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© =mcminstitute
10 Years of Knowledge- Communication.orgResults, Insights, Perspectives
Review of a Research Initiative
August 2012
www.knowledge-communication.org
Prof. Martin J. Eppler
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 2
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Intro: Conveying what we know
“The problem with communication is the illusion that it has been accomplished.”
George Bernard Shaw
“Everything that can be said at all, can be said clearly.” Ludwig Wittgenstein
“ What matters is that we make ourselves understood.”Karl Popper
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 3
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Reviewing our Research: 2002-2012
In the last ten years, we have witnessed...
influential knowledge communication research in management, education, applied linguistics, computer science and public policy studies,
the creation of several competence centers focusing on knowledge communication,
several conferences dedicated to the topic, the creation of a chair in knowledge communication, at least 6 publicly funded research projects on knowledge
communication in different contexts.
→ It is time to review the progress in our initiative and in the knowledge communication field.
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 4
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
A look back and ahead in five steps
1. What is our topic and why is it relevant?
2. What have we learned about
communicating knowledge?
3. What was our impact?
4. What are we currently working on?
5. What remains to be done?
Appendix: Typical knowl. comm. problems
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 5
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Our research motivation – 10 years on and still timely
As organizational decision making is increasingly complex and dynamic, the collboration of decision makers and experts becomes an ever more critical component for the quality of decision making in management.
Experts
Knowledge Communication
Decision Makers
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 6
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Our main focus area:Collaborative knowledge work contexts
Engineers LawyersPoliticalAnalysts
RiskAnalysts
Con-sultants
Managers Managers PublicDecisionMakers
Executives Clients
= Knowledge Integration through Communication
ENABLING CONDITIONS FREQUENT MISTAKES METHODS
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 7
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Our main research question remains unchanged
How can the communication between specialists and decision makers be improved with regard to complex, knowledge-intensive issues, specifically in the management domain?
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 8
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Our resulting research mission
Improving the integration of knowledge between experts and decision makers by
1. understanding knowledge communication barriers and
their root causes,
2. developing and evaluating knowledge communication methods and tools.
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 9
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
A look back and ahead in five steps
1. What is our topic and why is it relevant?
2. What have we learned about
communicating knowledge?
3. What was our impact?
4. What are we currently working on?
5. What remains to be done?
Appendix: Typical knowl. comm. problems
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 10
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
What theories have proven useful?
In researching knowledge communication we and other scholars have made use of these informative and useful theories:
Regarding knowledge communication problems– Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller et al.)
– Group communication theory (i.e, Stasser et al.)
– Knowledge creation theory (Nonaka et al.)
– Clarity theory (Groeben, Tausch et al.)
Regarding knowledge communication solutions:– Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST)
– Boundary Object Theory (Star, Carlile et al.)
– Metaphor theory (Black et al.)
– Cognitive dimensions of notation (Green et al.)
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 11
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Our initial conception is still valid: Defining knowledge communication
We define knowledge communication as the (deliberate) activity of interactively conveying and co-constructing insights, assessments, experiences, or skills through verbal and non-verbal means.
The transfer of know-how, know-why, know-what, and know-who through face-to-face or media-based interaction.
Knowledge Communication is more than communicating information because it requires
– conveying context, background, and assumptions,
– conveying personal insights and experiences,
– conveying rationale and reasoning,
– conveying perspective and priorities,
– conveying hunches, intuition, skills (implicit knowledge).
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 12
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Framing: A process model of knowledge communication clarifies key issues
ExpertIdentification
NeedArticulation
AnalysisTransferof Results
Application
Management Tasks Expert Tasks Management Tasks
Who hasthe exper-tise to analyze the issue?
How can I articulate what I need to know?
How can I elicit the relevantinsights?
How canwe optimizeour mutualunder-standing?
How and by whom can theinsights beapplied?
Macro-level Micro-level Macro-level
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 13
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Description: iteration loops in the processhighlight interactive nature of k.com.
ExpertIdentification
NeedArticulation
AnalysisTransferof Results
Application
Revised needs based on use
Revised expert consultation based on experiences
Suggestions foranalyses based on application experiences
Revision ofexpert matching
Refinement ofneed statement
Follow-upanalysis
Follow-upquestions
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 14
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Analysis: key problems in the process
ExpertIdentification
NeedArticulation
AnalysisTransferof Results
Application
Management Tasks Expert Tasks Management Tasks
• Prophet Syndrome• Ingroup Outgroup Problem
• A.S.K. Problem• Big Picture Problem
• Paralysis by Analysis• Yield loss• Context Chasm
• Common Ground Problem• Information Overload
• Knowing Doing Gap• Cassandra Syndrome
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 15
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Typical problems in expert/manager knowledge communication
= The decision maker cannot identify the relevant expert.
= The decision maker cannot convey his/her true or relevant knowledge needs to the expert.
= The expert cannot produce the required analysis (in time, with the right focus, in the right format).
= The expert cannot convey the findings to the decision maker– technical language / perspective / priorities– information overload / complexity– unclear assumptions & consequences– tacit knowledge cannot be verbalized
= The decision maker does not apply the insights of the expert adequately.
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 16
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Solutions to Knowledge Communication Problems
Culturally: fostering informal, iterative exchanges, thus building trust and common ground
Organizationally: creating mixed teams that engage in visual practices and focus on the iterative creation of artefacts of knowing. Jointly visualizing instead of arguing
Technologically: employing knowledge visualization tools and methods (i.e. lets-focus.com)
Personally: improving knowledge communication skills (asking fertile questions, conceptual sketching), leading knowledge dialogues (cultivating openness and constructive feedback)
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 17
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Example: Visualizing Knowledge Dialogues in real time (f2f & virtually)
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 18
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Common templates for graphic knowledge communication
DiagramTypes
linear cyclical linear hierarchical Network Venn Matrix Coordinates
t
continuous
Timeline Process Cycle Spectrum Pyramid Network Venn Matrix Cartesian
Time Series Phases / Steps Relationships Clustering/Positioning
(static) Structure
(dynamic) Process
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 19
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Our initial interactive overview of knowledge templates (visual-literacy.org)
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 20
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Templates for informal knowledge communication (from Sketching at Work)
www.sketchingatwork.com
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 21
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Experimental Results: visual metaphors augment knowledge communication
Our results revealed that visualization-supported management teams outperformed those working without visualization in the following way (Bresciani & Eppler 2009):
Productivity (quantity of information shared): 26 % higher with visualization (13.58 vs. 17.21)
Variety of information shared: 4 times higher with visualization. (0.25 vs. 1.07)
Recall: 45% higher with visualization(5.8 vs 8.46), that means managers recalled almost twice as much from the meetings that were facilitated through visualization than their colleagues who only worked with flipcharts.
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 22
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
A look back and ahead in five steps
1. What is our topic and why is it relevant?
2. What have we learned about
communicating knowledge?
3. What was our impact?
4. What are we currently working on?
5. What remains to be done?
Appendix: Typical knowl. comm. problems
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 23
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Impact: Research Achievements
Best Paper Award 11th International Knowledge Management Conference I’Know 2011, Graz, Austria.
Best Paper Award IEEE 14th International Information Visualization Conference 2010.
Research Award by the International Association of Business Communicators Research Foundation as only second Non-US researcher in 26 years.
European Union’s Information Society Technologies Prize Nominee for lets-focus software (rated as one of Europe’s most innovative software packages)
Carolyn Dexter Best International Paper Award Nominee, Academy of Management Conference, 2011
Research featured in Harvard Business Review, MIT Technology Review, and BusinessWeek, The Guardian, and in O’Reilly Release 2.0 as visualization landmarks, as well as in more than 800 blogs and specialized websites , incl. several US Newspapers
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 24
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Milestones: Key Publications Pfister, R.A., Eppler, M.J. (2012) The Benefits of Sketching for Knowledge Management, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 16 (2). Eppler M.J., Hoffmann F., Bresciani S. (2011). New Business Models through Collaborative Idea Generation. International Journal of Innovation
Management. Vol. 15 (6), 1323-1341. Bresciani, S., Eppler, M.J. (2010) Choosing Knowledge Visualizations to Augment Cognition: the Managers’ View in: IEEE Proceedings of the
International Conference on Information Visualization, IV10, London, 2010. Best paper award Bresciani, S., Eppler, M.J. (2009). The Benefits of Synchronous Collaborative Information Visualization: Evidence from an Experimental
Evaluation. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, Vol. 15 (6), November/December 2009, pp. 1073-1080 Bresciani S., Eppler M.J., Subramanian S.V. (2010). Enhancing Group Information Sharing Through Interactive Visualization: Experimental
Evidence. Academy of Management Meeting, August 6-10 2010, Montreal, Canada. Bischof, N., Comi, A., Eppler, M.J. (2011) Knowledge Visualization in Qualitative Methods – or how can I see what I say? in: Proceedings of the
15th International Conference on Information Visualization. IEEE: London Eppler, M.J., Pfister, R. (2011) Sketching as a Tool for Knowledge Management: An Interdisciplinary Literature Review on its Benefits, in:
Proceedings of the 11th International Conference of Knowledge Management Iknow, Graz. Best paper award. Eppler, M.J., Aeschimann, M. (2009). A Systematic Framework for Risk Visualization in Risk Management and Communication, in: Risk
Management - An International Journal, 11 (2), April 2009: 67-89. Eppler, M., Mengis, J. (2009). Wie Entscheider und Experten reden lernen [How Decision Makers and Experts learn to talk together], Harvard
Business Manager, April: 50-58. Eppler, M., Platts, K. (2009). Visual Strategizing: The Systematic Use of Visualization in the Strategic Planning Process, Long Range Planning
LRP - International Journal of Strategic Management, 42 (1), February: 42-74. Mengis, J., Eppler, M. (2008) Understanding and Managing Conversations from a Knowledge Perspective: An Analysis of the Roles and Rules
of Face-to-face Conversations in Organizations, Organization Studies, 29: 1287-1313. Schmeil, A., Eppler, M.J. (2012) A Structured Approach for Designing Collaboration Experiences for Virtual Worlds, forthcoming in: Journal of
the Association for Information Systems.
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 25
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Milestones: Global Impact
Some of our research studies on knowledge communication have been translated into:– Russian– Arabic– French– Italian– Portuguese– Chinese– Danish– Finnish
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 26
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Milestones: Our Citation Impact (2002-2012) A total of approx. 1580 Citations
Top Cites in the time period:– Information Overload Article: 370 citations– Information Quality book: 240
citations– Harvesting Project Knowledge article: 200 citations– Knowledge Visualization article: 90 citations– Making knowledge visible: 50 citations– Visual Representations In KM article: 50 citations– Visual Strategizing article: 40 citations– Periodic Table of Vis. Article: 40 citations
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 27
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
A Few of the books from the Research Initiative
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 28
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Major studies that we conducted during the time period
IABC Resarch Foundation Study on Information Overload in Communication=mcm
Study on Making the Complex Clear
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 29
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Milestones: Conference Keynotes
Keynotes on Knowledge Communication at the following international conferences:1. Learntec
2. ISTIC
3. European Symposium on Language for Specific Purposes
4. Swiss Economist Day
5. International Knowledge Management Conference Iknow
6. International Information Visualization Conference
7. International KM Conference Krems
8. International KM Conference Passau
9. International Knowledge Communication Conference Aarhus
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 30
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Milestones: Our new Tools and Methods
www.collabcards.comKnowledge communicationCard set and iPhoneApp
Paths to Successcreativity methodand iPad app
www.lets-focus.comKnowledge communication software
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 31
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
A look back and ahead in five steps
1. What is our topic and why is it relevant?
2. What have we learned about
communicating knowledge?
3. What was our impact?
4. What are we currently working on?
5. What remains to be done?
Appendix: Typical knowl. comm. problems
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 32
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Current Focus: Communicating to create new Knowledge: Creability Topic:
– Knowledge-based Collaborative Creativity (Creabillity)
Research Question:– How can experts and decision makers communicate so that
their combined knowledge (through crealogues) gives rise to innovative business ideas?
Employed Research Methods:– Experiments with real-life managers
– In-company testing and deployment
– Focus groups
– Surveys
Link: www.mcm.unisg.ch/Chairs/MCM+1/Projects/Creability.aspx
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 33
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
A look back and ahead in five steps
1. What is our topic and why is it relevant?
2. What have we learned about
communicating knowledge?
3. What was our impact?
4. What are we currently working on?
5. What remains to be done?
Appendix: Typical knowl. comm. problems
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 34
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Future challenges: open research issues
Consolidating existing findings in a systematic theory of knowledge communication among experts and decision makers
Validating the benefits (and drawbacks) of different knowledge visualization methods for different knowledge communication contexts
Developing mobile methods for knowledge communication
Extending the boundaries of knowledge communication research to areas beyond the management context
Exploring the requirements and constraints of communicating knowledge for future generations (long-term knowledge communication)
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 35
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Contact Information
Prof. Martin J. Eppler
Managing Director / Chair of Communications Management
University of St. Gallen (HSG)
=mcm institute for media and communications management
Blumenbergplatz 9
9000 St. Gallen
Switzerland
martin.eppler[at]unisg.ch
www.knowledge-communication.org
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 37
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Knowledge sharing hostility
Knowledge communication fails because the ‘knowledge givers are reluctant to share their insights due to micro politics, strenuous relationships, or due to fear.
Husted & Michailova, 2002
Micropolitics of knowledge
The ‘knowledge claims’ of an expert are discredited by the decision makers due to their differing (hidden) agenda, because of a coalition of people with an alternative view, or due to the expert’s lack of formal authority.
Lazega, 1992
Internal knowledge stickiness
Knowledge can sometimes not be transferred because of arduous relationships, or casual ambiguities regarding the knowledge or because of the lack of absorptive capacity of the knowledge receivers.
Szulanski, 1996, 1999
Knowledge Communication Problems
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 38
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Groupthink A (management) team may not truly listen to the input of an expert because of the team’s group coherence and group dynamics sometimes block outside advice and feel omniscient.
Janis, 1982
Information overload An individual is sometimes not able to integrate new information into the decision making process because too much complex information has to be interpreted too quickly.
O’Reilly, 1980, Eppler & Mengis, 2004
Self/Other effect Individuals tend to discount advice and favor their own opinion.
Yaniv & Kleinberger, 2000
Knowing-Doing gap / Smart talk trap
Sometimes organization know where a problem resides and how to tackle it, but do not move from knowledge to action (due to unhealthy internal competition or lacking follow-up).
Pfeffer & Sutton, 2000
Knowledge Communication Problems
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 39
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Absorptive capacity Limited ability of organization and its decision makers to integrate the knowledge of experts based on lack of prior knowledge, required time or effort.
Bower and Hilgard, 1981; Cohen & Levinthal, 1990
Paradox of expertise Experts sometimes find it difficult to articulate their knowledge or rephrase their insights in a way that a non-experts can understand. Sometimes experts indicate other rules than they actually apply.
Johnson, 1983
Ingroup outgroup behavior
We tend to interact more with likewise groups than with others thus reducing our changes to acquire radically new knowledge.
Blau, 1977
Task closure In our communication ,we may choose to use a one way communication medium because it permits us to close an open task without having to have a conversation. Thus leaner communi-cation channels are used than may be necessary. In other words: We tend to want to close a communication pro-cess in order to complete a task.
Straub & Karahanna, 1998; Meyer, 1962
Knowledge Communication Problems
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 40
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Set-up to fail syndrome Managers are projecting their initial expectation of an expert’s likely performance unto him/her, leading to the self-fulfilling prophecy of (at times) lower performance. This is aggravated by de-motivating feedback to the expert.
Manzoni and Barsoux, 2002
ASK problem Anomalous State of Knowledge: when a decision maker does not have the knowledge base to really know what to ask for. People need to know quite a bit about a topic to be able to ask or search for relevant information.
Belkin, 1980 ; Chen et al., 1992
Not-Invented here syndrome
Knowledge from others is sometimes rejected because it originated elsewhere.
Katz & Allen, 1982
False consensus effect We assume others see situations as we do, and fail to revise our framing.
Manzoni & Barsoux, 2002
Inert knowledge The knowledge that the decision maker has acquired from the expert does not come to mind when it is needed or useful for decision making or actions. The transferred knowledge is stuck in the situation where it has been acquired.
Whitehead, 1929
Knowledge Communication Problems
10 YearsKnowledge-
Communication.orgPage 41
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG
www.knowledge-communication.org
Hidden profile problem
You don’t know other’s background, what they know and could contribute. The only knowledge that is consequently shared is what is expected by everyone.
Stasser 1992; Stasser and Stewart, 1992
Common knowledge effect
The tendency of a group to focus merely on commonly shared (rather than unique) pieces of information.
Gigone & Hastie, 1993
Lack of common ground
Common ground refers to the manager’s and expert’s assumptions about their shared background beliefs about the world. If those assumptions are wrong or inconsistent communication becomes more difficult.
Clark and Schäfer, 1989, Olson & Olson, 2000
Cassandra syndrome The decision makers do not give sufficient weight or attention to an expert’s warning because they face many other important problems. Only when the situation has deteriorated dramatically do they start taking the expert’s advice.
Mikalachki, 1983
Knowledge Communication Problems