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Child Development Theorists
Sigmund Freud
Neurologist who became known as one of the founding fathers of psychoanalysis
1856-1939
Id, Ego and Super Ego
Id: The seat of our impulses
Ego: Negotiates with the id, pleases the superego
Superego: Keeps us on the straight and narrow
Psychosexual Development Freud believed that personality develops
through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain areas.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life
Psychosexual Development cont.
If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur
Oral Stage
Birth to age 1 infant's primary source of interaction occurs
through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.
conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers.
Fixation at this stage- issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.
Anal Stage Age 1 to 3 years major conflict at this stage is toilet
training--. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
Parents too lenient : anal-expulsive personality could develop Messy, wasteful or destructive
Parents too strict: anal-retentive personality could develop Stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive
Parents should use rewards and praise
Phallic Stage Age 3 to 6 years Children begin to discover the difference
between males and females boys begin to view their fathers as a
rival for the mother’s affections (oedipus complex) but also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings (castration anxiety)
Electra complex is the term he used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls
Latent Period
Age 6 to puberty time of exploration in which the
sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.
important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
Genital Stage
Age puberty to death Develops strong sexual interest in
the opposite sex other stages have been completed
successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm and caring
Jean Piaget
1896-1980 Developmental
psychologist and philosopher
Sensorimotor stage
Birth to 2 years Infant knows the world through
movement and sensations Learns object permanence (things still
exist even though they can’t be seen) They are separate beings Actions can cause things to happen in
the world around them
Preoperational stage
Age 2 to 7 Children begin to think symbolically
and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects. They also tend to be very egocentric, and see things only from their point of view.
Concrete Operational Stage
Age 7 to 11 begin thinking logically about
concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
Formal Operational Stage
Age 12 and up Abstract thought emerges. Teens begin to think more about
moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.
Lev Vygotsky
1896-1934 Developmental
pyschologist
Social Development Theory social interaction has a vital role in the
cognitive development process. Vygotsky argues that social learning
comes first before cognitive development.
cultural development of a child is firstly on the social level called interpsychological, and secondly on the individual or personal level called intrapsychological.
Erik Erikson
1902-1994 Developmental
psychologist
Psychosocial Stages
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.
8 stages
Trust vs. Mistrust
Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
Autonomy vs. Shame Doubt
Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Autonomy: moral responsibility and accountability for one’s actions
Initiative vs. Guilt
Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
B. F. Skinner
1904-1990 Psychologist,
behaviorist, author, inventor, philosopher
Operant Conditioning
changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response.
3 types of Responses
Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.▪ Paying parents $5 when your bed isn’t made, you will begin
to make your bed to avoid paying $5 thus strengthening the behavior to make your bed
Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
Urie Bronfenbrenner
1917-2005 Developmental
psychologist
Ecological Systems Theory
The Micro System direct environment we have in our lives. Your
family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents.
The Mesosystem relationships between the microsystems in one's
life. This means that your family experience may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards his teachers.
The Exosystem setting in which there is a link between the context
where the person does not have any active role, and the context where is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the child's social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.
The Macrosystem actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts
involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world country. For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day.
The Chronosystem transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This may
also involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person. One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple's relationship but also their children's behavior. According to a majority of research, children are negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next years after it would reveal that the interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable.
Lawrence Kohlberg
1927-1987 Psychology
professor at Harvard
Theory of moral development
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
Stage 1 - Obedience and PunishmentAt this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 - Individualism and ExchangeAt this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.
Level 2: Conventional Morality
Stage 3 - Interpersonal RelationshipsOften referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Orderpeople begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
Level 3: Postconventional Morality
Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rightspeople begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
Stage 6 - Universal PrinciplesAt this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.