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The Time Period Of Jesus' Earthly Ministry

M S M Saifullah, Muhammad Ghoniem & `Abdullah David

© Islamic Awareness, All Rights Reserved.

First Composed: 7th March 2006

Last Updated: 26th April 2006

Assalamu-`alaykum wa rahamatullahi wa barakatuhu:

1. Introduction

He will speak to people in his infancy [al-mahd] and in his adulthood [kahlan]. He will be one of

the righteous. [Qur'an 3:46]

Then God will say, "Jesus, son of Mary! Remember My favour to you and to your mother: how I

strengthened you with the holy spirit, so that you spoke to people in your infancy [al-mahd] and

as a grown man [kahlan] ... [Qur'an 5:110]

On the basis of the above translated English verse, it has been claimed by the

Christian missionaries that the Qur'an says Jesus taught people in his "old age".

According to them:

The ministry of Jesus lasted until he was about 33. This is even admitted by Yusuf Ali in his

comment no. 388 on Sura 3:46.

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But Sura 5:110 says he taught the people in (up to his) old age. Can 33 years considered "old

age" by any stretch of imagination?

The missionaries also add that the ministry of Jesus lasted until he was "about 33".

According to them, one strand of evidence for this claim comes from Abdullah Yusuf

Ali's (1872 – 1953 CE) commentary in the footnotes of his English translation of the

Qur'an. In this paper we would like to examine the claim whether the Qur'an really

says that Jesus preached when he was in his "old age". Is there any agreement

amongst Judeo-Christian scholars concerning Jesus' age or other periods of time

associated with his earthly life? All these issues will be the focus of our investigation,

establishing beyond doubt whose "stretch of imagination" is in consonance with the

lexical, exegetical and chronological data.

2. Does The Qur'an Say "Old Age"?: A Lexical Enquiry

It is quite strange that the Christian missionaries used Yusuf Ali's footnote concerning

Jesus' earthly ministry to be of about 33 years and yet did not follow his translation of

Qur'an 3:46. Instead they chose Shakir's translation which says that Jesus will speak

to people "when in the cradle and when of old age". Yusuf Ali, on the other hand,

correctly translates the verse as Jesus speaking to people "in childhood and in

maturity", as we shall soon see.

While discussing the time when Jesus spoke to the people, the Qur'an in 3:46 as well

as 5:110 uses the word al-mahdi and kahlan. The word mahd refers to a place

smoothed out for a small child to sleep in. It does not refer to a piece of furniture such

as a cradle,[1] although Shakir has translated it this way. What about kahlan? What age

does it refer to? Christian missionaries following in the footsteps of the Qur'anic

translator Shakir have claimed that it refers to "old age". On the contrary, Lisān al-‘Arab says concerning the word kahl:

Al-Kahl refer to one whose hair has gone gray and appears to be old or over 30 years or over 34

years up to 51 years. The plural takes various forms: kahlūn, kuhūl, kihāl, kuhlān and kuhhal.

The feminine is kahlah.

Similar statements can also be found in Al-Qāmūs al-Muhīt. From the discussion in

both Lisān al-‘Arab and Al-Qāmūs al-Muhīt, it is clear that a person who is a kahl can have an age anywhere between 30 to 50 years. This range of ages is commonly

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associated with peak physical strength and maturity of thought. Al-Razī discusses the

issue of kahlan in detail in his Tafsīr al-Kabīr. He points out that kahl refers to what

has become fully fledged and perfect. In the case of a person, it refers to someone

who has reached the peak of his physical strength. In detail, al-Razī's tafsīr explains:

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This raises three questions.

1. What is the meaning of kahlan ?

Linguistically speaking, kahl refers to a person being of full strength and youth. It is derived

from the Arabic expression iktahala an-nabāt with regard to a plant becoming strong and fully

fledged. For instance, al-A‘shā said:

yudāhiku ash-shamsa minhā kawkabu sharqin mu'azzarun bi-hamīmi an-nabti muktahili

....

He meant by muktahil, a plant of infinite beauty and perfection.

2. His speaking in al-mahd is a miracle, whereas speaking as a grown up person is not, why

mention it ?

The answer bears on various considerations. Firstly, the intent was to emphasize the changes he

went through from childhood to adulthood, while such changes are impossible for God Almighty.

This came in reply to the delegation of Najrān who claimed that Jesus was a god. Secondly, that

he spoke once in al-mahd to prove the innocence of his mother, and later when he was a kahl

he spoke out of revelation and prophethood. Thirdly, Abū Muslim said that it meant he spoke in

al-mahd and being a kahl in a similar fashion which is truly a miracle. Fourthly, al-Asam said

that it meant he would reach the age of being a kahl.

3. It was reported that Jesus - peace be upon him - was 33 years and six months old when he

was elevated. Under this assumption, he was not a kahl.

The answer is two fold. Firstly, we have explained earlier that, with regard to Arabic language,

the word kahl refers to what has become fully fledged and perfect. The most perfect state of the

human being is indeed between 30 and 40 years. It is, therefore, correct to refer to him as

being a kahl. Secondly, according to al-Husayn ibn al-Fadl al-Bajlī, the expression wa kahlan

refers to his being a kahl after his descent from heaven at the end of time; he will then speak to

people and kill the Dajjal. Al-Husayn ibn al-Fadl said: This verse proves that he - peace be upon

him - will come down on earth.

From a lexical and exegetical standpoint, it is clear that the word kahl or its derivative

kahlan used in the Qur'anic verse does not refer in any way whatsoever to an "old

age". It refers to a range of ages between 30 to 50 years when a person reaches his

peak physical strength. Totally incapable of engaging with the original classical

Arabic, it is evident the missionaries resorted to a ‘Pick n’ Mix’ strategy and

purposefully conflated two English translations of the Qur'an, namely those of Shakir

and Ali, using the translated verse of the former and the footnotes of the later, in order

to generate a "contradiction" that has never existed. In fact, the translations by Yusuf

Ali, Pickthal and others clearly refers to kahlan as an age of maturity/manhood –

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obviously clearly ignored by the missionaries at their peril, forcing them to adopt an

untenable position, which, through scant investigation, can be summarily dismissed.

The age of Jesus in the Islamic literature comes from Christian sources. As far as we

are aware, and Allah knows best, there is no authentic Prophetic tradition which

mentions the length of Jesus' earthly ministry. The typical age which is usually cited

in both Christian and Islamic literature for the duration of Jesus' ministry is about 33

years. The age of Jesus' earthly ministry has been a subject of intense dispute for

nearly 2000 years and it is to this we will now turn our attention.

3. Jesus' Birth, Ministry And Alleged Crucifixion: Unresolved

Chronological Controversy

The Christian missionaries have claimed that the ministry of Jesus lasted "until he was

about 33" years old. To support their claim, they used Yusuf Ali's commentary in the

footnotes of his English translation of the Qur'an.[2] This is rather strange. One would

expect a scholar who specializes in New Testament chronology criticism to be

mentioned in support of the dating. Although considered as a very able translator,

Yusuf Ali is not known to be a chronologist of either the New Testament or the Old

Testament.

Dating Jesus' birth and his alleged crucifixion is fraught with difficulties. These two

dates were debated from very early times; from Irenaeus (c. 120 – c. 202 CE) until

today there is no consensus whatsoever amongst the scholars. This is not surprising.

The historical data mentioned in the Gospels have their own inconsistencies.

Depending upon which data from the Gospels are used and which data are excluded,

there is an enormous impact on dating certain time periods associated with the life of

Jesus. Table I below lists the dating of Jesus' birth, his alleged crucifixion and in some

cases his age as deduced by various scholars.

Author Date of Jesus' Birth Date of Jesus'

Alleged Crucifixion

Approximate Time Period of Jesus' Ministry (Years)

Irenaeus[3] — — 40 - 50

Theodor Keim[4] — 35 CE —

Robert Anderson[5] Autumn 4 BCE 32 CE 35

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C. H. Turner[6] 7 or 6 BCE 29 CE 35 or 36

Alfred Loisy[7] — 29 CE —

Kirsopp Lake[8] — 36 CE —

Richard W. Husband[9]

6 or 5 BCE 33 CE 38 or 39

E. Power[10] — 33 CE —

Robert Eisler[11] — 21 CE —

J. K. Fotheringham[12] — Friday, 3rd April, 33

CE —

George Ogg[13] — Friday, 3rd April, 33

CE —

A. T. Olmstead[14] 20 BCE Friday, 7th April, 30

CE 50

T. Corbishley[15] 8 BCE — 40

E. Bammel[16] — 32 CE —

Josef Blinzler[17] — Friday, 7th April, 30

CE —

Ethelbert Stauffer[18] 7 BCE 32 CE 40

Paul Winter[19] — 28 CE —

George Ogg[20] 8 or 7 BCE Friday, 3rd April, 33

CE 40 or 41

George Ogg[21] 11 or 10 or 9 BCE Friday, 3rd April, 33

CE 42 or 43 or 44

Jack Finegan[22] Winter 5 / 4 BCE Friday, 7th April, 30

CE 34

Eugen Ruckstuhl[23] — Friday, 7th April, 30

CE —

Joachim Jeremias[24] — Friday, 7th April, 30

CE —

Paul L. Maier[25] — Friday, 3rd April, 33

CE —

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Bo Reicke[26] — 33 CE —

Hugh J. Schonfield[27] — 36 CE —

Harold W. Hoehner[28] Winter 5 / 4 BCE Friday, 3rd April, 33

CE 37

Armstrong & Finegan[29]

7 - 4 BCE Friday, 7th April, 30

CE 34 - 37

Eerdmans Bible Dictionary[30]

7 or 6 BCE Friday, 7th April, 30

CE 36 or 37

Nikos Kokkinos[31] 12 BCE 36 CE 48

Jerry Vardaman[32] 12 BCE 21 CE 33

Paul L. Maier[33] Winter 5 BCE Friday, 3rd April, 33

CE 37

Colin Humphreys & W. G. Waddington[34]

— Friday, 3rd April, 33

CE —

Ernest L. Martin[35] 3 or 2 BCE — —

Douglas Johnson[36] ~ 4 BCE — —

Konradin Ferrari-D'Occhieppo[37]

7 BCE — —

Paul L. Maier[38] Winter 5 - 4 BCE Friday, 3rd April, 33

CE 37

John P. Meier[39] 7 or 6 BCE Friday, 7th April, 30

CE 36 or 37

E. Jerry Vardaman[40] 12 BCE 21 CE 33

Jack V. Scarola[41] 6 BCE — —

Table I: Dating of Jesus' birth and his alleged crucifixion as deduced from the time of Irenaeus

until today. This is not a comprehensive list. Clearly, there is no consensus among the scholars

about the dates. George Ogg is mentioned twice to highlight how quickly scholars can change

their mind on matters of dating.

It is clear from Table I that Jesus' earthly ministry could have lasted from anywhere

between 33 years to 50 years, depending upon the methodology used by the scholars

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to date the birth and alleged crucifixion. Statistically, it appears to be close to around

40 years.

We do not wish to enter into the less than edifying debate concerning the date of

Jesus' birth, length of ministry and alleged crucifixion, but we would like to point out

that perhaps the most comprehensive work in recent times comes from Nikos

Kokkinos.[42] His work also appears to have been accepted by historians like Robert

Lane Fox[43] and Fergus Millar.[44] According to him, John the Baptist's chronology is

directly linked to the marriage of Antipas and Herodias. This marriage is connected to

the dating of Agrippa I (Herodias' brother) and raises several interesting and crucial

points. Therefore, any attempt at dating Jesus' alleged crucifixion becomes a matter of

Herodian chronology. Herodian chronology prevents the Baptist's death occurring

before 35 CE, and thus Jesus' alleged crucifixion before 36 CE. Kokkinos places the

date of birth and the date of the alleged crucifixion of Jesus around 12 BCE and 36

CE respectively; thus giving Jesus' age around 48 years. The use of Herodian

chronology to date the alleged crucifixion is not new. It was used by Theodor Keim,

Kirsopp Lake and Hugh Schonfield to date Jesus' alleged crucifixion to 36 CE (see

Table I). But it is the work of Nikos Kokkinos which brought it back to the fore.

4. Conclusions

It was claimed by the Christian missionaries that according to the Qur'an (Al-Maeda

5:110) Jesus taught the people "in (up to his) old age". They rhetorically asked, "Can

33 years considered "old age" by any stretch of imagination?" More important than

the sarcastic rhetoric is whether or not the "facts" provided by the missionaries stand

up to scrutiny in the face of lexical, exegetical and chronological evidence. An

examination of the Qur'anic verse 5:110 along with 3:46 revealed that the word used

for what has been translated as "old age" by Shakir, this English translation

subsequently specifically adopted by the missionaries, is kahlan. The word kahl, from

which kahlan is derived, signifies the age when a person has reached his peak

physical strength – a range of ages anywhere between 30 and 50 years. Therefore, it is

quite clear that kahl does not in any way whatsoever refer to "old age". The

missionaries have resorted to a ‘Pick n’ Mix’ strategy and purposefully conflated two

English translations of the Qur'an, namely those of Shakir and Yusuf Ali, using the

translated verse of the former and the footnotes of the later, in order to generate a

"contradiction" that has never existed.

It was also claimed by the Christian missionaries that the earthly ministry of Jesus

lasted for about 33 years. To support their claim, they cited Yusuf Ali's commentary

in the footnotes of his English translation of the Qur'an – clearly a non-specialist in

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the sphere of New Testament chronology criticism. The age of Jesus' earthly ministry

has been the subject of intense dispute since the advent of Christianity. In modern

times, there has been no consensus among the New Testament chronologists about the

date of the birth and alleged crucifixion of Jesus. The discrepancy arises due to the

fact that the historical data mentioned in the Gospels are inconsistent with each other.

Depending upon which data from the Gospels are used and which data are excluded,

there is an enormous impact on dating certain time periods associated with the life of

Jesus. This is clearly reflected in the broad range of dates adduced for Jesus' earthly

ministry – a time span that could have lasted from anywhere between 33 years to 50

years depending upon the methodology used by the scholars to date the birth and

alleged crucifixion.

And Allah knows best!

References & Notes

[1] M. A. S. Abdel Haleem, The Qur'an: A New Translation, 2005, Oxford

University Press, p. 38, footnote a.

[2] Y. Ali, The Holy Qur'ān: English Translation Of The Meaning And Commentary, 1410 AH, King Fahd Holy Qur'ān Printing Complex: Al-Madinah al-

Munawarah, p. 154, note 388.

[3] Rev. A. Roberts & J. Donaldson (Eds.), Ante-Nicene Christian Library: Translation of The Writings Of The Fathers Down To A.D. 325, 1868, Volume

5(I), Irenæus, T & T Clark: Edinburgh, pp. 200-202.

[4] T. Keim (Trans. A. Ransom), The History Of Jesus Of Nazara Freely Investigated In Its Connection With The National Life Of Israel And Related In Detail, 1879, Volume IV, Williams and Norgate: London & Edinburgh, pp. 222-223;

T. Keim (Trans. A. Ransom), The History Of Jesus Of Nazara Freely Investigated In Its Connection With The National Life Of Israel And Related In Detail, 1883,

Volume VI, Williams and Norgate: London & Edinburgh, pp. 234-244.

[5] R. Anderson, The Coming Prince: The Last Great Monarchy Of Christendom,

1882, Second Revised Edition, Hodder and Stoughton: London, pp. 88-105.

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[6] C. H. Turner, "Chronology Of The New Testament" in J. Hastings (Ed.), A Dictionary Of The Bible Dealing With Its Language, Literature And Contents Including The Biblical Theology, 1898, Volume 1, pp. 403-415.

[7] A. Loisy, Les Évangiles Synoptiques, 1907, Volume 1, Chez l'Auteur: Ceffonds

(Haute-Marne), pp. 386-389; A. Loisy, Les Évangiles Synoptiques, 1908, Volume 2,

Chez l'Auteur: Ceffonds (Haute-Marne), p. 490.

[8] K. Lake, "The Date Of Herod's Marriage With Herodias And The Chronology

Of The Gospels", The Expositor, 1912, Volume 4 (8th Series), pp. 462-477.

[9] R. W. Husband, "The Year Of The Crucifixion", Transactions Of The American Philological Association, 1915, Volume 46, pp. 5-27. Husband appears to

accept the year of birth of Jesus to be 6 or 5 BCE.

[10] E. Power, "John 2, 20 And The Date Of The Crucifixion", Biblica, 1928,

Volume 9, pp. 257-288.

[11] R. Eisler (English Edition by A. H. Krappe), The Messiah Jesus And John The Baptist According To Flavius Josephus' Recently Discovered 'Capture Of Jerusalem' And The Other Jewish And Christian Sources, 1931, Methuen & Co.

Ltd.: London, pp. 16-20.

[12] J. K. Fotheringham, "The Evidence Of Astronomy And Technical Chronology

For The Date Of The Crucifixion", Journal Of The Theological Studies, 1934,

Volume 35, pp. 146-162.

[13] G. Ogg, The Chronology Of The Public Ministry Of Jesus, 1940, Cambridge

At The University Press, p. 277.

[14] A. T. Olmstead, "The Chronology Of Jesus' Life", Anglican Theological Review, 1942, Volume 24, No. 1, pp. 1-26. For the critique of Olmstead's position see

C. H. Kraeling, "Olmstead's Chronology Of The Life Of Jesus", Anglican Theological Review, 1942, Volume 24, No. 4, pp. 334-354.

[15] T. Corbishley, "The Date Of Our Lord's Birth", Scripture, 1946, Volume 1, No.

4, pp. 77-80.

[16] E. Bammel, "Φιλοζ τον Καισαδοζ", Theologische Literaturzeitung, 1952,

Volume 77, No. 4, cols. 206-210.

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[17] J. Blinzler (Trans. Isabel and Florence McHugh), The Trial Of Jesus: The Jewish And Roman Proceedings Against Jesus Christ Described And Assessed From The Oldest Accounts By Josef Blinzler, 1959, The Mercier Press Ltd.: Cork,

pp. 72-80.

[18] E. Stauffer, Jesus And His Story, 1960, SCM Press Ltd: London, pp. 22-43 and

pp. 91-110.

[19] P. Winter, On The Trial Of Jesus, 1961, Studia Judaica (Volume 1), Walter de

Gruyter & Co.: Berlin, p. 175, note 5.

[20] G. Ogg, "Chronology Of The New Testament" in J. D. Douglas (Ed.), The New Bible Dictionary, 1962, The Intervarsity Fellowship: London, pp. 223-228.

In the second edition of this dictionary Ogg says that Jesus was born not later than 4

BCE and his ministry may have ended in 30 CE or 33 CE. See G. Ogg, "Chronology

Of The New Testament" in J. D. Douglas (Organizing Editor), New Bible Dictionary, 1984, Second Edition, Inter-varsity Press: Leicester and Tyndale House

Publishers: Wheaton (IL), pp. 201-202.

[21] G. Ogg, "Chronology Of The New Testament" in M. Black and H. H. Rowley

(Eds.), Peake's Commentary On The Bible, 1962, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, pp.

728-730.

[22] J. Finegan, Handbook Of Biblical Chronology: Principles Of The Time Reckoning In The Ancient World And Problems Of Chronology In The Bible,

1964, Princeton University Press: Princeton (NJ), pp. 298-301. He considers that an

earlier date of the Nativity around 6-7 BCE is also possible.

[23] E. Ruckstuhl (Trans. V. J. Drapela), Chronology Of The Last Days Of Jesus: A Critical Study, 1965, Desclee Company, Inc., pp. 1-12.

[24] J. Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words Of Jesus, 1966, SCM Press Ltd: London,

pp. 36-41.

[25] P. L. Maier, "Sejanus, Pilate, And The Date Of The Crucifixion", Church History, 1968, Volume 37, pp. 3-13.

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[26] B. Reicke (Trans. D. E. Green), The New Testament Era: The World Of The Bible From 500 B.C. To A.D. 100, 1968, Adams & Charles Black: London, pp. 183-

184.

[27] H. J. Schonfield, The Pentecost Revolution: The Story Of The Jesus Party In Israel, A.D. 36-66, 1974, Macdonald and Jane's: London, pp. 46-47, pp. 51-53, p.

308.

[28] H. W. Hoehner, Chronological Aspects Of The Life Of Christ, 1978,

Zondervan Publishing House: Grand Rapids (MI), p. 27 and p. 114 for conclusions.

[29] W. P. Armstrong & J. Finegan, "Chronology Of The NT" in G. W. Bromiley

(Gen. Ed.), The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 1979 (Fully Revised,

Illustrated), Volume I, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company: Grand Rapids

(MI), pp. 686-689.

[30] "Chronology, Biblical" in A. C. Myers (Ed.), The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary,

1987, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company: Grand Rapids (MI), p. 214.

[31] N. Kokkinos, "Crucifixion in A.D. 36: The Keystone For Dating The Birth Of

Jesus" in J. Vardaman & E. M. Yamauchi (Ed.), Chronos Kairos Christos: Nativity And Chronological Studies Presented To Jack Finegan, 1989, Eisenbrauns:

Winona Lake, pp. 133-163.

[32] J. Vardaman, "Jesus' Life: A New Chronology" in J. Vardaman & E. M.

Yamauchi (Ed.), Chronos Kairos Christos: Nativity And Chronological Studies Presented To Jack Finegan, 1989, op. cit., pp. 55-82.

[33] P. L. Maier, "The Date Of The Nativity And The Chronology of Jesus' Life"

in J. Vardaman & E. M. Yamauchi (Ed.), Chronos Kairos Christos: Nativity And Chronological Studies Presented To Jack Finegan, 1989, op. cit., pp. 113-130.

[34] C. J. Humphreys & W. G. Waddington, "Astronomy And The Date Of

Crucifixion" in J. Vardaman & E. M. Yamauchi (Ed.), Chronos Kairos Christos: Nativity And Chronological Studies Presented To Jack Finegan, 1989, op. cit., pp.

165-181.

[35] E. L. Martin, "The Nativity And Herod's Death" in J. Vardaman & E. M.

Yamauchi (Ed.), Chronos Kairos Christos: Nativity And Chronological Studies Presented To Jack Finegan, 1989, op. cit., pp. 85-92.

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[36] D. Johnson, "And They Went Eight Stades Toward Herodeion" in J. Vardaman

& E. M. Yamauchi (Ed.), Chronos Kairos Christos: Nativity And Chronological Studies Presented To Jack Finegan, 1989, op. cit., pp. 93-99.

[37] K. Ferrari-D'Occhieppo, "The Star Of The Magi And Babylonian Astronomy"

in J. Vardaman & E. M. Yamauchi (Ed.), Chronos Kairos Christos: Nativity And Chronological Studies Presented To Jack Finegan, 1989, op. cit., pp. 41-53.

[38] P. L. Maier, In The Fullness Of Time: A Historian Looks At Christmas, Easter, And The Early Church, 1991, HarperSanFrancisco: New York, p. 25 and p.

153.

[39] J. P. Meier, A Marginal Jew: Rethinking The Historical Jesus, 1991, Volume 1

(The Roots of the Problems and the Person), Anchor Bible Reference Library,

Doubleday: New York, pp. 372-409. The summary is in pp. 406-409.

[40] E. J. Vardaman, "A Provisional Chronology Of The New Testament: Jesus

Through Paul's Early Years" in E. J. Vardaman (Ed.), Chronos Kairos Christos II: Chronological, Nativity, And Religious Studies In Memory Of Ray Summers,

1998, Mercer University Press: Macon (GA), pp. 313-320.

[41] J. V. Scarola, "A Chronology Of The Nativity Era " in E. J. Vardaman (Ed.),

Chronos Kairos Christos II: Chronological, Nativity, And Religious Studies In Memory Of Ray Summers, 1998, op. cit., pp. 61-84.

[42] N. Kokkinos, "Crucifixion in A.D. 36: The Keystone For Dating The Birth Of

Jesus" in J. Vardaman & E. M. Yamauchi (Ed.), Chronos Kairos Christos: Nativity And Chronological Studies Presented To Jack Finegan, 1989, op. cit., pp. 133-163.

[43] R. L. Fox, The Unauthorized Version: Truth And Fiction In The Bible, 1993,

Vintage Books: New York, pp. 27-36 especially pp. 33-35. Also see notes on pp. 422-

423.

[44] F. Millar, "Reflections On The Trials Of Jesus" in P. R. Davies & R. T. White,

A Tribute To Geza Vermes: Essays On Jewish And Christian Literature And History, 1990, Journal For The Study Of The Old Testament Supplement Series 100,

Sheffield Academic Press: Sheffield (UK), pp. 355-381, especially note 1 on p. 380.

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For a contrary view see J. P. Meier, A Marginal Jew: Rethinking The Historical Jesus, 1991, Volume 1 (The Roots of the Problems and the Person), Anchor Bible

Reference Library, op. cit., pp. 419-420, note 57and pp. 430-431, note 111.

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