Culturaltreasures of nepal

with special focus on Kathmandu Valley

Demondancers,IndraJatra

Theinformationcontainedinthisbookhasbeenoutsourcedfromanexpertwriterwhileeveryefforthasbeenmadetoensureaccuracyandreliability.

However,incaseoflapsesanddiscrepancies,revisionsandupdateswouldbesubsequentlycarriedoutintheforthcomingissues.

2009Edition©NTB

CopyRightImages:ThomasKelly GyaninRai(Page43topleft)

ContentsHistory&Culture 2EthnicGroups&Concentration 6Religions,CustomsandReligiousSymbols 12 Customs 13 ReligiousSymbols 14

HolySitesandPilgrimageDestinations 16 PashupatinathTemple 17 ChanguNarayanTemple 18 SwayambhuMahaChaitya 20 BoudhanathStupa 20 Lumbini 20 JanakiTemple 21 Muktinath 21 OtherPilgrimageSites 21

History,MythsandLegends 22 KathmanduValley 23 SwayambhuMahaChaitya 24 BoudhanathStupa 26 NyatapolaandBhairavTemple,Bhaktapur 26 Kumari,theLivingGoddess 26 BisketJatra 27

FestivalsandCelebrations 30UNESCOHeritageSites 34 KathmanduDurbarSquare 38 PatanDurbarSquare 38 BhaktapurDurbarSquare 40 Lumbini 43

Art,Architecture,SculptureandPainting 44 Thangka(Pauva)Art 46 MithilaArt 47 Museums 47 TraditionalHandicrafts 48 Masks 50

OtherSpecialities 53 CostumesandOrnaments 53 NepaleseCuisine 54 MusicalInstruments 54 Meditation 54 FaithHealers 55

HISTORY & CULTURE

Thediscoveryofalife-sizestatue

ofKingJayaVermain1992at

MaligaoninKathmandu,with

aninscriptiondated185,isthe

earliestrecordedevidenceabout

Nepal’shistory.

Thediscoveryofalife-sizestatueofKingJayaVermain1992atMaligaoninKathmandu,withaninscriptiondated185,istheearliestrecordedevidenceaboutNepal’shistory.BeforetheconquestoftheNepal(Kathmandu)ValleybyGorkha’sKingPrithviNarayanShahin1769,NepalMandal,orKathmanduValley,wasknownas‘Nepal’totheoutsideworld.Accordingtorecordedhistory,whichdatesbacktotheearlyChristianera,NepalhasbeenruledbytheLichchhavi,Thakuri,MallaandShahdynasties.TheLichchhavisruledthecountryfromthebeginningofthe1sttothe9thcentury.TheLichchhaviswerefollowedbytheThakuris,whoruledthecountryfromthe9thtothe14thcentury.However,thearchitecturalexcellenceoftheKathmanduValleyreacheditszenithduringthelaterMallaPeriodfromthefourteenthcenturytotheeighteenthcentury.TheUNESCOheritagemonumentsthatarescatteredthroughouttheKathmanduvalleyaretheingenuityofthisperiod.

ItwasduringtheMallaperiodthatNewaricultureandarchitecturereachedtheirpinnacle,andisknownastheeraof“renaissance”.MallarulecametoanendwhentheKathmanduValleywasconqueredbytheGorkhaKing,PrithviNarayanShah,in1769,andtheShahdynastywasestablished.Butin1846,takingadvantageofaweakkingembroiledinintensepalaceintrigues,JungBahadurRanaseizedabsolutepowerthroughabrutalcourtmassacreandstartedtheRanaoligarchy.TheRanasdefactoruledthecountryastheirfiefdomuntiltheywereoustedfrompowerbya

History & Culture

AtypicalNepalicourtyard

3

popularrevoltin1951,anddemocracywasestablishedinthecountry.

WhatweidentifyasNepaleseculturetodaygerminatedanddevelopedintheKathmanduValleyatthebeginningofthe1stcenturyorprobablyevenearlier.Butitwasonlyafterthecountryopenedtotheoutsideworldwiththeadventofdemocracyin1951thattheworldwasabletoseethegrandeurandopulenceofNepaleseculture.Nodoubt,thedifferentrulingdynastiespatronisedit,butinessence,ithasbeenapeople’sculture-aculturenurturedbythepeoplethroughtheages.NoculturaleventtakesplaceinNepalwithoutthepeople’smassparticipation.Onecanseethespectrumofavibrantculturalrainbowinthemultitudeof

festivalsandritualsthatarecelebratedalmosteveryotherdayinsomepartortheotherofthecountry.InthecapitalcityofKathmandu,theNewarswhomakeuptheindigenousinhabitantsoftheKathmanduValleyandarebestknownfortheirartisticcreativityandskilledcraftsmanship,culturehasheldaparamountpositionintheireverydaylives.

CulturaltolerancehasbeenthequintessenceofNepalesewayoflife.Nepalremainsoneofthemostpeacefulmulti-religious,multi-ethnicandmulti-culturalcountriesintheworld.TheethnicunityandreligiousharmonymaintainedbytheNepaleseagainstsuchdiversityaretrulyremarkableandhavebeenacknowledgedinternationally.Undeniably,thispluralityofculturesiswhathasgivenNepalesesocietyitsvibrantandlivelycharacter.

ETHNIC GROUPS & CONCENTRATION

Ethnic Groups& Concentration

Nepal’spopulationrepresents

morethanahundredethnic

groups.EachNepaleseethnic

groupcarriesitsownidentityand

culturalheritage.

Nepal,withapopulationofmorethan25.8millionpeople,isamulti-cultural,multi-racial,multi-linguisticandmulti-ethniccountry.Broadlyspeaking,therearefourdistinctculturalgroupsinNepal,geographicallyrepresentedbythepeopleinthehighHimalayas,themid-hills,theKathmanduValleyandthesouthernplainsortheTerairegion.Theseethno-culturalgroupsmaintaintheiruniquelifestyle,language,customsandrituals,foodhabits(cuisine),dresses,jewelleryorornaments.

Nepal’spopulationrepresentsmorethanahundredethnicgroups.EachNepaleseethnicgroupcarriesitsownidentityandculturalheritage.Mostoftheethnicgroupshavetheirownspokenlanguageandscript.Theirfood,dress,ornaments,beliefs,customs,habitsandmannersdifferfromoneanother.Theirfestivities,mythsandlegends,musicandsongsarealsodifferent.Theypractisedifferentfaiths.ThoughHindusareinthemajority,Buddhismispractisedbyanequalnumberofpeople.TheotherfaithsareIslamandChristianity.

MajorityoftheNepaleseHindussuchastheBrahmins,ChhetrisandThakurisareofIndo-Aryanorigin.OtherethnicgroupssuchastheSherpas,Thakalis,DolpalisandMustangis,inhabitingnorthernNepal,andtheNewars,Tamangs,Rais,Limbus,Sunuwars,MagarsandGurungsofthemid-hillsandvalleyshaveTibeto-Mongoloidorigin.MajorityofTibeto-MongoloidsfollowBuddhism.Thereisalsoathirdindigenousethnicgroup.ItismadeupoftheTharus,Chepangs,Rautes,Danwars,Dhimals,Majhis,Darais,SattarsandBodeswhohavetheirowndistinctsetofculturalandreligiousbeliefs.

Festivegathering

7

TheNewarsarewell-knownfortheirhighlevelofcraftsmanship,learningandtrade.Theyhavetheirownlanguage,scriptandliterature,andtakeprideinalegacyofculturaltraditionsdatingbacktoancienttimes.TheNewarshavepioneeredwhatwecancallanurbanisedculture.ItistherichNewarculturethathasgivenKathmanduitsidentityastheculturalcapitalofthecountry.WhiletheNewarsasoriginaldwellersofthevalleyhavecontributedabundantlytothecreationanddevelopmentofNepaleseculture,differentcommunitiesandethnicgroupsfromthehighHimalayasdowntothesouthernTeraihaveaddedequallyinenrichingit.

Potterssquare,Bhaktapur

Traditionally,theBrahminsperformreligiousritesandritualsinthesocietyandtheyarescatteredthroughoutthecountry.UnliketheBrahmins,theChhetrisandThakurishavebeentraditionallyportrayedasthewarriorclassandpoliticaladministrators.Byvirtueoftheirpredominantstatusandpositioninthecountry’spowerhierarchy,theyonceownedlargetractsofland.TheirlanguageNepaliisthelinguafrancaofthecountry.

Numerousethnicgroupsinhabitthemid-hillsofthecountry.WefindtheMagarsandGurungsinthewest,TamangsandNewarsinthecentralmid-hills,andRais,SunuwarsandLimbusintheeastofthecountry.Theseethnicgroups,exceptfortheNewars,areknownasthemartial(fighter)race.Theseethnicgroupscomprisetheelitefightingforceinthecountry’sarmedforces.Nowonder,theNepaleseyouthsservingintheBritish

Paddyplantation

andIndianarmiesaremostlysourcedfromtheseethnicgroups.Theyalsoengageinfarming.

IntheHimalayanregionfarnorthlivetheSherpa,Dolpo-pa,Baragaonli,ManangiandLopaethnicgroups.Amongthem,theSherpashaveearnedforthemselvesareputationintheworldasskilledmountaineersathighaltitude.ThelargestSherpasettlementliesinSoluKhumbuatthefoothillsofMt.Sagarmatha(Everest).TheseethnicgroupsoftheHimalayannorthearntheirlivingworkingasportersandguidesformountaineeringexpeditions,asfarmersandasyakandsheepherders.TheysharelinguisticandculturalaffinitywiththeTibetansinthenorth.Theyarealsogenerallyreferredtoas‘Bhote’.

TheTeraiplainsinthesouthborderingIndiahavedensesettlementsoftheindigenousTharus,Darais,Khumals,Danuwars,Dhimals,Rajbamsis,SattarsandMajhis.Mostofthemhavetheirowndialect.TheTharusaretheindigenousinhabitantsoftheTeraiandarespreadallovertheregionfromeasttowest.Majorityofthepeopledwellingineasternandmid-TeraispeakMaithiliandBhojpuri,whileAvadhiiswidelyspokeninwesternTerai.Duetotheproximityandeasyaccess,theyshareculturalaffinityandmatrimonialrelationswiththeneighbouringstatesofIndia.

RELIGIONS & CUSTOMS

Religions, Customsand Religious Symbols

Nepalisasecularcountry.However,HinduismisthemainreligionoftheNepalesepeople.ThetrinityofHinduism-Brahma,VishnuandShiva-andthepantheonofnumerousotherHindugodsandgoddessesaredevotedlyworshippedinNepal.Thefemaleconsortsofthesegodsareequallyveneratedhereasthemanifestationof‘Shakti’(powerorcosmicenergy).Thegoddessesareworshippedindifferentforms,suchasNavDurgas(nineDurgas),AstaMatrikas(eightmothergoddesses)andSaptaMatrikas(sevenmothergoddesses).

BuddhismisanequallyimportantreligioninNepal.MahayanaBuddhismandVajrayanaBuddhism-acombinationofHinduandBuddhistreligiousfaithsinfluencedbyTantriccult-havebeenfollowedparticularlyintheKathmanduValleysincemedievaltimes.InthehighHimalayanregion,TibetanBuddhism,orLamaism,andotherformsofNatureworshiparealsopractisedbythepeople.

SiddharthaGautama,laterknowntotheworldasLordBuddha,wasborninLumbiniinmid-southwesternNepalin6thcenturyB.C.TherearemorethantwodozensitesaroundthisareawhicharecloselyrelatedtothelifeoftheBuddhaandBuddhism.Inthecourseofhistory,Buddhismasareligionspreadandbecamepopularinthehighmountainregions,mid-hillsandintheKathmanduValley.BuddhismhasprofoundlyinfluencedtheNepalesewayoflife,culture,artsandarchitecture.

CustomsTheNepalesewayoflifeisregulatedbyreligionthroughtheperformanceofvariousritesandrituals,seekingGod’sgraceforthewell-beingofthefamily,prosperityandmokshya(salvation)fortheself.ReligiouscustomguideseverystepofaNepalesefrombirthtodeathandbeyond.Everyimportanteventinthelifeofapersonfromcradletopyreismarkedbyperformingcertainreligiousritesandfunctions.Theseritualsmaygenerallydifferfromcommunitytocommunity.Anew-bornchildundergoesChhaithiNwaran,thenamingceremony(6thdayofbirth),andAnnaprasan,therice-feedingceremony(5thor6thmonthof

HinduismisthemainreligionoftheNepalesepeople.ThetrinityofHinduism-Brahma,VishnuandShiva-andthepantheonofnumerousotherHindugodsandgoddessesaredevotedlyworshippedinNepal.

BuddhaPurnima,BoudhaNath

13

birthdependingonwhetherthebabyisagirlorboy).Thenwehavethe‘comingofage’ceremony(gufarakhneyforNewargirlsatpre-pubertystageorgiftingofGuneu-cholo-asetofadultfemaledresses.Fortheboys,thereistheBratabandhaorUpanayanaceremony,performedbeforehereachesteenagewhenhisheadisshavedandgiventheceremonialloin-clothandsacredthreadtowear.Thereafter,obviously,themostimportanteventismarriage,whichcontainsveryelaborateritualsthatgoonformorethanaday.Onthedeathofaperson,thereareverysolemnritestobeperformedbythefamily.

Religious SymbolsNepaleseartishighlyinfluencedbysymbolism.TheuseanddevelopmentofsymbolsinNepaleseartemergedduringthemedievalperiodwhenVajrayanaandTantricismflourishedinthevalley.Symbolshavedeeprootedmeaning.AbovethehemisphericalwhitedomeoftheSwayambhuMahaChaitya,oneachofthefoursidesofthesquare,facingthefourdirections,areapairofhalf-closedgentleeyesandanosedepictedasaquestionmark.Learnedscholarshaveinterpretedthesemi-closedeyesastheall-seeingeyesoftheBuddhalookinginallthefourdirectionssothatnoonecanhideanywrongdoingfromHim.AndthenoseintheformofaquestionmarksymbolisesDharma,orVirtue,astheonepathwhichleadsallpeopletoSukhaavati,ortheOceanofHappiness.

BothHinduismandBuddhismtakerecoursetosymbolicanimalsandbirdstorepresenttheirdeities.Forexample,theGaruda(mythicalbird)represents

LordVishnuwhiletheratisthecarrier(baahan)ofLordGanesh.EroticcarvingsportrayingthemaleandfemaleinvarioussexualposturesareacommonsightinanumberofHindutemplesandBuddhistvihars,ormonasteries.Sucheroticdisplayinthetemplesandmonasteriesisveryintriguing,butitissymbolicandcarriesmuchmeaning,whichonlythoseknowledgeableinTantricismcantruthfullyinterpret.TheHindugodsandgoddessesareknownbytheirrespectiveattributes,ordivineweapons-againsymbolswithdeepspiritualmeaning.AmongtheHindutrinity,BrahmatheCreatorhasfourheadslookinginfourdirectionstoshowthatheseesinalldirections,andhenceisall-knowing.Hecarriesakalash-awatervessel-inonehand,whichisasymboloftheEarth.Theothertrinity,Vishnu,holdsaconch,adiscus,amaceandalotusinhisfourhands.Theconchisthesymbolofthemindandcohesivetendency;thediscussignifiesprimevalknowledgeandthenotionofindividualexistence;themaceisthesignofcausalpowerofillusionfromwhichtheuniversearisesandthetendencytowardsdispersionandliberation;whilethelotusisthesymbolofthefiveelementsdenotingtheoriginofexistence.Thethirdtrinity,Shiva,orMaheshwarorMahadev,hasthreegleamingeyesrepresentingthesun,moonandfire.Thesethreesourcesoflightilluminatetheearth,spaceandsky.ItiswiththesethreeeyesthatShivaseesthepast,presentandfuture.

Similarly,MahayanaBuddhismhasnumeroussymbols.TheVajra,orthunderbolt,symbolisestheinseparableunityofwisdomandskillfulmeans.Itdestroysallkindsofignoranceandisitselfindestructible.Swastika,

14

orfylfot,akindofmysticalcross,isanancientauspicioussymbolcommontotheHindu,BuddhistandJainreligions.Itisasymbolofgoodfortune.InBuddhism,itisregardedasoneofthe65divinemarks(lakshan)ofagreat-soul(mahapurusha).TheswastikasymbolisfoundontheimprintoftheBuddha’sfoot.ItalsoappearsonthechestorlotusthroneofsomeBuddhaimages.HindusandBuddhistsalikebelieveandhavegreatfaithintheeightauspicioussymbols:theyarethe(a)Srivatsa,orendlessknotorchain,(b)Dhwaja,orthevictorybanner,(c)Kalash,orthevasecontainingthenectarofimmortality,(d)Chamar,orfanwhichdrivesawaydiseases,(e)Matsya,orapairofgoldenfish,symbolisingtheunityofwisdomandcompassion,(f)Chhatra,orthepreciousparasolthatsymbolisesroyaltyandwhichprotectsonefromevilinfluences,(g)Sankha,orconch,thatsymbolisesawarenessand(h)Padma,orthelotus,thatsymbolisespurityofthebody.ItisbelievedthatiftheSankha(conch)isblownwithskill,thevibrantresonancecandriveawayevilspiritsanddestroyharmfulgermsandmicrobes.

TherearemanyspiritualsymbolsinNepalesecultureusedindifferentritesandrituals.ShreeYantraisonesuchverypopularsymbol.TheYantraisamystical,systematic,geometrical(triangular)diagramdepicting,inasyntheticform,thebasicenergiesofthenaturalworldwhicharerepresentedbythedeities.ItrepresentstheUniversalGoddess.ItsymbolisestheunionofShivawithShakti(orParvati).ItisthemainYantraofTulajaBhavaniandtheLivingGoddessKumari.EachdeityhasitsownYantra(design)inwhichitdwellsduringtheritualuseoftheYantra.

YantrasarefrequentlyusedbySaktas.Shatakon,orthesix-pointedstar,iscomposedoftwotrianglesinvertedandjuxtaposedagainstoneanother.Thetriangleisanimportantyantraofmanifoldmeanings.Anupward-pointingtrianglesymbolisesAgni,orfire,andthelinga,orphallus,hence,alsothemaleprincipleofthecosmos,aswellasShivaandShaivism.Adownward-pointingtrianglesymbolisestheyoni,orvagina,andthefemaleprincipleofthecosmos,hencealsoShakti,(alsoVishnuinthefemaleformasMohini)andVaishnavism.Therefore,italsosymbolisesthesynchronisationbetweenShaivismandVaishnavism.

InBuddhism,atrianglepointingupwardssymbolisestheTri-ratna,orthreejewels-Buddha,DharmaandSangha.InNepal,ShatakonalsorepresentsSaraswati,thegoddessoflearning.EveryBuddhistshrine,temple,stupaandmonumenthasManiprayerwheels.Ontheprayerwheels,‘OmManiPadmeHum’,themantraofChenrezig,theProtector,isembossed,etchedorpaintedontheoutside.AManiwheel,oraprayerwheel,canbebigorsmall,freestandingorinarowwithmanyothersalongthewalls.Itsliterarymeaningis‘HailtotheJewel(orBuddha)intheLotus’.TherearenumerousothersymbolsinNepaleseart.Oneofthemostcommonisthetika,orredmark,ontheforeheadasasymbolofgoodluck,devotiontothedeitiesandblessingoftheseniorsandelderlypersons.Ithasspecialmeaningtothewomenfolk.Forthem,itsignifiesahappymarriedlife.Hinduwidowsrefrainfromputtingonaredtika,wearingredbanglesandputtingonredsaris.

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HOLY SITES & PILGRIMAGE

Pashupatinath TempleNepalhasnumerouspilgrimagesites,sacredtobothHindusandBuddhists.TotheHindus,themostfamousandmostveneratedisthetempleofLordPashupatinath,situatedonthebanksoftheholyriverBagmatiinKathmandu.ItisamongthemostreveredshrinesforHindusallovertheworld.Themaintemple,whichstandsinthemiddleofacourtyard,istwo-tiered,builtuponasquareplinth,andis23.6metreshigh.Thefourlargegatesofthetemplearesilverandgilt-platedandrichlycarvedwithimagesofdeities.ThetwocopperroofsaresupportedbynumerousstrutsadornedwithbeautifullycarvedimagesofvariousHindugodsandgoddesses.Thesacrosanctum,orthemainidolof“Mukhalingam”,isonemetrehighandhasfacescarvedinfourdirections.TheoriginaltempleissaidtohavebeenbuiltatthebeginningoftheChristianera.Itissaidtohaveundergoneseveralreconstructionsovertheagestowhatstandstoday.

TotheHindus,themostfamousandmostveneratedisthetempleofLordPashupatinath,situatedonthebanksoftheholyriverBagmatiinKathmandu.ItisamongthemostreveredshrinesforHindusallovertheworld.

Holy Sites and Pilgrimage Destinations

PashupatiTemplebynight

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Changu Narayan TempleThesiteoftheChanguNarayanisreveredassacredlocationdatingbacktotheLichchhaviperiodandisbelievedtobeoneofthevalley’searliestsettlementsite.ItissituatedonasmallhillocknorthwestofBhaktapur.ReveredbybothHindusandBuddhists,ChanguNarayanhasbeenamongthemostveneratedsitesforworshippersofLordVishnusinceearlytimes,andhenceitisaveryimportantpilgrimagesitefortheVaishnavas.Themainpagoda-styletempleislocatedatthecentreofalargecourtyard,whichissurroundedbyresthouses

knownasChaugheraSattal.Inadditiontothemaintwo-storeytemple,theChanguNarayanmonumentzoneincludesseveralsmallershrines,includingthetempleofChhinnaMastaa,theheadlessgoddess.Thesiteisrenownedforthemasterpiecesinstoneandmetalsculpturedatingbacktodifferentperiodsofhistory.ExamplesofsuchmasterpiecesinstonesculpturesaretheVishwarupofLordVishnucirca8thcentury,VishnuVikrantaorLordVishnu’sformcirca8thcentury,andthefearfulfigureofNarasimhaAvatar,orhalflion-halfhumanfigureofLordVishnu,whichdatesbacktothe9thcentury.

ChangunarayanTemple

Swayambhu Maha ChaityaKathmanduValleyhasalsosomeveryimportantandhighlyveneratedBuddhistsites.Asoneentersthevalley,thefirstsighttocatchthevisitor’seyeisthehemisphericalwhitedome(stupa)oftheSwayambhuMahaChaityaperchedmajesticallyatopahillonthewesternfringeoftheKathmanduValley.ThestupasymbolisesthebodyoftheBuddha,whichisnothingotherthanthecosmositself.TheSwayambhuMahaChaityawiththesemi-closedeyesoftheBuddhaoverlookingthevalleyfromallfourdirectionsisthemostprominentmonumentandlandmarkofthevalley.Thehistoricaloriginsofthisgreatstupaareobscure,butitisbelievedtohavebeenbuiltduringtheLichchhaviperiod.Themainstupaisahugewhitedomeintheformofaflattenedhemisphere.Aroundthecircularbase-thegarva(womb)-areinstalledthefivecelestialBuddhaswiththeirrespectivefemalecounterparts.Inthevicinityarenumerousmonuments.TheseincludethetwinShikhara-styletemplesofPratappurandAnantapurbuiltbyKingPratapMalla;Basupur,withtheimageofGoddessBasundhara,thebestowerofprosperity;Vayupur,thegodofwind;andtheartisticgoldentempleoftheGoddessAjimaorHarati,theprotectorofchildren.

TheSwayambhuMahaChaityaisaveritabletreasurehouseofvaluableartefactsofbronzeandstoneimagesandminiaturechaityas.OnthewesternsideofthestupainfrontoftheHaratitemple,thereisastonepillarontopofwhicharesomeverystrikingbronzestatues.Ontheeasternside,atopaMandala,thereisamassiveVajra,orthunderbolt.ThisgoldenVajra,known

asdorjeinTibetan,isthesymbolofVajrayanaBuddhism.InthevicinityofthegreatstupathereareTibetan,BhutaneseandNepaleseviharsandgumbas,aswellasamuseumwherenumerousreligiousmanuscriptsandbronzeandstoneimagesofbothBuddhistandHindudeitiesareondisplay.Indeed,theentiresiteisauniqueopen-airmuseum,unparalleledelsewhereintheworld.

Boudhanath StupaThegreatStupaofBoudhanathistheprincipalcentreofTibetanBuddhistworshipintheKathmanduValley.IthaslongbeenamajordestinationforpilgrimsfromtheHimalayas,TibetandsoutheastandeastAsia.ItisoneofthelargestandmostmagnificentBuddhistmonumentsintheworld.LichchhaviKingManadevaI(reign464-505A.D.)iscreditedtohavebuiltthisgreatstupa.

LumbiniTherecannotbeamorereveredpilgrimagesiteforBuddhiststhanLumbini,thebirthplaceofShakyaMuniBuddha.Buddha,theprinceofpeaceandnon-violence,wasbornatLumbiniin623B.C.Forcenturies,pilgrimstravellingfromafarreveredthespotattheLumbinigardenwhereGautamaBuddhawasborn,buildingstupas,monasteriesandothertypesofmonuments.ThemostnotableandimportantisthestonepillarerectedbyEmperorAshokaMauryainthe3rdcenturyB.C.,whichauthenticatestheexactspotwhereQueenMayaDevigavebirthtotheblessedone.Today,thesiteisbeingdevelopedasamajorinternationalpilgrimagedestinationwiththeassistanceof

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nationswithBuddhistpopulations.LumbinihasbeenlistedintheWorldHeritageSitebyUNESCO.

Janaki TempleTotheHindus,Janakpur,thebirthplaceofJanakiorSita,theconsortofRama,isanimportantreligiouspilgrimagesite.Inancienttimes,JanakpurwasthecapitalcityoftheKingdomofMithilaandthecentreofMaithiliculture.ThemagnificentJanakiMandirwasbuiltbytheQueenofTikamgarh(India),MaharaniBrishabhanuKunwariDeviin1811A.D.asamarkofdevotiontoJanaki(Sita).ThemarriageanniversaryofLordRamaandSitaissolemnisedinJanakpureveryyearonVivahPanchamidaywhichfallsinDecember.ThisisoneofthebiggestfestivalsofthisregionattendedbyhundredsandthousandsofdevoteesfromNepalandIndia.ThebirthdayofSita,knownasSitaJayanti,isalsocelebratedinagrandmannereveryyearinthemonthofApril-May.FortheJanakpurites,Sitaistheir‘daughter’.NearJanakpurtownisaplaceknownasDhanushaDham,whichisconnectedwiththegreatHinduepicRamayana.Accordingtotheepic,oneofthethreepiecesoftheGreatBowthatLordRamabroketowinSita’shandinmarriagefellonthissite-inpresentdayDhanushaDham.

MuktinathMuktinathisaverypopularpilgrimagesiteinNepal.Situatedatanaltitudeof13,000feetabovesealevelinMustangdistrict,thesiteisalsoknownamongtheHindusasMuktiChhetra,orthe‘abodeofsalvation’.Thereisasmallpagoda-styletempleofLordVishnuwhich

isworshippedbybothHindusandBuddhists.TheBuddhistsworshipthedeityasoneoftheBodhisattvas.Thereare108sacredwaterspoutsflowingwithicycoldwaterwheredevoteestakeaquickbath.NearbyisthetempleofJwalaMai,ortheGoddessofFlame,withthephenomenalundergroundblueflame.

Other Pilgrimage SitesOtherprominentpilgrimagesitesaretheBalmikiAshraminChitwandistrictwhereaccordingtotheepicRamayana,apregnantSita,afterbeingbanishedbyLordRama,tookrefugeandgavebirthtohertwosons,LavaandKush.BarahaKshetra,situatednearDharanineastNepal,issaidtobetheplacewhereLordVishnuintheincarnationofBarah(boar)foughtandannihilatedthedemonHiranakshyaandsavedtheEarth.Devghat,nearNarayanghatinChitwandistrict,standsattheholyconfluenceofthreemightyrivers,Trisuli,GandakiandSeti.SwargaDwari,whichliterallymeans‘GatewaytoHeaven’,situatedinPyuthandistrict,istheplacefromwherethePandavasoftheMahabharataproceededtoHeaven.Gosainkund,theicycoldlakesituatedatanaltitudeof14,000feetinRasuwadistrict,isfortheHindusthesacredwateryplacewhereLordShivarestedtosoothehimselfafterhavingconsumedthefieryKalkootpoisonthatemanatedfromtheSamudraManthan(churningofthecelestialocean).GadhiMaiistheshrinelocatedinthewoodsinBaradistrict,andisrenownedforthemela(fair)wherethelargestanimalsacrificeintheregiontakesplaceoveraperiodofamonth.OtherprominentpilgrimagesitesareHalesiMahadevinKhotang,MaiPokhariinIlamandPathibharaDeviinTaplejungtonameafew.

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HISTORY, MYTHS& LEGENDS

Nepalissteepedinnumerouslegends,mythsandfolklorethatareentwinedwithdifferentfacetsofNepaleselife.Everytemple,shrineorsacredplacethroughoutthecountryhassomemythorlegendtotellus.Nowonder,Nepaliscalledthe‘LandoftheGods’.

Kathmandu ValleyTheBuddhistversiongivescreditfortheoriginofthevalleytoSageManjushriwhocamefromChinatoworshipatSwayambhu.Hestruckadeepcleftinthesouthernhillswithhisdivinescimitaranddrainedoffthewater,makingthevalleyhabitableforhumansettlement.Asiftocorroboratethelegend,thelogoofKathmanduMetropolitanCitydepictsthedivineswordofSageManjushri.

ThereareHinduandBuddhistlegendsbehindtheoriginoftheKathmanduValley.Accordingtotheformer,forlongthisvalleywasahugepristinelake.LordKrishnaoftheMahabharataagecamehereandslicedthelowestpartofthesouthernhillswithhisdivinediscus(SudarshanChakra)allowingthewatertoflowout,makingthevalleypossibleforhumansettlement.Thecowherds(Gopals)whoaccompaniedhimsettledhereandwerethefirstinhabitantsofthevalley.

ThereareHinduandBuddhistlegendsbehindtheoriginoftheKathmanduValley.Accordingtotheformer,forlongthisvalleywasahugepristinelake.LordKrishnaoftheMahabharataagecamehereandslicedthelowestpartofthesouthernhillswithhisdivinediscus(SudarshanChakra)allowingthewatertoflowout,makingthevalleypossibleforhumansettlement.

History, Myths and Legends

MysticalMythicalSwayambhuChaitya

23

Swayambhu Maha ChaityaOntheoriginofSwayambhuMahaChaitya,popularlegendnarrateshowthevalleywasonceahugelake-alakeofidyllicbeautysurroundedbygreenpristineforests.ThislakewasknownasNaagHrad,ortheAbodeoftheSerpentGod.Inthislake,BipasviBuddhacametotakeaholydip.Hethencastsomelotusseedsintothelake,whicheventuallybloomedintoathousand-petallotusoverwhichappearedabrilliantradiantflame,thebeacon(Jyoti)thatself-originated,whichistheSwayambhuJyoti-rupa(thebeacon).ThegreateternalbeaconwasenshrinedinthischaityabyKingPrachandDevaofGauda,Indiawiththesacredobjectiveofpreservingitsreligioussanctityagainstitspossibledestructionbynon-believersintheKaliYug(theEonofEvil).

SwayambhuChaitya

thepast,presentandfuturewillberealised.Andyou,mysons,willalsofulfillthepurposeofthislifeandthenextbyobeyingmywishes.”Withthesewords,thewomandiedandattainedBuddhahood(salvation).Hersonscompletedtheconstructionofthegreatstupa,whichisnowthefamousBoudhanath.

AHindulegendonitsoriginstatesthatthegreatstupawasbuiltbyKingManadevaIin5thcenturyA.D.toabsolvehimselffromthesinofpatricide.

Nyatapola and Bhairav Temple, BhaktapurAccordingtopopularlegend,KingBhupatindraMallabuiltathree-storeyedtempleofBhairavtoprotectthecityofBhaktapurfromevilspirits.ButBhairav,becauseofhisboisterousnature,provedtroublesome,andthekingwasadvisedbyhisastrologersthatonlytheinstallationofaTantricgoddesswhowasmorepowerfulthanBhairavcouldcurbhisunrulybehaviour.Thekingthenbuiltthefive-storeyedtempleandinstalledthereinthemostpowerfulgoddess,SiddhiLaxmi,tosubdueBhairav.ThismagnificenttemplelaterbecamefamousastheNyatapola(meaningfive-storeyedinthelocaldialect),andistodaythelandmarkofBhaktapurcity.

Kumari, the Living GoddessThemythsandlegendssurroundingtheKumari,theLivingGoddessofKathmandu,isfascinating.HistoricalrecordsshowthattheworshipofKumariasalivinggoddesshasbeenprevalentsinceatleastthe10thcentury.ButpopularfolklorerelatingtotheKumariastheincarnation

Boudhanath StupaThelegendbehindthegreatStupaofBoudhanathhasitthatitwasbuiltbyapoultryfarmer-awoman-Shamvara.Afterreceivingpermissionfromthekingtobuildastupa,Shamvarabeganitsconstructionwiththehelpofherfoursons,anelephantandadonkey.Foundationswerelaid,andwallswerebuiltuptothethirdlevel.Itwasatthistimethatthepeopleofthevalleyresentedtheideaofapoorpoultryfarmer-andawomanatthat-buildingsuchastupaandshamingthembyherillustriouswork.

Theyquestioned,ifapoorwomancouldbuildsuchastupa,thenwhatistobeexpectedfromtheking,thenoblesandthewealthy.Jealousofthewoman,theypetitionedthekingtohalttheconstructionwork.Butthekingwasnottoobligethem.Hetoldthemthatthepoorpoultrywoman-farmerhadgonethroughgreathardshipstobuildthisstupa,whichheconsideredamarvel.Ashehadalreadygivenherpermissiontobuildthestupa,hebeingtheking,wouldnottakebackhisword.Theconstructionworkthuscontinuedforfouryears,andthepinnaclewasnearingcomplete.

Butatthispoint,thepoorwoman,sensingthatherendwasnearing,calledherfoursonsandservantandtoldthemtocompletethisgreatstupa.Shesaid,“Mydivineprojectistheplaceofadulationforbothearthlyandsuperhumanbeings.PlacetheimperishableremainsoftheTathagatas(mortalBuddhas)withinthisstupaandconsecrateitwithgreathonourandreverence.IdesirethatmywishbefulfilledbywhichthegreatpurposeofalltheBuddhasof

26

ofTalejuBhavani,thepatrondeityoftheroyals,andthekingconversingandplayingdicewithherarelinkedtocertainkingswhoruledKathmandu,likeTrailokyaMalla(16thcentury)andthelastMallarulerofKathmandu,JayaPrakashMalla(18thcentury).Accordingtothelegend,itsohappenedthatonenightwhileplayingdicewithGoddessTaleju,orKumari,thekingwasarousedbyhercelestialbeautyandwasovercomewithlust.TheKumari,agoddessasshewas,atoncevisualisedtheamorousthoughtsintheking’smind.Showingherutterdispleasure,shedeclaredthatshewouldhenceforthnevercometohimanddisappeared.Thekingwasfilledwithprofoundremorseandbeggedforforgiveness.TheGoddesslaterrelentedandsaidthatshewouldenterthebodyofavirgingirl,aKumari,whichthekingwastoworship.

AnotherversionofthelegendhasitthatthekingandKumariusedtoplaydiceeverynightonconditionthatnomortalwouldseethemdoingso.Accordingly,thekinghadstrictlyinstructedthequeenandhisdaughternottoenterorpeekintothecertainroomwhilehewasinside.Butcuriositygotthebetterofthewomen,andtheypeepedinside.TheangryGoddessthendisappeared.ThekingrepentedandprayedfortheGoddess’forgiveness.GoddessKumarithencameinhisdreamandtoldthekingthatshewouldhenceforthnotcomeinperson.InsteadthekingwastoworshipaShakyavirgingirlwhowouldpossessherdivinepower.Sincethen,aShakyavirgingirlisworshippedastheKumari,andonceayearduringthemonthofSeptember,theLivingGoddessistakenaroundtheoldquartersofKathmanduinherchariotduringtheIndraJatrafestival.

Bisket JatraBisketJatraisagalafestivalheldannuallyinBhaktapuronNepaleseNewYear’sDay(BikramSambat).Thereisapopularfolkloreabouttheoriginofthisfestival.ItrelatestothetimeofthereignofLichchhaviKingShivaDeva.ATantrikbythenameofShekharAcharyawassaidtopossesstheextraordinarypoweroftransforminghimselfintoanimalsandreptiles.Once,hisover-curiouswife,Nararupa,wantedtoseehimchangeintoaserpent.Aftermuchpesteringbythewife,hefinallygaveintoherdemand.Butbeforedoingso,hewarnedhernottobescaredbywhatshewaslikelytoseeandtothrowsomegrainsofriceonhimthatwouldreturnhimtohishumanform.Hethenchangedhimselfintoahugepython.ButwhenNararupasawthegiganticserpent,shewasterrified.Shelosthernerve,andinsteadofthrowingthericeatherhusband-in-serpentform,sheputthericeinherownmouth,whichturnedheralsointoapython.

Itsohappenedthatinthewholekingdom,noneotherthanthekingknewthemantra(chantingofsacredwords)thatcouldresuscitatethemfromtheserpenttohumanform.Therefore,expectingtodrawtheattentionofthekingtohelpthemreturntohumanform,thehusbandandwifepythonswouldstandandgazetowardsthepalaceeverydayinthehopethatthekingwouldnoticeandresuscitatethemtohumanform.Timewentby,buttonoavail.Finally,thefrustratedpythoncouplecommittedsuicideataplacecalledChupingGhat(ariverbank).

ThistragicendofShekharAcharyaandhiswifebroughtfaminetothecountry.Notknowing

27

whathadcometopass,thealarmedkingsummonedtheTantrikShekharAcharyatocourtforadvicetohelpquellthefamine,buthewasnowheretobefound.Ultimately,itwasdiscoveredthattheTantrikandhiswifehadcommittedsuicideintheformofserpents.Thekingandthepeoplewere

highlydismayed.Sincethen,everyyear,inmemoryoftheTantrikandhiswife,twolongclothbanners,representingandsymbolisingtheserpentcouple,arehungfromawoodenpole,calledthelingo,tocommemoratetheirtragicdeath.

BisketJatra

FESTIVALS& CELEBRATIONS

Festivals and Celebrations

Nepalesecelebratefestivalswithgreatenthusiasmandélan.ItissaidthathardlyadaypassesinNepalwithoutafestivalbeingcelebratedsomewhere.

TheofficialcalendaradoptedbytheNepaleseistheBikramSambat(B.S.).TheBikramSambatNewYearbeginswiththemonthofBaisakh(mid-April).Forallreligiousfestivalsandauspiciouspersonaleventsandrituals,Nepalesemakeuseofthelunarcalendar.ReligionplaysaveryvitalroleinallfestivalsinNepal,whetherHinduorBuddhist.OnecanseeablendofthesetworeligionsinmostoftheNepalesefestivals.Nepalesecelebratefestivalswithgreatenthusiasmandélan.ItissaidthathardlyadaypassesinNepalwithoutafestivalbeingcelebratedsomewhere.

Certainfestivalsarecelebratednationwide,whileothersareofalocalnature,observedwithinacertainregionorcommunity.Basedonthis,Nepalesefestivalscanbebroadlyclassifiedintothreecategories:thosethatarecelebratednationwide,regionallyorlocally,andbythecommunity.MajorfestivalslikeBadaDasain,orDurgaPuja,Tihar,orLaxmiPuja,BuddhaJayanti,orthebirthanniversaryofLordBuddha,ShivaRatri,orthebirthdayofLordShiva,JanaiPurnima,RamNavamiandKrishnaJanmasthamiarecelebratedthroughoutthecountry.

SomeprominentfestivalsthatarecelebratedwithgreatfanfarearetheIndraJatraofKathmandu,

DashainFestivalswing

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RatoMachhindranathRathYatraofPatan,BisketandBhairavRathYatraofBhaktapur,GhodaJatraofKathmandu,MagheSankranti,orthefirstdayofthemonthofMagh,ChandeshwariJatraofBanepa,PalanchowkBhagwatiJatraofPalanchowk,BhagwatiJatraofPalpa,Gosain

KundaMelaatGosainKundainRasuwadistrictandHaleshiMahadevMelaofKhotang.

Similarly,othernoteworthylocalfestivalsaretheGatha-Muga,orGhantaKarna,inKathmandu,chariotpullingfestivaloftheKumariinKathmandu,BajraBarahiJatraofTistungin

Makwanpur,JanakiVivaha,orVivahaPanchami,inDhanusha,TriveniMelaatUdayapur,BarahaChhetraMelainSunsari,Mai-PokhariMelainIlam,BhimsenJatrainDolakhaandIndreshwarMelainPanauti.FestivalssuchasChhath,FaguandHoli(festivalofcolours)arecelebratedregionally.

Nepalesefestivalsaregenerallywovenaroundthemonsoon-drivenagriculturalcycle,andwithricebeingthemostimportantstaplecrop,manyofthesefestivitiesareobservedaftertheplantationandharvestingofpaddy.Everyfestivalinvolvestheworshippingoftheconcerneddeitiesandthensittingforafeastthereafter.AlegendorfolkloreisbehindeveryfestivalinNepal.

IndraJatra

UNESCO HERITAGE SITES

UNESCO Heritage Sites

TheKathmanduValleyisatreasure

troveofNepaleseculture,andan

importantsideofthatcultureis

itsarchitecturalheritagewhichis

representedinthenumerousmonuments

includedandpreservedwithintheseven

monumentzonesintheKathmandu

ValleyWorldHeritageSite.

Nepal’srichmosaicofculturalheritagescouldbelikenedtoapreciousdiamondhavingnumerousfacets.TheKathmanduValleyisatreasuretroveofNepaleseculture,andanimportantsideofthatcultureisitsarchitecturalheritagewhichisrepresentedinthenumerousmonumentsincludedandpreservedwithinthesevenmonumentzonesintheKathmanduValleyWorldHeritageSite.Thevalleyisrepletewithmarvelouscreationsinvariousshapesandformsofartandarchitecture,extendingeventoasmallstoneorabronzestatue.Thefinewoodcarvingsinthetemplesandhousesarewell-knownthroughouttheworld.Theexquisitetemples,monasteries,stupasorChaityas,shrines,palaces,monumentsandeveryotherarchitecturalwonderofthevalleyaregloriousculturaltreasuresofNepalaswellasaheritageofthewholeofmankind.NepalesearchitecturalheritageisrepresentedintheuniquedesignofbuiltstructureslikethepagodaandShikhara-styletemples,shrines,monasteries,palaces,individualhomes,stupasorChaityas(BuddhisthemisphericalstructuresthatdonotcontainthemortalremainsofBuddhasorotherholypersons),Sattals(waysideresthouse),Patis(publicresthouse),Pauvas(oneortwo-storeypublicresthouse),DhungeDharasorstonewaterspouts,Dabalisoropenplatforms,Ghatsorriverbanks,ponds,pillarstatues,minaretsortowers,fortsandsoon.

Nyatapola

35

UNESCOhasincludedsevenmonumentsitesoftheKathmanduValleyintheWorldCulturalHeritagelist.Ofthesevensites,threearecentredaroundtheancientmedievalpalacesofthevalley,namelytheHanumanDhokaDurbar(palace)inKathmandu,PatanDurbarinPatan(Lalitpur)andBhaktapurDurbarinBhaktapur.ThesepalacecomplexesweretheresidencesoftheMallakings.TheotherworldheritagesitesaretheSwayambhuMahaChaitya,BoudhanathStupa,thetemplecomplexofLordPashupatinathinKathmanduandtheChanguNarayanTempleinBhaktapur.

KathmanduDurbarSquare

Kathmandu Durbar Square KathmanduDurbarSquareinKathmanduisthemostextensiveofthethreeroyalpalacesquares,notonlyinsizebutalsoinscaleofitsopenspaceandstructures.Itcontains60importantmonuments,ofwhichthemajoritydatefromthe17thand18thcenturies.KingMahendraMallaofthe16thcentury,PratapMallaofthe17thcenturyandPrithviNarayanShahofthe18thcenturyaddedtothearchitecturalsplendourofthisDurbarsquare.KingMahendraMalla(1560-74A.D)constructednumeroustemplesinsidethepalacecomplexandinitsvicinity.ProminentamongthemarethetempleofMahendreshwarMahadev,theJagannathTempleandthegrandTalejuBhavaniTemple.ThemagnificentTalejuTemplewasbuiltin1563.Oneofthetallestandlargesttemplesinthecountry,toweringmorethan40metres,itisbuiltatopaplinthofbrickplatform.Nearby,theJagannathTemple,builtinthe16thcentury,isknownforthefascinatingeroticcarvingsofhumansexualuniononthewoodenstruts.TheHanumanDhokaDurbarmonumentzoneencompassesmarvelousedificesbuiltbyKingPratapMalla(1641-74A.D).TheseincludetheKrishnaTemple,Kabindrapur,IndrapurTemple,PanchamukhiHanumanTempleofNasalChowk,andastonepillarwithhisstatueatopfacingtheDeguTalejuTemple.KingPratapMallahaderectedastonestatueofHanuman,thebravestofthebravemonkey-godintheepicRamayana,infrontofhispalacetodriveaway

evilspritsandbevictoriousinwars.ThispalacelatercametobeknownastheHanumanDhokaDurbar,orthepalaceguardedbyGodHanuman.AftertheconquestofthevalleybyKingPrithviNarayanShahofGorkhain1769,heexpandedthepalace.Twoveryimpressivearchitecturalstructures,thenine-storeyedBasantapurandVilasMandir,werebuiltduringhisreign.AllthefourtowersofthispalaceareconsideredremarkablepiecesofNepalesearchitecture.Thispalacesquareissurroundedbymanyimportantmonuments,suchastheresidenttempleoftheLivingGoddessKumari;theKashthaMandap,orMaruSattal,whichisthelargestopenresthouseandalandmarkofKathmandufromwhichthecityderivesitsname;SimhaSattal;andtheMajuDewalwhichisthetallesttempleintheperiphery.Anyonewhovisitsthispalacecomplexcannotbutbeoverwhelmedbyitsgrandeurandthearchitecturalheritagewhichitrepresents.

Patan Durbar SquareIftheHanumanDhokaDurbarSquarehasauniquecombinationofMallaandShahperiodarchitecture,PatanDurbarSquare,ontheotherhand,reflectssingularMallaarchitecture.IncomparisontotheHanumanDhokaDurbarSquare,itissmallerinsize,butitcomprisesanumberofuniquearchitecturalstyles.MangaHiti,thesunkenstonewaterspout,andthemagnificentKrishnaTemple,aShikhara-styletemplebuiltofstone,arebutafewexamplesofitsopulence.Morethan30monuments,

38

eachamasterpiece,areclusteredinasmallareameasuringroughly160by70metres.Anadditional30monumentsarelocatedintheimmediatevicinity.ProfessoremeritusDr.EduardF.SeklerofHarvardUniversityhascomparedtheDurbarSquareofPatantoSanMarcoSquareofVenice.TherenownedFrenchorientalistM.SylvainLevidescribesthePatanDurbarSquareas“amarvelbeyondthepowerofwordstotell”.

Indeed,PatanDurbaristhemostspectacularexampleofNepalesearchitectureinanurbancontext.RightinthemiddleofthehustlingdowntownMangalBazaarstandsthefamouspalaceoftheMallakingsknownasManingalRajprasad,orthepalaceofManingal,probablybuiltduringtheLichchhaviperiod(beginningofthe1stcenturyto9thcentury).AmongthelatterkingsofPatan,SiddhiNarasimhaMalla(1618-61),SriNiwasMalla(1661-85)andYogNarendraMalla(1685-1706)addedtothegrandeurofthepalacecomplex.

Amongitsnumerouscourtyards,therecentlyrenovatedKeshavNarayanChowkhasbeenconvertedintoabronzeartefactmuseum.ThemainentranceofthiscourtyardandthewindowsonthesecondfloorwiththefigureofGodAvalokeshwarinthemiddlearegilded.AhighlyimpressiveandexquisitemonumentisthestonetempleofLordKrishna,situatedinanimposinglocationintheDurbarSquarecomplex.KingSiddhiNarasimhaMallabuiltthistemplein1636.Itfeatures21gildedpinnacles-the

highestnumbereverbuiltinthevalley.Anotheruniquefeatureofthistempleisthebas-reliefcarvingsonthewallsandceilings,depictingmajorscenesfromthegreatHinduepics,theRamayanaandMahabharata.TheKrishnaTempleofPatanDurbarSquareisundoubtedlyoneofthefineststonestructuresintheKathmanduValleyandis,thus,ofconsiderablenationalimportance.

OtherimportanttemplesoftheDurbarSquarearetheCharNarayanTempleconstructedin1565byKingPurandharSingh,theBishwaNathTempleconstructedbyKingSriNiwasMallain1626andthelargerectangularthree-storeyedBhimsenTempleconstructedinthe16thcentury.ThereisalsotheoctagonalShikhara-styleKrishnaTempleknownasChyasilinDewal.

PatanDurbarSquare,locatedinthemiddleofthecity,hasassimilatedthevibrantatmosphereofacrowdedbazaar.OutsidethePatanDurbarSquare,therearenumerousotherimportantmonuments,suchastheMahaBouddhaterra-cottaShikharatempleconstructedatthebeginningofthe17thcentury,HiranyaVarnaMahavihara,ortheGoldenTemple,builtintheearly15thcenturyandthefive-storeyedKumbheshwarMahadevTemplebuiltatthebeginningoftheMallaperiod-itisoneoftheonlytwosurvivingfive-storeyedtemplesinthecountry,theotherbeingtheNyatapolaTempleinBhaktapur.

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Bhaktapur Durbar SquareAmongthethreeDurbarSquares,theBhaktapurDurbarSquareisbyfarthemostelegantwithitslargeopenspacefacingsouth.TheGoldenGateandthePalaceof55CarvedWindowshaveaddedsplendourtothispalacesquarewhichconsistsofbuildingsdatingfromthe13thcenturytothe18thcentury.Bhaktapur’slandmarkistheworldfamousfive-tieredNyatapola,orfive-storeyedtemple,builtin1702atTaumadhiSquare.Bhaktapurisalivingmuseumofartsandarchitecture.Eachandeverypieceofartspeaksofthecity’shistory.The

monumentsandsculpturesreflectcenturies-oldcraftsmanship.Thecityhassufferedmuchfromearthquakes,especiallythoseof1808,1833and1934.Theseearthquakescausedextensivedamagetoitsancientbuildings.Yet,despitethedestruction,theexternalappearanceofthecitydoesnotseemtohavechangedmuch.Templesandmonumentshavebeenrestoredandpreserved.Dilapidatedbuildingshavebeenrebuiltorrenovatedintheiroriginalform.Sothebasicstructureofthetownisintact.

DattatreyaTemple

Inthe1970s,thepioneeringBhaktapurDevelopmentProject,withfinancialandtechnicalassistancefromtheGermangovernment,restoredconsiderableportionsofthecity’slostheritageandimproveditsphysicalinfrastructure.

ThemainattractionoftheBhaktapurDurbarSquareisthefamousGoldenGateorSwarnaDwar,builtbyKingRanjitMallain1753.BritishhistorianPercevalLandonpraiseditas‘themostexquisitelydesignedandfinishedpieceofgildedmetalworkinallAsia’.Thegateisthemainentrancetothepalace.ThePalaceof55Windows,builtbyKingYakshaMallain1427andrenovatedbyKingBhupatindraMalla,isfamousforitsintricatelycarvedwoodworks.Therearemanycourtyardsinsidethepalace,buttheyareclosedtothepublic.Thevisitorhastobesatisfiedwiththediversityofmonumentsaroundthepalacecomplex.

UponenteringthegatetotheBhaktapurDurbarSquare,therearetwotemplestotheright.Oneisthetwo-storeyedKrishnaTemple,withroofstrutsdepictingthe10incarnationsofLordVishnu.ThesecondisaterracottaShikharatemplededicatedtoGoddessDurgaorBhagawati.Thelife-sizestatueofKingBhupatindraMallawithfoldedpalmsatopastonepillarinfrontoftheNationalArtGalleryisanotherremarkablepieceofsculpture.ThelastMallarulerofBhaktapur,KingRanjitMalla,erectedthisstatuein1753asatributetoBhupatindraMalla,whoenrichedtheculturalheritageofBhaktapur.TheBigBell,installed

herebyKingRanjitMallain1737,isusedwhileworshippingGoddessTulajaBhavani.Behindthis,thereisabeautifulstoneShikhara-styletemplewithninepinnaclesdedicatedtoGoddessBatsalabuiltin1672byKingJagatPrakashMalla.NexttotheBatsalatempleisthetwo-storeyedpagoda-styletempleofYaksheswaraMahadevbuiltbyKingYakshaMallainthe15thcentury.

TaumadhiSquarethathousestheNyatapolaTempleisoneofthethreemainsquaresincludedintheworldheritagesiteofBhaktapur.ThissquareisdominatedbytwoofBhaktapur’sgrandesttemples.TheNyatapola,orfive-storeyedtempleofGoddessSiddhiLaxmi,thepatrondeityofKingBhupatindraMalla,isbyfarthemostimposing.Itsfive-stepbasegivesitatoweringheight,whichmakesitthetallesttempleinthecountry.Thisgrandtemple,amasterpieceofNepalesearchitecture,wasbuiltbyKingBhupatindraMallain1702.Thecolumnsaroundthetemplesanctumanddoorframehaveexquisitecarvings.Theimpressivewoodworkincludes108supportingroofstruts,whichdepictthediverseformsofthegoddessBhagawati,orMahismardini,andotherassociatedeities.Inthesoutheastcornerofthiscourtyardstandsamassivethree-storeyedrectangulartempleofBhairav,alsoknownasKashiBishwanath.Theoriginaltempleisbelievedtohavebeenconstructedin1001duringthereignofKingNirvayaDeva.

Tachapal,orDattatrayaSquare,isoneofthethreemainsquaresofBhaktapur.TheDattatraya

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Templestandsintheeastofthesquare.ItwasbuiltbyKingYakshaMallaandhissonBiswaMallainthe15thcentury.ThegodDattatrayarepresentstheHindutrinityofBrahma,VishnuandMaheshwarorShiva.SurroundingtheDattatrayaSquareareseveralHinduMathsormonasteries,ofwhichthemostimportantisthePujariMath.ThePujariMathisespeciallyknownfortherich18thcenturywoodcarvingsthatgraceitsdoorsandwindows.Particularlywell-knownisthefamedintricatelycarved‘PeacockWindow’facingthelaneontheeastsideofthebuilding.Itissupposedlythefinestspecimenofwoodcarving.Infact,theancientcityofBhaktapurishometosomeoftherarestandprobablythefinestexamplesofNepalesewoodcarvingartandarchitecture.

LumbiniOutsidetheKathmanduValley,Lumbini,thebirthplaceofLordBuddha,hasbeenenlistedintheWorldCulturalHeritagesite.SiddharthaGautama,wholaterattainedenlightenmentastheBuddha,wasborninLumbiniinthespringof623B.C.AninscriptiononastonepillarerectedbyMauryaEmperorAshokain249B.C.authenticatesthattheBuddhawasbornatthisspot.Recentarchaeologicalexcavationshavediscoveredthe“markerstone”atthebasementoftheMayaDeviTemple,believedtohavebeenlaidtherebyEmperorAshokatodenotetheexactsacredspotwheretheBuddhafirstputhisfootonearth.Thishasfurtherenhancedtheimportanceandsanctityofthesite.Thestupasbuiltduringdifferentperiodsdatingfrom3rd

centuryB.C.to15thcenturyA.D.,theMayaDeviTempleandPushkarniPondwherethebabySiddharthawasgivenhisfirstbathafterbirtharesomeancientedificesofLumbini.

AMasterPlanforthedevelopmentofLumbiniwasinitiatedin1978asperthedesignofworld-renownedarchitectProfessorTangeofJapan.TheMasterPlansegregatestheLumbiniareaintofourmaincomponents:theSacredGardenwhichincludestheMayaDeviTempleandtheAshokanpillar;themonasticzone;theculturalcentre;andtheLumbinivillage.Sincetheearly1980s,manycountrieswithsignificantBuddhistpopulationshavecontributedinitsinfrastructuraldevelopment.Monasteriesreflectingthearchitectureoftheindividualcountrieshavebeenconstructedinthemonasticzone.ButmuchstillremainstobedonetogivefinalshapetotheMasterPlan.

AsthebirthplaceofLordBuddha,Lumbiniisoneoftheholiestplacesofoneoftheworld’sgreatestreligions.IthasremainedahallowedBuddhistpilgrimagespotsinceveryearlytimes.Lumbinihasbeendesignatedasthe“FountainofWorldPeaceandtheHoliestPilgrimageCentreofBuddhistsandpeace-lovingpeopleoftheworld”.ThesiteremainsaplaceofpilgrimageforbothBuddhistsandHindusalikefromallovertheworld.

BesidestheexistingWorldHeritagesitesinNepal,therearemanyothernaturalandhistoricalmonumentsandsitesinthecountrywhichmeritinclusionintheWorldHeritagelist.

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ART &ARCHITECTURE

Art, Architecture, Sculpture and Painting

Nepal’sethnicdiversity,religious

andculturalbeliefs,festivities,

godsandgoddessesintheirmany

manifestations,demons,myths,

legends,folkloreandmyriadspiritual

andsupernaturalelementshavebeen

thesubjectofprofoundinterestto

visitors.Itsculturalmosaicisenriched

byfolkartandartisticcreations,which

arereflectedinitsmusic,musical

instruments,paintings(thangkas),

masksandcurioitemsofcultural

significanceandnumerousother

objectsd’art.

ThesevenUNESCOmonumentsoftheKathmanduvalleycomprisingofthreehistoricalpalacesknownas–KathmanduDurbarSquare,PatanDurbarSquareandBhaktapurDurbarSquare--twoBuddhiststupas-SyambhunathandBoudanathandtwoHindutemplesPashupatinathandChanguNarayan,werereveredassacredforhundredofyearsandtherehasbeenaseriesofcontributionsandrenovationsintheformofconstructionsoftemples,stupasandpalacesoverthecenturiesmadebydifferentrulersandKings.

Thepagodasaremulti-tieredmonumentstaperingtowardsthetopwithintricatewoodcarvingintheformsofdoors,pillars,windowsandstruts.Theseubiquitouswoodenhistoricalstructuresaresupplementedbybronzeworksandstonesculpturestogetherformingthesquaresandpalaceswithprofuserepresentationofimagesofgods,goddesses,demons,beasts,mythicalfigures,kingsandtheordinaryhumanbeingsengagedintheirday-to-dayactivities.

TheLichchaviperiodisknownastheclassicalperiodofNepalesehistorybecauseitwasduringthisperiodthatartandarchitecturebegantotakeshape.Tradeandcraftsflourishedunderthem,andtheybuiltmagnificenttemples,palacesandmonuments.However,itwasonlyunderthelaterMallaperiodandtheearlyShahperiodfromthe14thtothe18thcenturiesthevalley’sfabulouscitieswiththeirexquisitepagoda,shikharaandstupaarchitecture,ornatepalacesandartistictemplescametotakeshapeintheformthatweseeittoday.

ART &ARCHITECTURE

SculptoratworkinPatan

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Thepresentdayneo-classicalbuildingswerealsobuiltonlyduringthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury(RanaRegime)withNepal’sfirstcontactwiththewesterncountries.

Nepal’sethnicdiversity,religiousandculturalbeliefs,festivities,godsandgoddessesintheirmanymanifestations,demons,myths,legends,folkloreandmyriadspiritualandsupernaturalelementshavebeenthesubjectofprofoundinteresttovisitors.Itsculturalmosaicisenrichedbyfolkartandartisticcreations,whicharereflectedinitsmusic,musicalinstruments,paintings(thangkas),masksandcurioitemsofculturalsignificanceandnumerousotherobjectsd’art.

Harmoniousinter-relationshipandtolerancebetweenHinduismandBuddhismandthemutualrespectandacceptanceofeachotherhavecreatedacongenialenvironmentforthedevelopmentofartandculture.Earlyvisitorstothecountrydescribedthevalleyastheabodeofthegodsandgoddesseswherethereweremoretemplesthanhousesandmoregodsandgoddessesthanpeople.Writingsby7thcenturyChinesetravellersreportedwell-builttownsandsettlementswithmagnificentpalacesandtemples.Itsnarrowstreetswithroofedbrickhousesinarowonbothsides,pavedsquares,openplatformsorstages,stonewaterspoutsandalandscapepunctuatedbytemples,stupas,monasteriesandnumerousotherreligiousandculturalmonumentsaddedtoitsaestheticbeauty.Aninventorypreparedin1975statedthatmorethan80percentofallhistoricalmonumentsinthecountryweretobefoundintheKathmanduValley.Inthevalleyalone,thereweremorethanathousandsplendidmonuments.ThiswaswhatBrownMortonIII,Chairmanof

theUnitedStatesNationalCommitteefortheInternationalCouncilofMonumentsandSites,hadtosayin1979:“TheKathmanduValleyisperhapsthemostbeautifulplaceintheworld.HiddendeepinthefoldsoftheHimalayanmountainsbetweenIndiaandTibet,thisexoticcentreofanexoticcountryisnearlyaperfectsynthesisofnaturalandman-madebeauty.”

Thenaturalsplendourofthevalley,itshistoryandculturalopulencehaveattractedvisitors,pilgrims,tradersandscholarswhodaredtoventureintothemountainsandinhospitableterraininsearchoftheelusiveShangri-la.WhatmakesKathmanduValleyuniqueistheamalgamationofitsmagnificentnaturalenvironmentwithalivingcivilisationreflectedinitstowns,monuments,festivities,highlystylisedpageants,ritualisticcustoms,religioustraditionsandvibrantculture.

Thangka (Pauva) ArtTheartofpaintinginNepalisasoldasthecarvingsonstoneandmetal,anditisvariouslyexpressedinthemurals,manuscripts,Gathas(woodencoversofmanuscripts),andonclothandpaper.AsinotherformsofNepaleseart,religionhasplayedadominantroleinpainting,too.Thangkas,alsoknownasPauvas,aretraditionalpaintingsdepictingreligiousthemesanddeities.Itispreparedonapieceoffinecottonorsilkclothwhichiscoatedwithamixtureofglue,chalkandindigoandfinallyvarnishedwiththewhiteofaduck’seggmixedwithwater.ThePauvapaintingshavegenerallybeenpaintedbytraditionalethniccastesliketheChitrakars,Shakyas,VajracharyasandTibetanLamas.

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Mithila ArtThesedays,Maithiliartorpaintingisalsogainingpopularityamongthetourists.Basically,Maithiliartisafolkpaintingdominatedbyreligiousthemes.Janakpurincentral-southNepalisthecentreofthisschoolofart.ThepeopleofMithila,generallywomenfolk,paintthewallsoftheirhouseswithpicturesofdifferentflowersandobjectsofsocio-religiousthemesinbrightcolours.ThewomenofMithilahavecultivatedthisceremonialartofdrawingandpaintingonthemudwallsoftheirhouses,thefloorsoftheirthresholdsandcourtyards.Sita,theprincessofMithilaandconsortofRamaoftheepicRamayana,hasbeentheperennialsourceofinspirationtothewomenofMithilainthisancientcraftofpainting.Today,theyareexperimentingwiththeirancientartonpaperasaformofprayer.TheartofMithilaisheavilyinfluencedbyTantriccultsasinthePauvasand,therefore,theirpaintingsarefullofTantricsymbolsliketheMandalainTibetanart.

Museums NepalMuseum,thefirstandpioneermuseumofNepal,openedtothegeneralpubliconFebruary12,1939.LocatedatChhaunionthewesternoutskirtsofKathmandu,itlaterbecamepopularastheNationalMuseum.Ithasthreesections-history,artgalleryandBuddhistartgallery-housedinthreeseparatebuildings.Intheartgallery,therearenumeroussculpturesofhistoricalandartisticimportanceinstone,bronzeandwood.TheearliestdatedstonestatueofKingJayaVerma,circa185A.D.,isondisplayhere.TheNationalNumismaticMuseumishousedonthetopfloorofthehistorysection.TheNationalMuseumisopensixdaysaweekexceptTuesdaysandpublicholidays.

ThehistoricaloldMallapalacesofthevalleyhavealsobeenconvertedintomuseums.TheHanumanDhokaPalacehousesthebiographicalmuseumsoftheShahKings-Tribhuvan,MahendraandBirendra.ThePatanMuseum,withitsrichcollectionofNepalesebronzesculptures,hasbeenestablishedintheresidentialpalacecompoundoftheKeshavNarayanChowkofPatanDurbar.ThisPatanMuseumwasrestoredtoitsearlierglorywiththetechnicalandfinancialassistanceoftheAustriangovernment.ItisconsideredtobeoneofthebestmuseumsinsouthAsia.TheNationalArtGalleryatBhaktapurwassetupinthefamous55WindowPalaceofBhaktapurDurbarin1961.Inthisgallery,thangkapaintings,ortraditionalNepalesepaintings,datingfromthe13thand14thcenturiesarepreservedandondisplay.InBhaktapur,wehavetwosmallermuseumsatDattatrayaSquare.ThePujariMathMuseumcontainswoodcarvingswhiletheChikanfaMathMuseumhasbronzemetalartefactsandutensilsusedforreligiousritesandhouseholdpurposes.OthermuseumsinthevalleyaretheMuseumofNaturalHistoryandtheMuseumofSwayambhuBikasMandalatSwayambhu.ThelatterholdsacollectionofBuddhistartefactsinstone.TheNepalNationalEthnographicMuseumhousedintheTourismServiceCentrebuildingatBhrikutiMandap,KathmandudisplayslifesizedioramasdepictingthelifeandcultureofdifferentracesandethniccommunitiesofNepal.

OutsidetheKathmanduValley,thereareregionalmuseumsatPokhara,Surkhet,DhankutaandKapilvastu.ExceptfortheoneatKapilvastu,theothermuseumsaremainlyethnologicalmuseumsdepictinglocalculture.Amongthem,theprominentonesaretheInternationalMountainMuseumatPokhara,theTharuCulturalMuseum

47

atThakurdwarainBardiyaNationalParkandTheMustangEco-MuseumatJomsominMustang.Thesedays,privatecollectorshavealsobeenencouragedtostageexhibitionstodisplaytheircollectionsofdifferenttypesoftraditionalartsandhandicraftitems.

AtLumbini,thebirthplaceofLordBuddha,thereistheallimportantarchaeologicalremainsoftheMayaDeviTemple,especiallythealcoveremainswhichdatefrom3rdcenturyB.C.Thearchaeologicalruinsofmonasteriesdatefrom3rdcenturyB.Cto5thcenturyA.D.NumerousartefactitemswerediscoveredwhileexcavatingtheLumbiniarea,suchassilvercoins,child’stoyandarammadeofclayonwheelswhichwasprobablyusedduringearlyperiod.TheBuddhistInternationalResearchLibraryatLumbinihasarichcollectionofBuddhisttexts.

Nepal’smuseumshaverichcollectionsofarchaeological,historicalandartisticimportance.BesidesthearchaeologicalobjectsdatingfromthetimeofLordBuddhaunearthedatLumbini,TilaurakotandotherplacesinwestNepal,pre-historicarchaeologicalobjectsdiscoveredintheMustangcavesbelongto8thcenturyB.C.Stonestatues,inscriptions,coinsandmanyotherarchaeologicalobjectshavebeendiscoveredintheKathmanduValleywhichdatesfromthe1stcentury.AsNepaleseareicon(idol)worshipers,avasttreasureofculturalwealthintheformofstone,woodandmetalsculpturesandreligiouspaintingsremaininprivatepossessionwithprivatecollectors.

Traditional HandicraftsNepalesehandicraftshavebeenpopularsincelong.Thementionofthewoolenblanketinthe‘KautilyaArthaSastra’ofChanakyaBishnuGupta(Kautilya)whichdatesbackto4thcenturyB.C.provesthisfact.Nepalesebronzeartefactshave

beentreasuredbytheTibetanssincethetimeoftheLichchhavis(3rdand4thcenturyA.D.).Duringthemedievalperiod,NepalesehandicraftswereverypopularinChinaandIndia.Sculpturedornamentsandreligiousidolsandstatuettesingold,silver,bronze,brass,stoneandwoodandembossedwithsemi-preciousstoneswerehighlysought-aftermerchandiseinChinaandIndia.ChinesetravellersappreciatedtheskillandcraftsmanshipoftheNepaleseartisans,especiallytheirweaving,spinning,woodcarvingandmetalwork.Thecontributionofthemastercraftsman,Arniko,whoenrichedNepalesehandicraftsandpopularisedthemthroughoutTibet,ChinaandothercountriesoftheFarEastwasimmense.Nepalesehandicraftsaredeeplyrootedinthesocio-religiousandculturallivesofthepeople.Theycanbedividedintotwomaincategories:articlesofdailyuseandartefacts/articlesofaestheticvalueandreligioussignificance.Theserangefromartefactslinkedtoritualisticcultsduringtheworshipofdeitiestoobjectsusedindailylife,likepotsandhairpinstohookahs(hubble-bubble),beads,shawlsandskirts.Ethniccraftsmenhavedemonstratedtheirdistinctcharacteristicsinthedesign,modellingandproductionprocessoftheartefacts.Theethnicutilitarianhandicraftsconstitutealongrangeofarticles,likekhal-lohara(pestleandmortar),amkhora(waterpot),anti(winejar),sukunda(oillamp),karuwa(waterjar),thaal(plate),kachaura(saucer),kasaudi(cookingpot),chulesi(vegetablecutter),gagri(waterpitcher),khukuri(gorkhaknife)anddhakki(basket).

Nepal’shandicraftindustryoftodayisalmosttotallydependentontourism

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andexport.Thehabitofusinghandicraftsis,however,graduallyincreasingamongthelocalpeople,too.Projectsfortherestorationoftemplesandmonumentslaunchedbybothgovernmentandnon-governmentagencieswithinternationalcooperationhavehelpedreviveandsustainhandicraftproductionandtrade,suchasbrickandtilemanufacturing,woodcarving,metalandbronzecasting,stonecarvingandsoon.Infact,handicraftsarethetruemirrorofNepaleseculturalandartisticheritageandreflectthegloriousarttraditionsofthepast.ThefinecraftsmanshipofNepaleseartisanshasnotonlyattractedforeignvisitors,buthasalsoenhancedthecountry’simageabroad.Itisthusoneofthecountry’smostimportantindustrieshavingawideinternationalmarket.Theskillhasbeenhandeddownfromfathertosonandfromonegenerationtoanother.Nepalesehandicrafts,particularlybronzefigures,woodenartwork,pashminashawlsandthangkapaintingshavebeenverypopulargiftitemsamongthetourists.Bronzeartefactslikethesukunda,ortraditionalNepaleseoillamp,prayerwheels,metalbellsandtraditionaldollsaresomeofthehighlypopularsouvenirgiftitemscovetedbythetourists.

MasksMaskdanceshavingreligioussignificancearepopularwiththemassesinthecountry.Masksareusedfordifferentreligiouspurposes,andsomegods,particularlyBhairav,isworshippedinmaskform.IntheKathmanduValley,traditionalmasksaremadebytheChitrakars.Themaskalsorepresentstheculture,religioustraditionand

beliefofthesocietyorcommunity.Ritualisticdancesperformedwithgrotesquemasksandornatecostumesaccompaniedbytraditionalmusicreflectbeautyandgraceaswellasaprideintradition.Inreligiousdances,masksareusedfortwopurposes:firstly,forthedancertoreceivedivinepowerpsychologicallyandsecondly,tosweepawaytheonlookerspsychologicallyfromrealitytotheother

ManiRimduFestival

world.AllmaskdancesobservedinNepalhavesomelegendbehindthem.Woodenmasksarepopularinthenorthernpartsofthecountry,andtheyaremadebytheLamas.TheTamangslivingintheperipheryofthevalleyarefamousfortheirskillinmanufacturingwoodenmasks.Masksarealsoverypopularamongthetouristsassouvenirs.

OTHER SPECIALITIES

Theethnicdressesandornaments

ofNepalrepresentamyriad

collectionofrichculturaldiversity.

Dressesandornamentsdiffer

significantlywithclimateand

regions-asinthehighmountains

andthelowlandsoftheTerai,as

wellasintheeastern,centraland

westernregionswheredifferent

ethnicgroupsdwell.

ChhetriwomenfromFarwest

Other Specialities

Costumes And OrnamentsNepalesecostumesandornamentsareuniqueandvariedintheirownways.Ethnicgroupsandindigenouspeoplehavetheirowntypicalattireformenandwomen.TheethnicdressesandornamentsofNepalrepresentamyriadcollectionofrichculturaldiversity.Dressesandornamentsdiffersignificantlywithclimateandregions-asinthehighmountainsandthelowlandsoftheTerai,aswellasintheeastern,centralandwesternregionswheredifferentethnicgroupsdwell.Normally,Nepalesemenwearalongshirt,ordaura,andtrouser,orsuruwal,whilewomenfolkwearblouse,orcholo,andsari.Thisfemaleattireexudesgraceandbeauty.Nepalesewomeninvariablywearsomeornamentsontheirears,noseorneck.GoldandsilverornamentsarewornbyNepalesewomenaccordingtotheireconomicstatus.MostmarriedNepalesewomenprefertowearalongnecklaceofredbeadscalledpoteywithorwithoutgolddecorationontheirnecksandputredsindoorontheirheadsinbetweenthecentralpartitionofthehair.Marriedwomenwearglassbanglesgenerallyofredcolourontheirwrists.Potey(bead-necklace),red/greenbanglesandsindoorarethetypicalsignsofamarriedwoman.Hindutraditionforbidswidowsofthisluxury.

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Nepalese CuisineCookedrice(bhat)orathickpasteofmaizeormilletpowdercalleddhedo,withsomedal,orlentilsoup,andvegetablecurryandhotpickleformthedailystapleNepalesecuisine.PeopleintheTeraieatroti,aroundpancake-likebreadmadeofwheatflour,withcurryandpickles.Duringfeasts,peoplemakepreparationsofmeat,varietiesofcurriesandsweets.Nepalesecuisineisusuallyspicyandhot.Momo,asmallroundwheatballstuffedwithmeat,isthemostpopularsnackamongthenativesandforeigners.Itiseatenalongwithsomehotandsourpickle.Momoandchhoyela,orsmallpiecesofmeatsteamedorbarbecuedandmixedwithahotpasteofgarlicandotherspices,aregainingpopularityamongforeigners.FooddishesofNepalhavetheirownuniquetasteandtypicalflavourandareagourmet’sdelight.Nepalesenormallyeatfoodwiththehandwhileseatedcross-leggedonthefloor,usuallyuponathickflatwoodenboard,thoughthispracticehaslargelygivenwaytothediningtableandchairintheurbanareas.

Musical InstrumentsMusicisanintegralpartofNepalesefestivities.Thesoundofmany-toneddrums,blastingtrumpetsandclashingcymbalsaccompanythecelebrationoffestivities.Therearenumerousindigenousmusicalinstruments,someveryuniquetoNepal.Someoftheseinstrumentsarepopularthroughoutthecountry,whilesomeareplayedonlylocallyoronspecificoccasions.TheSarangi,orasmallchordophonewhichisplayedbyrunningabowoverthestrings,ismadeandplayedbytheGandharvasorGaines,whoarethetraditionalfolksingersofwesternNepal.Airorwindblowninstruments(aerophones)comeinvariousshapes,sizesandsound.Thefluteisapopularinstrumentplayedwiththemouth.TheSahanaiorPancheyBajaproducesaverymoving

soundandisplayedduringweddings.TheKarnalisanotherairblowninstrumentthatproducesapiercingpowerfulsound.TheNarasingha,PongaandMuhaliareothertypesofinstrumentswhichareplayedduringreligiousandsocialfunctions.

Amongthemembranophones,theDamphuisadouble-sideddiskshapeddrum,toppedwithleatherandwithalongwoodenhandle.Itisplayedbystrikingtheleatherfacewiththefingersandpalm.TheDholorDholakisadouble-headeddrumwidelyusedintheTerairegionofNepalduringpublicfairsandfestivals.Dhimeyisadouble-headedcylindricaldrumwithabigwoodenbody.Itsrightsideisbeatenwithalightwindedcaneandtheleftwiththehandoftheplayer.ItiswidelyusedbytheNewarsoftheKathmanduValley.TheMridangaisadouble-headeddrumwithaheavywoodenbody.Itproducesagentleandpleasantsound.TheMaadalisthemostpopulardrum.Madeofleatherwithawoodenbody,itlargelyaccompaniesfolkmusicanddancesinthehills.

MeditationThepracticeofmeditation(dhyana)isdeeprootedintheNepalesesocietyasitisheldsacredbyboththeHinduandBuddhistfaiths.MeditationisveryprevalentinBuddhismandispractisedwithgreatdevotion.Meditationisapartofyoga.Itblendsthemindandbody,givingwaytospiritualsolace.Seatedinatypicallotusposition(Padmasana),practitionersofmeditationclosetheireyesandchantsacredwords(mantra)like‘Om’synchronisingthemwiththeirbreathing.Meditationisbelievedtobringtranquilharmonytothemind.

AllNepalesehouseholdshaveidolsofdeitiesathome.Thedevoteesworshipthegodseverymorningandevening.Foldingtheirpalmsandclosingtheireyes,theyprayandmeditateforthegoodhealthandprosperityofthefamilyandultimatesalvation(mokshya)oftheselfafterdeath.

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Faith HealersInthehillyvillagesofNepal,oneoftenencounterstheshamans.Typicallyattiredinwhitelongrobes(jama)andsmallroundbells(ghangla)tiedaroundtheirwaist,andheadbedeckedwithfeathers,theseshamans,orjhankrisastheyarecalled,areauniquefacetofNepaleserurallifeinthehills.Theshamansbelieveinanimismandanimalsacrifice.InNepalesevillages,theyperformtheworkofhealersandforecastersofthefuture.TheyparticipateinHinduorBuddhistcommunityfestivalsandcelebrations,thoughtheydonotconsiderthemselvestobedevoteesofeitherreligion.Theycentreontheirownreligiouspracticesofterritorialdeitiesandlife-cyclerituals.

Theyharbourbeliefsinsupernaturalbeingssuchasghosts,spiritsanddemons.TheyplaytheDhyangro,atypeofhand-helddrumwhichisbeatenwithaspecialtypeofring-shapedstick.Theyclaimhavingthepowertodriveawayevilspritstormentingpeople.Theythusfunctionasfaithhealers,drivingawayevilspiritsandcuringthesick.ThefaithhealerssaytheyarepossessedbysomesupernaturalforceorthepowerfulBanDevi,orforestgoddess.Theyalsomaintainhavingtheabilitytoperformmiracles.ThejhankrismakeapilgrimagetoGosainKundaonJanaiPurnimadayinthemonthofAugust.

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