index

memory, management (continued)fragmentation, 442mapping, 416–418mmap device operations, 422–434page tables, 418process memory maps, 422VMAs, 419–422

modules (loading), 25page size and portability, 292PCI, 305, 316persistence, 43pools, 220, 232remapping RAM, 430scull

design of, 43troubleshooting, 107usage, 60–63

software-mapped (and ioremapfunction), 250

user space, 437verifying user-space addresses, 142versus I/O registers, 236zones, 215

memory managementDMA, 440–459theory of, 422VMAs, 422

messagesconsoles, 77debug

disabling, 79limitation of (printk function), 81

globally enabling/disabling, 79kernels, 18logging, 78oops, 94–96priorities (loglevels) of, 17, 76

methods, 88block_fsync, 167buses, 379change_mtu, 513check_flags, 52close, 59, 421devices, 511*dir_notify, 52do_ioctl, 513, 535fasync, 52flush, 51, 60fsync, 51, 167get_stats, 512, 536hard_header, 512, 532hard_start_transmit, 516

hard_start_xmit, 512, 517header_cache, 513header_cache_update, 514ioctl, 51, 135–147

block drivers, 473customizing for networking, 535debugging with, 90inode pointer in, 136

llseek, 50, 171lock, 52media_changed, 472mmap, 51next, 87nopage, 422, 427, 431open, 51, 58–59

block drivers, 471blocking, 176for network devices, 511private_data and, 54requesting DMA channels, 455restricting simultaneous users

and, 175for single-open devices, 174vm_operations_struct structure, 421

operationsaio_fsync, 438atomic_add, 125atomic_dec, 125atomic_dec_and_test, 125atomic_inc, 125atomic_inc_and_test, 125atomic_read, 125atomic_set, 125atomic_sub, 125atomic_sub_and_test, 125bit, 126block drivers, 466blocking/nonblocking, 151change_bit, 126clear_bit, 126devices, 513files, 49–53filter hotplug, 376flush, 51hotplugs, 376mmap devices, 422–434set_bit, 126spinlocks, 120string, 241, 255sysrq, 98test_and_change_bit, 127test_and_clear_bit, 127



Index | 601

test_and_set_bit, 127test_bit, 127vector, 69

poll, 51, 163–169, 513poll_controller, 542populate, 422pread, 65proc_read, 84pwrite, 65read, 50, 63–69

arguments to, 65code for, 67configuring DMA controllers, 456f_pso field (file structure) and, 54oops messages, 95poll method and, 166rules for interpreting return values, 66strace command and, 92

readdir, 50readv, 52rebuild_header, 512release, 51, 59

block drivers, 471blocking, 176cloning devices, 179kobjects, 367

revalidate, 473sbull ioctl, 473select, 163–169select, poll method and, 51set_config, 512set_mac_address, 513set_multicast_list, 510, 513, 538show

kobjects, 373seq_file interface, 88

start, 87stop, 512store (kobjects), 373strace command and, 92struct module *owner, 50tx_timeout, 512unsigned long, 52write, 50, 63–69

code for, 68f_pos field (file structure) and, 54interpreting rules for return values, 68oops messages, 94poll method and, 166

writev, 52, 69

miceasynchronous notification, 170hotplugging, 401

Micro Channel Architecture (MCA), 322microsecond resolution, 189MII (Media Independent Interface), 540minor device numbers, 44MINOR macro, 71minor numbers, char drivers, 43–49MIPS processor

inline assembly code and, 187porting and, 243

misc-progs directory, 77, 162mitigation of interrupts, 525MKDEV macro, 71mlock system call, 39mmap

device operations, 422–434implementation, 412–416, 460(see also memory management)

mmap method, 51usage count and, 426vm_area_struct structure and, 420

modalities (levels), CPU, 20models (Linux device), 362–364

buses, 377–381classes, 387–391devices, 381–387firmware, 405–407hotplugging, 375, 397–405kobjects, 364–371lifecycles, 391–397low-level sysfs operations, 371–375

modesdevice modes, 47file modes, 53interrupt

asynchronous execution, 197tasklets, 202–204

mode_t f_mode (struct file field), 53mode_t mode variable (USB), 353modprobe utility, 25, 29

assigning parameter values, 36insmod program versus, 29

mod_timer function, 200, 202modularization, layered, 28MODULE_ALIAS macro, 41MODULE_AUTHOR macro, 41MODULE_DESCRIPTION macro, 41MODULE_DEVICE_TABLE macro, 41, 311



602 | Index

module.h header file, 40module_init function, 31module_param macro, 36, 41modules, 5

applications, 18–22authorization, 8base module parameter, 247classes, 5–8code requirements, 30compiling, 23–25complete, 115current process and, 21dynamic module assignment, 47dynamic number assignment, 47faulty (oops messages), 94files, 40filesystem, 8header files of, 19hello world, 16–18initialization, 31–35initializing, 31–35kdatasize, 289license terms, 11loading, 18, 25–28

insmod program and, 25races, 35using init scripts, 48

parameters, 35–37platform dependency, 27SCSI, 7security (see security)short, 265stacking, 28symbols, 28–29test system setup, 15unloading, 18, 25, 505user-space programming, 37–39version dependency, 26

monitoringkernels (debugging by), 91preprocessor for, 79–81

mremap system calls, 427, 430MSR register, 565MTU, network devices and, 513multicasting

IFF_MULTICAST flag and, 509network drivers, 537–540

mutexes, 109initialization, 110

mutual exclusion, 108

Nname field (buses), 378NAME variable, 401naming

IP numbers, 499sysfs directory tree (USB), 334

native DMA, 454–459natural alignment of data items, 294nbtest program, 162net_device structure, 502, 506–507

device methods of, 514interface flags for, 509

net_device_stats structure, 505, 536netif_carrier_off function, 528netif_carrier_ok function, 528netif_carrier_on function, 528netif_start_queue function, 515netif_stop_queue function, 516, 518netif_wake_queue function, 518net_init.c file, 507netpoll, 541network devices, 400network drivers, 497

functions, 542–545interrupt handlers for, 523ioctl commands, 535kernel connections, 502–514link state (changes in), 528MAC addresses (resolution of), 532–534methods of, 514multicasting, 537–540opening, 515–516snull, 498–502statistics, 536

networks, 5interfaces, 7management, 5

next method, 87nonblocking operations, 151nondefault attributes (kobjects), 373non-Ethernet headers, 534non-Ethernet interfaces, 507nonpreemption and concurrency, 21nonretryable requests, 486nonuniform memory access (NUMA) systems

(see NUMA systems)nopage method, 422, 427

mremap system call with, 427preventing extension of mapping, 430remapping RAM, 431

normal memory zone, 215notification (asynchronous), 169–171



Index | 603

nr_frags field, 520NR_IRQS symbol, 267NuBus, 324NUMA (nonuniform memory access)

systems, 216, 417numbering versions (see versions,

numbering)numbers

devices (printing), 82interrupt, 260IP (assignment of), 499major and minor, 43–49PFN, 415root hubs (USB), 334versions, 10–11

Oobjects

kobjects, 364–371hotplug event generation, 375low-level sysfs operations, 371–375(see also kobjects)

lifecycles, 363sharing, 108

octets, 498older interfaces

char device registration, 57/proc file implementation, 85

O_NDELAY flag (f_flags field), 151O_NONBLOCK flag (f_flags field), 54, 141,

151read/write methods and, 166

oops messages, 94–96open files, 53open function (tty drivers), 553–556open method, 51, 58–59

block drivers, 471blocking, 176for network devices, 511private_data and, 54requesting DMA channels, 455restricting simultaneous users and, 175for single-open devices, 174vm_operations_struct structure, 421

opening network drivers, 515–516operations

aio_fsync, 438atomic_add, 125atomic_dec, 125atomic_dec_and_test, 125atomic_inc, 125atomic_inc_and_test, 125

atomic_read, 125atomic_set, 125atomic_sub, 125atomic_sub_and_test, 125bit, 126block drivers, 466, 471–474blocking, 151change_bit, 126clear_bit, 126devices, 513files, 49–53filter operation, 376flush, 51hotplugs, 376on ksets, 370low-level sysfs, 371–375methods

buses, 379close, 421nopage, 422open, 421populate, 422(see also methods)

mmap devices, 422–434nonblocking, 151set_bit, 126snull interfaces, 500spinlocks, 120string, 241, 255sysrq, 98test_and_change_bit, 127test_and_clear_bit, 127test_and_set_bit, 127test_bit, 127tty_operations structure, 569vector, 69VMAs (adding), 426

optimizations, compiler, 236options (configuration), 73–75ordering locking (rules for), 122O_RDONLY flag (f_flags field), 54O_SYNC flag (f_flags field), 54outb function, 240outb_p function, 242outl function, 240output

buffers, 152flushing pending, 167pins, 235, 245, 247

outsb function, 242outsl function, 242outsw function, 242



604 | Index

outw function, 240overriding ARP, 533overruns (buffers), 95

Ppackages, upgrading, 10PACKET_BROADCAST flag, 530PACKET_HOST flag, 530PACKET_MULTICAST flag, 530PACKET_OTHERHOST flag, 530packets

management, 5multicasting, 538reception, 523reception of, 501, 521transmission, 501, 516–520

page frame number (PFN), 415page_address macro, 417page.h header file, 292page-oriented allocation functions, 221, 233pages

allocators, 224faults caused by invalid pointers, 94physical addresses, 415size and portability, 292tables, 418

I/O memory and, 249nopage VMA method, 427

PAGE_SHIFT macro, 415PAGE_SHIFT symbol, 292PAGE_SIZE symbol, 292, 423Parallel Line Internet Protocol (see PLIP)parallel ports, 245–248

interrupt handlersdisabling, 274preparing for, 259

stacking driver modules, 28parameters

assigning values, 36base module, 247modules, 35–37

param.h header file, 183PARENB bitmask, 561PARODD bitmask, 561partial data transfers

read method, 66write method, 68

passwords, 9pausing I/O, 242PC parallel interface, 245

PCI (Peripheral ComponentInterconnect), 226

devicesadding, 392–395deleting, 395

DMA, 453double-address cycle mappings, 452drivers

adding, 396deleting, 396

EISA, 323extended buses, 325interfaces, 302–319ISA, 319–322lists, 326MCA, 322NuBus, 324PC/104 and PC/104+, 322SBus, 323searching, 326VLB, 323

pci_bus_type variable, 392PCI_CLASS variable, 400PCI_DEVICE macro, 310PCI_DEVICE_CLASS macro, 310PCI_DMA_FROMDEVICE symbol, 449PCI_DMA_TODEVICE symbol, 449PCI_ID variable, 400pci_map_sg function, 451pci_remove_bus_device function, 395pci_resource_ functions, 317PCI_SLOT_NAME variable, 400PCI_SUBSYS_ID variable, 400PDEBUG/PDEBUGG symbols, 80pending output, flushing, 167per-CPU variables, 228–230performance

allocating socket buffers, 522degrading by allocating too much

memory, 222memory barriers and, 238mmap method, 423output buffers and, 152string operations and, 241

Peripheral Component Interconnect (see PCI)peripherals (DMA), 440–459perror calls, 93persistence of memory, 43PFN (page frame number), 415pfn_to_page function, 417PG_locked flag, 417



Index | 605

PG_reserved flag, 417PHYS variable, 401physical addresses, 413

pages, 415(see also addresses)

physical memory, management of, 216(see also memory)

pins9/10 of parallel connector, 259interrupts (generating), 271output, 235, 245, 247

pipes (scull), 43platform dependency, 11, 27

for modules, 27porting and, 242/proc/stat file, 263

PLIP (Parallel Line Internet Protocol)using Ethernet headers, 533interrupt handling differences, 523

plug and play (PnP), 321PnP (plug and play), 321pointers

data type portability, 295inode in ioctl method, 136kobject, 365scull, 61tty_driver function, 553–560

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) and interrupthandling differences, 523

policiescontrolling devices by printing and, 147memory, 4allocation (scull), 60, 63security, 8separation from mechanism, 2–4

policy, driver, 2–4poll method, 51, 163–169, 513poll_controller method, 542POLLERR flag, 164poll.h header file, 163, 182POLLHUP flag, 164POLLIN flag, 164POLLOUT flag, 164POLLPRI flag, 164POLLRDBAND flag, 164POLLRDNORM flag, 164poll_table structure, 163, 167poll_table_entry structure, 167poll_wait function, 163, 182POLLWRBAND flag, 164POLLWRNORM flag, 164

poolsDMA, 447memory, 220, 232

populate method, 422portability, 292–299

data types and, 288–292porting and, 242

portsaccess, 255accessing different sizes, 240I/O, 235–254, 255parallel, 245–248

disabling interrupt handlers, 274preparing for interrupt handlers, 259

platform dependency and, 242(see also connections; parallel ports)

POS (Programmable Option Select), 322power management, 362PowerPC architecture (porting and), 244PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) and interrupt

handling differences, 523pread method, 65precision, temporal, 189predefined commands, ioctl method, 140

(see also commands)preemption and concurrency, 21preprocessor, using to monitor driver, 79–81printing

controlling devices by, 147to debug code, 81device numbers, 82from gdb debugger, 99interface-specific data, 291kernels, 75–82_t data items, 291

printk function, 17, 76–82circular buffers for, 78debugging with, 78logging messages from, 78seq_file interface (avoiding in), 88turning debug messages on/off, 79

priorities, 76allocation, 214

memory, 213message (see loglevels)

private_data field (file structure), 54privileged operations, 144probe function (USB), 350probe_irq_off function, 265probe_irq_on function, 265Probes, Dynamic, 105



606 | Index

probing, 264do-it-yourself, 266for IRQ numbers, 264kernel-assisted, 265PCI, 313

/proc filesystem, 86–90installing interrupt handlers, 262removing /proc entries, 86shared interrupts and, 280

/proc/devices file, 46processes

current, 21kernel timers for, 202kernels (splitting), 4–5login, 173managing, 4memory maps, 422opening devices for each process, 173sleeps, 147–162

processor-specific registers, 186/proc/interrupts file, 262, 280/proc/kcore file, 99/proc/kmsg file, 78/proc/*/maps, 420/proc/modules file, 40proc_read method, 84/proc/slabinfo file, 219/proc/stat file, 263/proc/sys/kernel/printk file, reading console

loglevel with, 77/proc/tty/driver/ directory, 547PRODUCT variable, 401Programmable Option Select (POS), 322programming

concurrency in, 20hello world module, 16–18ISA, 321module requirements, 30test system setup, 15user space, 19, 37–39

programming drivers (see writing, drivers)programs, 3

asynctest, 169dataalign, 294datasize, 288insmod, 5jitbusy, 191mapper, 430nbtest, 162obtaining, 12rmmod, 5/sbin/hotplug utility, 398

setconsole, 77setterm, 147tcpdump, 501tracing, 105tunelp, 3(see also applications versus kernel

modules)public kernel symbols, 28–29put_unaligned function, 293put_user function, 143, 180pwrite method, 65

Qquantums/quantum sets (memory), 61querying kernels, 82–91querying to debug, 91queues

control functions, 480creating/deleting, 479functions, 479network drivers, 515request function, 475request method, 478TCQ, 492–493transmissions, 518wait, 149, 156, 181workqueues, 205–208, 211, 277

Rrace conditions, 21

kernel timers and, 198module loading, 35sequences, 107

RAM (random access memory)remapping, 430versus I/O registers, 236

random access memory (see RAM)random numbers, 260rates, limitations of, 81RCU (read-copy-update), 129rdtscl function, 187read function (tty drivers), 558read method, 50, 63–69

arguments to, 65code for, 67configuring DMA controllers, 456f_pos field (file structure) and, 54oops messages, 95poll method and, 166return values, rules for interpreting, 66strace command and, 92



Index | 607

read-copy-update (RCU), 129readdir method, 50reader/writer semaphores, 113reader/writer spinlocks, 120reading

blocking/nonblocking operations, 151from a device, 63–67

read-only /proc files, creating, 84read_proc function, 85readv calls, 69readv method, 52read/write instructions, reordering, 236read/write position, changing, 50rebuild_header method, 512reception of packets, 501, 521–523recovery, error, 33redirecting console messages, 77reentrant

calls, 97code, 21

reference counters (kobjects), 366regions

generic I/O address spaces, 316I/O memory management, 429

register_blkdev function, 465register_chrdev function, 404register_netdev function, 503registers

counters, 186I/O, 236LSR, 564mapping, 445, 450MSR, 565PCI, 308, 325

class, 309deviceID, 309subsystem deviceID, 309subsystem vendorID, 309vendorID, 309

processor-specific, 186scatterlists (and mapping), 450

registrationblock drivers, 465–470buses, 378char drivers, 55–57cleanup function, 32devices, 382, 502disks, 466DMA usage, 455interrupt handlers, 286module-loading races, 35

PCI drivers, 311struct usb_driver structure, 349tiny_tty_driver variable, 551tracking, 33tty drivers, 549USB drivers, 348

release calls, 174release functions (kobjects), 367release method, 51, 59

block drivers, 471blocking, 176cloning devices, 179kobjects, 367

release_dma_lock function, 457releasing spinlocks, 120RELEVANT_IFLAG macro, 560remap_pfn_range function, 424remapping

kernel virtual addresses, 434RAM, 430(see also mapping)

remote0 (IP number), 499removable media (supporting), 472remove_proc_entry function, 86reordering read/write instructions, 236repatch program, 575reports (interrupts), 261request_dma function, 455request_firmware function, 406requests

blocking, 176processing, 474–491state of (processing), 483

requeuing/rescheduling tasks, 198requirements, code, 30resolution of time, 189resolving Ethernet addresses, 532resource flags (PCI), 317restriction of access, 174retrieval of current time, 188–190return values

interrupt handlers, 272switch statements, 140

revalidate method, 473ring buffers (DMA), 441RISC processor and inline assembly

code, 187rmmod program, 5, 17

dynamically allocating majornumbers, 48

testing modules using, 17



608 | Index

rolesof device drivers, 2–4kernels, 4–5

root hubs (USB), 334routing, network management, 5rq_data_dir field (request structure), 477rules

locking, 121ordering, 122

running (see execution)runtime, code, 5rwsems (reader/writer semaphores), 113

SS/390 architecture, 402

porting and, 244SA_INTERRUPT flag, 260, 286SAK (secure attention key) function, 97sample programs, obtaining, 12SA_SAMPLE_RANDOM flag, 260, 286SA_SHIRQ flag, 260, 278, 286/sbin/hotplug utility, 398sbull drivers

initialization, 468request method, 475

sbull ioctl method, 473sbull_request function, 469SBus, 324scatter/gather

DMA mappings, 450I/O, 520

scatterlistsmapping, 450structure, 462

sched.h header file, 40, 184schedule function, 181

execution of code (delaying), 193preventing endless loops with, 97

schedulers (I/O), 478schedule_timeout function, 194scheduling kernel timers, 196–202scripts (hotplug), 403SCSI

devices, 402modules, 7

scull, 42, 47char drivers, 70concurrency (see concurrency)design of, 42device registration, 56drivers (example), 80, 138

file operations, 49–53inode structure, 55locking (adding), 109memory

troubleshooting, 107usage, 60–63

next method, 87open method, 58–59pointers, 61race conditions, 107read method, 63–69read_proc method, 85readv calls, 69release method, 59semaphores, 112show method, 88stop method, 88write method, 63–69writev calls, 69

scull driver (example), 42scullc driver (example), 219scull_cleanup function, 179scull_getwritespace function, 158scullp

example, 223mmap implementations, 431

scullpipe devices (example), 153–162scullsingle device, 174sculluid code, 175scullv driver (example), 227, 233searching PCI drivers, 326sectors (size of), 470sector_t bi_sector field (bio structure), 482sector_t capacity field (gendisk), 467sector_t sector field (request structure), 476secure attention key (SAK) function, 97security, 8seeking devices, 171select method, 163–169

poll method and, 51semaphores, 109

completion, 114–116implementation, 110–114reader/writer, 113unlocking, 110

sendfile system, 52sendpage system, 52seq_file interface, 87–90seqlocks, 127SEQNUM variable, 399sequences (race conditions), 107



Index | 609

serial line configuration, 565serial_icounter_struct structure, 566set_bit operation, 126set_config method, 512setconsole program, 77set_dma_addr function, 457set_dma_count function, 457set_dma_mode function, 457set_mac_address method, 513set_mb function, 238set_multicast_list function, 539set_multicast_list method, 510, 513set_rmb function, 238setterm program, 147set_termios function, 560set_wmb function, 238sfile argument, 87sg_dma_address function, 462sg_dma_address macro, 451sg_dma_len function, 462sg_dma_len macro, 451sharing

code, 108interrupt handlers, 278–281queues, 207

short delays, 195–196sleeps, 196

short driver (example), 246accessing I/O memory, 252implementing interrupt handlers, 270installing interrupt handlers, 261probing, 266

short module, 265shortprint drivers, 282–286show function, 386show method

kobjects, 373seq_file interface, 88

shutdown, 31, 362shutting down modules (see unloading,

modules)SIGIO signal, 169signal handling, 154Simple Character Utility for Loading Localitie

(see scull)Simple Hardware Operations and Raw Tests

(see short driver)simple sleeping, 149single-open devices, 173single-page streaming mappings, 450

SIOCDEVPRIVATE commands, 535SIOCSIFADDR command, 535SIOCSIFMAP command, 535size

data explicitly, 290explicit, 290kmalloc argument, 216pages, 292ports, 240of sectors, 470

skb_headlen function, 532skb_headroom function, 531skb_is_nonlinear functions, 532skb_pull function, 532skb_push function, 531skb_put function, 531skb_reserve function, 531skb_tailroom function, 531sk_buff structure

fields for, 529transmitting packets, 516

skbuff.h header file, 516SLAB_CACHE_DMA flag, 218SLAB_CTOR_ATOMIC flag, 218SLAB_CTOR_CONSTRUCTOR flag, 218SLAB_HWCACHE_ALIGN flag, 218SLAB_NO_REAP flag, 218sleep_on function, 162sleeps

locking, 110manual, 156processes, 147–162short delays, 196spinlocks, 118

slow downs (avoiding), 82slow interrupt handlers, 268SMP (symmetric multiprocessor) systems, 21snullnet0 (IP number), 499socket buffers, 516, 528–532

allocation, 522software

loops, 195versions (see versions, numbering)(see also applications versus kernel

modules)software-mapped I/O memory (ioremap

function), 250SPARC architecture, 244SPARC64 platform (data alignment), 294special files, 43



610 | Index

spinlocksdma_spin_lock, 457hard_start_xmit function, 518releasing, 120xmit_lock function, 514

splitting kernels, 4–5stacking modules, 28standard C data types, 288start method, 87stat file, 263state of request processing, 483statements

goto, 33printk (see printk function)switch

with ioctl method, 136return values, 140

static functions (locking), 121static numbers, assignment of, 46statistics

on caches, 219on interrupts, 263on network drivers, 536on network interfaces, 504, 512, 536

status information, 514stop method, 88, 512store method (kobjects), 373strace command, 91strace tool, 162streaming

DMA mappings, 446, 448single-page mappings, 450

string operations, 241, 255struct block_device_operations *fops field

(gendisk), 467struct bus_type *bus field, 382struct cdev *i_cdev (inode structure field), 55struct dentry *f_dentry (struct file field), 54struct device fields, 381struct device *parent field, 381struct device_driver *driver field, 382struct device_driver structure, 385struct file, 53struct file_operations *f_op (struct file

field), 54struct file_operations *fops variable

(USB), 353struct kobject kobj field, 381struct module *owner function, 348struct module *owner method, 50struct net_device *next field (net_device

structure), 506

struct pci_device_id structure (PCI), 309struct request structure, 476struct request_queue *queue field

(gendisk), 467struct scull_qset structure, 62struct termios structure (tty

drivers), 550–553struct timeval pointer, 188struct tty_flip_buffer structure, 559struct urb structure, 336struct usb_device *dev field (USB), 336struct usb_device_id structure (USB), 346struct usb_driver structure, 349struct usb_host_interface *altsetting field

(USB), 331struct usb_host_interface *cur_altsetting field

(USB), 332struct usb_interface structure, 351struct usb_iso_packet_descriptor

iso_frame_desc field (USB), 341structures

bin_attribute, 374bio, 482, 487bus_type, 378cdev configuration, 56data, 49, 49–53devices, 383dev_mc_list, 538drivers, 386file_operations (mmap method and), 424gendisk, 467ifreq, 535kobjects, 364–371kset_hotplug_ops, 376ldd_driver, 386net_device, 502, 506–507net_device_stats, 505, 536registration, 55–57scatterlist, 462serial_icounter_struct, 566sk_buff, 529struct device_driver, 385struct request, 476struct scull_qset, 62struct termios (tty drivers), 550–553struct tty_flip_buffer, 559struct urb, 336struct usb_driver, 349struct usb_interface, 351tty_driver, 567tty_operations, 569tty_struct, 571



Index | 611

vm_area_struct, 420vm_operations_struct, 421

submission of urbs, 344, 354SUBSYSTEM variable, 399subsystems, 368

classes, 391deviceID register (PCI), 309firmware, 407ksets, 370memory management, 4module stacking, 29USB (see USB)vendorID register (PCI), 309

Super-H architecture, 244supervisor mode, 20support

Ethtool, 541kernels (debugging), 73–75MII, 540multicasting, 538

swappers, 193switch statements

return values, 140with ioctl method, 136

symbolic links (kobjects), 375symbols, 28–29

BLK_BOUNCE_HIGH, 480bytes, 300CHECKSUM, 523DMA_BIDIRECTIONAL, 448DMA_FROM_DEVICE, 448DMA_NONE, 448DMA_TO_DEVICE, 448, 461IFF_, 538NR_IRQS, 267PAGE_SIZE, 423PCI_DMA_FROMDEVICE, 449PCI_DMA_TODEVICE, 449PDEBUG/PDEBUGG, 80symbol table, 28–29

symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) systems, 21synchronization

DMA buffers, 452semaphores, 114

sysfs directorytrees (USB), 333–335tty driver, 552

sysfs filesystem, 409low-level operations, 371–375

syslogd daemon, 79sysrq operations, 98

sysrq.txt file, 97sys_syslog function, 77system calls, 25system faults

debugging, 93–98handling, 19

system hangs, 96–98system shutdown, 362

T_t data types, 291table pages, 418

I/O memory and, 249nopage VMA method, 427

tables, symbols, 28–29tagged command queuing (TCQ), 492–493tagged initialization formats, 53tasklets, 202–204, 211

interrupt handlers, 276tasklet_schedule function, 276tcpdump program, 501TCQ (tagged command queueing), 492–493tearing down single-page streaming

mappings, 450templates, scull (design of), 42terminals, selecting for messages, 77termios userspace functions, 560test system setup, 15test_and_change_bit operation, 127test_and_clear_bit operations, 127test_and_set_bit operation, 127test_bit operation, 127testing

block drivers, 468char drivers, 70hello world modules, 17scullpipe drivers, 162

thread execution, 109throughput (DMA), 440–459time, 208

boot (PCI), 306current time (retrieving), 188–190execution of code (delaying), 190–196,

209HZ (time frequency), 183, 292intervals of (data type portability), 292kernel timers, 202lapses (measurement of), 183–188tasklets, 202–204time intervals in the kernel, 292workqueues, 205–208



612 | Index

timeoutsconfiguration, 193scheduling, 194transmission (see transmission timeouts)

timer.h header file, 198timer_list structure, 198timers, 202

interrupts, 183kernels, 196–202, 210

timestamp counter (TSC), 186tiny_close function, 556tiny_tty_driver variable, 551TIOCLINUX command, 77tiocmget function, 562tiocmset functions, 562token ring networks, setting up interfaces

for, 508tools

debuggers, 99–105Ethtool, 541kernels (enabling configuration

options), 73–75lockmeter, 123/sbin/hotplug utility, 398strace, 162timers, 196–202(see also debugging; utilities)

top halves (interrupt handlers), 275–278tracing programs, 105tracking

registration, 33struct scull_qset (structure), 62

transfersbuffers, 448DMA, 440–459, 461USB without urbs, 356–359

transistor-transistor logic (TTL) levels, 245transmission concurrency, controlling, 518transmission of packets, 501, 516–520transmission timeouts, 504, 519

tx_timeout method and, 512watchdog_timeo field and, 514

traps (locking), 121–123traversal of linked lists, 298tr_configure function, 508trees

/dev, 403sysfs (USB and), 333–335tty drivers, 548

troubleshooting, 73caches, 237, 425, 445DMA hardware, 444

fragmentation, 442locking, 121–123memory (scull), 107porting problems, 242system hangs, 96values, 295wrong font on console, 147

truncating devices on open, 59TSC (timestamp counter), 186TTL (transistor-transistor logic) levels, 245tty drivers, 546–550

buffers, 558directories, 566functions, 573line settings, 560–566pointers, 553–560struct termios, 550–553sysfs directories, 552tty_driver structure, 567tty_operations structure, 569tty_struct structure, 571

tty_driver structure, 567, 569, 571TTY_DRIVER_NO_DEVFS flag, 553TTY_DRIVER_REAL_RAW flag, 553TTY_DRIVER_RESET_TERMIOS flag, 552tty_get_baud_rate function, 562tty_register_driver function, 549tunelp program, 3turning messages on/off, 79tx_timeout method, 512, 519TYPE variable, 401types

addresses, 413bus_attribute, 380module parameter support, 36PCI driver support, 325

Uu16 bcdDevice_hi field (USB), 346u16 bcdDevice_lo field (USB), 346u16 idProduct field (USB), 346u16 idVendor field (USB), 346u16 match_flags field (USB), 346u8 bDeviceClass field (USB), 347u8 bDeviceProtocol field (USB), 347u8 bDeviceSubClass field (USB), 347u8 bInterfaceClass field (USB), 347u8 bInterfaceProtocol field (USB), 347u8 bInterfaceSubClass field (USB), 347u8, u16, u32, u64 data types, 290uaccess.h header file, 64, 72, 142, 180udelay, 196



Index | 613

uint8_t/uint32_t types, 290uintptr_t type (C99 standard), 289unaligned data, 293

access, 300unaligned.h header file, 293unidirectional pipes (USB endpoints), 329uniprocessor systems, concurrency in, 21universal serial bus (see USB)Unix

filesystems, 4interfaces (access to), 7

unlinking urbs, 345unloading

modules, 18, 25, 505USB drivers, 349

unlocking semaphores, 110unmapping, DMA buffers, 449

(see also mapping)unregistering facilities, 33unregister_netdev function, 505unshielded twisted pair (UTP), 510unsigned char *setup_packet field (USB), 338unsigned int bi_size field (bio structure), 482unsigned int f_flags (struct file field), 54unsigned int irq function, 260unsigned int pipe field (USB), 336unsigned int transfer_flags field (USB), 337unsigned long bi_flags field (bio

structure), 482unsigned long flags field (memory), 417unsigned long flags function, 260unsigned long method, 52unsigned long nr_sectors field (request

structure), 476unsigned long pci_resource_end

function, 317unsigned long pci_resource_flags

function, 317unsigned long pci_resource_start

function, 317unsigned long state field (net_device

structure), 506unsigned num_altsetting field (USB), 332unsigned short bio_hw_segments field (bio

structure), 482unsigned short bio_phys_segments field (bio

structure), 482unsigned type, 240up function, 111updates, RCU, 129urandom device, 260

urbscancellation of, 345interrupts, 342killing, 345submitting, 344unlinking, 345USB, 335–346

creating/destroying, 341struct urb structure, 336submitting, 354transfers without, 356–359

urbs_completion function, 345usage count, 426

decremented by release method, 59incremented by open method, 58nopage method and, 432

USB request blocks (see urbs)USB (universal serial bus), 7, 327–332

configurations, 332hotplugging, 401stacking, 28sysfs directory tree, 333–335transfers without urbs, 356–359urbs, 335–346writing, 346–355

usb_alloc_urb function, 342usb_bulk_msg function, 356usb_control_msg function, 357usbcore module, 28USB_DEVICE macro, 347USB_DEVICE_INFO macros, 347USB_DEVICE_VER macro, 347usb_fill_bulk_urb function, 343usb_fill_control_urb function, 343usb_fill_int_urb function, 342usb_get_descriptor function, 358USB_INTERFACE_INFO macro, 347usb_kill_urb function, 345usb_register_dev function, 352usb_set_intfdata function, 351usb_string function, 359usb_submit_urb function, 344usb_unlink_urb function, 345user mode, 20user programs, 3user space, 19

capabilities/restrictions in, 144communication with, 362direct I/O, 435–440explicitly sizing data in, 290I/O port access from, 241



614 | Index

user space (continued)programming, 19, 37, 39retrieving datum from, 143transferring to/from kernel space, 63tty drivers, 560–566writing drivers in, 37

user virtual addresses, 413User-Mode Linux, 104utilities, 3

insmod, 17modprobe, 25, 29rmmod, 17(see also programs)

utility fields (net_device structure), 514UTP (unshielded twisted pair), 510UTS_RELEASE macro, 27

Vvalues

BogoMips, 195errors, 295jiffies, 184, 514loops_per_jiffy, 196return

interrupt handlers, 272switch statements, 140

variablesACTION, 399atomic, 124char*name (USB), 352console_loglevel, 77DEVICE, 402DEVPATH, 399int minor_base (USB), 353INTERFACE, 401mode_t mode (USB), 353NAME, 401pci_bus_type, 392PCI_CLASS, 400PCI_ID, 400PCI_SLOT_NAME, 400PCI_SUBSYS_ID, 400per-CPU, 228–230PHYS, 401PRODUCT, 401SEQNUM, 399struct file_operations *fops (USB), 353SUBSYSTEM, 399tiny_tty_driver, 551TYPE, 401

vector operations, char drivers, 69vendorID register (PCI), 309

VERIFY_ symbols, 142, 180version dependency, 26version.h header file, 26, 40versions

dependency, 26numbering, 10–11

char drivers, 43major device numbers, 44minor device numbers, 44older char device registration, 57

VESA Local Bus (VLB), 323vfree function, 225video memory (mapping), 423viewing kernels, 5virt_to_page function, 417virtual addresses, 414

conversion, 444remapping, 434(see also addresses)

virtual memory, 413(see also memory)

virtual memory area (see VMA)VLB (VESA Local Bus), 323VMA (virtual memory area), 419–422, 426vmalloc allocation function, 224–228vmalloc.h header file, 225vm_area_struct structure, 420VM_IO flag, 421vm_operations_struct structure, 421VM_RESERVED flag, 421void barrier function, 237void blk_queue_bounce_limit function, 480void blk_queue_dma_alignment

function, 481void blk_queue_hardsect_size function, 481void blk_queue_max_hw_segments

function, 480void blk_queue_max_phys_segments

function, 480void blk_queue_max_sectors function, 480void blk_queue_max_segment_size

function, 480void blk_start_queue function, 480void blk_stop_queue function, 480void *context field (USB), 339void *dev_id function, 260void *driver_data field, 382void field (PCI registration), 312void function, 348void mb function, 237void *private_data field (gendisk), 467void *private_data (struct file field), 54



Index | 615

void read_barrier_depends function, 237void *release field, 382void rmb function, 237void smp_mb functions, 238void smp_read_barrier_depends

function, 238void smp_rmb function, 238void smp_wmb function, 238void tasklet_disable function, 204void tasklet_disable_nosync function, 204void tasklet_enable function, 204void tasklet_hi_schedule function, 204void tasklet_kill function, 204void tasklet_schedule function, 204void *transfer_buffer field (USB), 338void *virtual field (memory), 417void wmb function, 237

Wwait queues, 149, 156, 181

delaying code execution, 194poll table entries and, 167putting processes into, 182

wait_event macro, 149wait_event_interruptible_timeout

function, 194wake_up function, 150, 159, 181wake_up_interruptible function, 181wake_up_interruptible_sync function, 181wake_up_sync function, 181Wall flag, 291watchdog_timeo field (net_device

structure), 514, 519wc command, 92wMaxPacketSize field (USB), 331workqueues, 205–208, 211

interrupt handlers, 277

WQ_FLAG_EXCLUSIVE flag set, 160write function (tty drivers), 556write method, 50, 63–69

code for, 68configuring DMA controller, 456f_pos field (file structure) and, 54oops messages, 94poll method and, 166return values, rules for interpreting, 68select method and, 166strace command and, 92

write system, 50write-buffering example, 282writev calls, 69writev method, 52writing, 73

blocking/nonblocking operations, 151control sequences to devices, 146to a device, 63–66, 68drivers

in user space, 37role of, 2–4version numbering, 10

UBS drivers, 346–355

Xx86 architecture

interrupt handling on, 268porting and, 243

xmit_lock function, 514xtime variable, 189

Zzero-order limitations, 432zones (memory), 215zSeries architecture, 402



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