English Grammar

Contents

Sentences.......................................................................................................................................................3

Parts of Speech.............................................................................................................................................3Number......................................................................................................................................................3Pronouns....................................................................................................................................................3Verbs..........................................................................................................................................................3Adverbs......................................................................................................................................................4Nouns.........................................................................................................................................................4Adjectives..................................................................................................................................................4Determiners................................................................................................................................................4Prepositions................................................................................................................................................4Conjunctions..............................................................................................................................................4

Parts of a Sentence.......................................................................................................................................5Subject, Verb, Object.................................................................................................................................5Transitive & Intransitive Verbs.................................................................................................................5Direct & Indirect Objects...........................................................................................................................5Complements.............................................................................................................................................5Adverbials..................................................................................................................................................5

The Verb Phrase..........................................................................................................................................6Main Verbs................................................................................................................................................6Auxiliary Verbs..........................................................................................................................................6Modal Verbs..............................................................................................................................................7Tenses & Conjugation...............................................................................................................................8Future Reference........................................................................................................................................8Active & Passive........................................................................................................................................9Negatives...................................................................................................................................................9To Be........................................................................................................................................................10To Have....................................................................................................................................................10To Do.......................................................................................................................................................10Phrasal Verbs...........................................................................................................................................11Contracted Forms.....................................................................................................................................11Verb Phrase Structure..............................................................................................................................12

The Noun Phrase........................................................................................................................................13Premodifiers.............................................................................................................................................13Postmodifiers...........................................................................................................................................13Determiners..............................................................................................................................................13Pronouns..................................................................................................................................................14Types of Noun.........................................................................................................................................14Prepositions..............................................................................................................................................16

Complements..............................................................................................................................................16

Adverbials...................................................................................................................................................17

Adjectives....................................................................................................................................................17

Adverbs.......................................................................................................................................................17

Sentence Word Orders..............................................................................................................................18Neutral Word Order.................................................................................................................................18Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative.....................................................................................................18Focusing...................................................................................................................................................18Declarative...............................................................................................................................................19Interrogative.............................................................................................................................................19

Sentences and Clauses...............................................................................................................................21Coordinating Clauses...............................................................................................................................21Subordinating Clauses.............................................................................................................................22

Summary.....................................................................................................................................................23

Sentences

A sentence is made up of words, each word belongs to a class, these classes are called the parts of speech. Grammar describes how we put those words together. A sentence also contains punctuation.

Sentence: Can contain zero or more clauses. A sentence with a single clause is called a simple sentence.Clause: A group of words that contain a verb, the subject of that verb, often an object, and others.Phrase: A group of words that go together naturally.

e.g: Sentence: I used to live there, but then the other day I moved here. Clause: I live in Bromley. He arrived on Friday.No clause: Certainly not. No way. Yes. Why?Phrase: The other day, over the hill, my friend Henry.

Parts of Speech

Verb

Verb: An action or state of being (the doing word).

Main verb: An ordinary verb that describes an action.Auxiliary verb: A special group of verbs used with a main verb to form a different tense.

e.g: Main verb: walk, run, go, thinkAuxiliary verb: I am thinking, He has seen it, I can help, We might go.

Noun

Noun: A word that labels a thing or an idea (a naming word).

e.g: table, book, cat, thing, timeSue, John, London, Thursday

Pronoun

Pronoun: Is used to replace a noun. and indirectly identifies a person or thing.Can be used to avoid repeating a noun.

e.g: He is here. I saw him. This is a box.Gary saw Sue, so he asked her to help.The table was heavy, so it was left.

First Person: The person speaking.Second Person: The person being spoken to.Third Person: The person being spoken about (a third person, not speaker or spoken to).

Singular PluralFirst Person: I WeSecond Person: You YouThird Person: He, She, It They

Number

Number: Pronouns or nouns can be singular or plural in grammatical value.

Singular: Only one item or object.Plural: Many or more than one item.

Adjective

Adjective: Gives more information about a noun (a describing word).

e.g: A tall man, the new wide-screen television, the big round blue box.

Adverb

Adverb: Gives more information about a verb (how, where, when).Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to the end of an adjective.When a preposition is used in front of a noun, this also creates an adverb.

e.g: She ran quickly, he lifted it carefully.Fortunately, the rain stopped. Honestly I can't help it.He will be coming in the morning.

Determiner

Determiner: Used to point more precisely to the person or thing being talked about.

e.g: the, a, my, their, this, that

Preposition

Preposition: Used with nouns or verbs to give information about position or movement.

e.g: on, over, in, at

Conjunction

Conjunction: Joins two or more clauses together (a joining word)

e.g: and, but.I went to the shop and bought some bread, but forgot the milk.

Parts of a Sentence

Subject, Verb, Object

Subject: A pronoun or noun phrase, usually comes before the verb.Verb: A verb or verb phrase containing the main and possibly auxiliary verbs.Object: A pronoun or noun phrase, usually comes after the verb.

Subject Verb Objecte.g: Jack threw the tennis ball

The men are fighting the large enemy armyJack was running

Transitive & Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive: When a verb does not have an object.Transitive: When a verb has an object.Ditransitive: When a verb takes both an indirect and a direct object.

e.g: Intransitive: John fainted. I ran.Transitive: I like music. I want a car. I drove my car.Ditransitive: Mike owes Tom two pounds.

Direct & Indirect Objects

Direct Object: The item or noun phrase upon which the verb or action is being performed.Indirect Object: Some verbs name a person to or for whom they are done.

For example: give, owe, find, buy, make, call, appoint.

e.g: Direct: Mike owes two pounds. Rory found a pen. I was writing a letter.Indirect: Mike owes Tom two pounds. Rob gave me a box. She bought him a present.

Complements

Complement: Required with certain (linking) verbs to provide further detail about the subject.For example: be, seem, feel, become.

e.g: Andrew is a mechanic. He is very tall. He felt a bit silly.They became good friends.

Adverbials

Adverbial: Can be added to a phrase to give extra detail to the verb (also called an adjunct).Can be an adverb, or adverbial phrase or clause.

e.g: Suddenly, it started to rain heavily.In the morning, the sky was clear. You won't notice it after a while.I'll get some for you when I've finished the drinks. Mark played while Isabel sang.

The Verb Phrase

Verb: A word that allows us to talk about activities, processes, and states of being and mind.Verbs can be split into two major groups, main verbs and auxiliary verbs.

Verb phrase: The group of words used to describe the verb.

Simple verb: When the verb phrase is a single word.Compound verb: When the verb phrase consists of one or more auxiliary verbs.

Main verb: The main verb describing the action.Auxiliary verb: Used with the main verb to define tense, certainty, or completion.

e.g: Main verb: I run. He walked.Auxiliary verb: I was running. I might run. He will have been there.

Main Verbs

Main verb: The main action being described by the phrase. Can be classified in the following ways:

Actions: kick, run, drive, seeStates: belong, hate, like, feel, knowLinking: be, seem, feel, becomeTransitive: (See above)Intransitive: (See above)Ditransitive: (See above)Regular: talk, walkIrregular: run, swim, go

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verb: Used to support and give extra meaning to the main verb. Can be used to form a tense, give extra information, or for emphasis. Can be categorised into:

Primary: Used to from the perfect and progressive tenses.Modal: Used to describe the future, possibility, probability, or necessity.Supporting: Used to form emphasis, questions, or negatives.

Primary: have, beModal: can, will, must, might, may, should, would, could, oughtSupporting: do

e.g: Primary: I have run, I was running, I have been running.Modal: I can walk, I might go, I should go.Supporting: Do you like cake? I do not like cake. You do like cake.

Auxiliary verbs can be combined together to form verb phrases, only the first of which is conjugated to denote person and number:

Structure: modal + to have + to be + main verb

e.g: I have been running. She has been running.I could have been making a mistake.

Modal Verbs

Modal verb: A particular kind of auxiliary verb that adds special elements of meaning to a main verb.Used to express degrees of possibility, obligation, prohibition, politeness, or condition.Have only their base form, are not conjugated, and do not have a to infinitive.Modals come before any other auxiliary or main verb.The following auxiliary or main verb takes its base form.

e.g: He is here. He might be here. He might not be here.He has upset me. He may have upset me. He may not have upset me.I am running. I could be running. I could not be running.

e.g: Possibility: I may/might be able. I could ask.Future: I will go. I might go. I could go.Request: May/Can I come in?Permission: He can come in. You can borrow my car.Prohibition: You can't borrow the car. You shouldn't use that. He must not see it!Obligation: I must finish it. You ought to tell the truth.Behaviour: She can be kind on occasions.Conditional: TBDSpeech: TBD

Modal Verbs:

Can & could: Ability or permission. Could is used in the past or conditional.May & might: Possibility or permission. Form polite questions or ask permission.Must: Necessity. Also expressive phrases for orders, advice, speculation.Shall & will: Future simple tense. Can express intention, orders, polite questions.Should: Obligation, advice, instructions, logical result.Would: Request or offer, polite form of want, habit, probability, conditionalOught to: The same as should.Dare & need: Can be used as modal verbs.Used to: Indicates something frequently done in the past.

e.g: Can & could: I can speak French. Can I go to the cinema?I could speak French when I was five. I could speak French if I wanted to.

May & might: The weather might be better tomorrow. You may go.May/Might I ask your name?

Must: You must bring a hat. You must go to sleep.You must get a bicycle. She must be mad!

Shall & will: I will walk, You will finish. Will you help?Should: You should say sorry. You should put that on first. They should be here by now.Would: Would you move. Would you like tea? We would like to see him.

He would always do that. Would that be him? I would have gone if it was open.Ought to: You ought to say sorry. They ought to be here by now.Dare & need: You dare not go. I need not go.Used to: I used to rock climb.

The Tenses

There are two forms of tenses:

Simple: Describe a moment in time, a timeless state, or repetitive/habitual action.The verb is used on it's own without an auxiliary.Tenses: Present Simple, Past Simple.

Compound: Describe duration or continuity (aspect).The verb uses auxiliaries to define it's tense.Tense: Past, Present, Future - Progressive and Perfect.

Progressive: A continuous action that is still ongoing (auxiliary: be, main: +ing).Perfect: An action that is completed (auxiliary: have, main +ed).Perf Prog: An action that was continuing then completed.

e.g: Simple: I walk, she sings, I walked, she sang.Progressive: I am walking, she is singing. I was walking, I am living here.Perfect: I have finished, She has been, I had walked, I had finished.Perf Prog: I have been studying for an hour, I had been living there for years, when I met him.

The full list of tenses:

Present: I walkPresent Progressive: I am walk(ing)Past: I walk(ed)Past Progressive: I was walk(ing)Future: I will walkFuture Progressive: I will be walk(ing)Perfect Present: I have walkedPerfect Present Progressive: I have been walkingPerfect Past: I had walkedPerfect Past Progressive: I had been walkingPerfect Future: I will have walkedPerfect Future Progressive: I will have been walking

Future Reference

Future: There is no formal future tense in English. The future is referred to by:

Will: Forms the future tenses (see tenses and conjugation).Modal verbs: Most of the modal verbs make indirect reference to the future.Going to: Plus the base form of the main verb.About to: Plus the base form of the main verb.Is to: Plus the base form of the main verb.Time adverb: The present simple or continuous followed by a time adverb.

e.g: Will: I will drive. He will be late.Modal verbs: You should go. I could go.Going to: He is going to work harder. I am going to try.About to: I'm about to leave. It is about to rain.Is to: The President is to attend. They are to be punctual.Time adverb: The film starts at three. They are meeting on Thursday.

Active & Passive Forms

Active: The subject is the person carrying out the verb.Gives emphasis to the doer of the action.Formation: The general formation used elsewhere in this document.

Passive: The subject is the person or item being acted upon.Gives emphasis to what is being acted upon, or if the doer is not known or mentioned.

e.g: Active: I wrote a book.Passive: The book was written by me.

The money is hidden under the bed. She was being questioned.

Formation of the Passive

Formation: The passive is formed using the conjugated form of to be plus the past participle.In informal speech, the passive can sometimes be formed using get instead of be.

be (conjugated) + main verb (past participle)

e.g: These book are sold in shops. John was arrested.The sorting gets done by machine. Our cat got run over.

Object: To indicate who performed the action, by or with can be used.

e.g: The washing was finished by John. The sorting is done by machine.I was showered with presents.

Subject: When a verb has a direct and indirect object, either can be used as the subject.If the indirect object is the subject, to must be used after the verb.

e.g: We were given a second chance. A second chance was given to us.

Impersonal: Used when reporting something that was discovered or thought by a group of people.Formation: passive + to be (infinitive)A second form is used when you don not want to mention the source of the report.Formation: it + passive + that

e.g: The money is thought to be missing.It is said that the reports are true.

Causative: When the person carrying out the action is not the person who is the subject.Formation: have + direct object + past participle

e.g: She had her nails done. We are having the door painted.

Finite & Non-Finite Forms

Finite: The simple tenses are always finite.When a verb has a sentence and a tense.

Non-Finite: The to infinitive, base form, and present and past participles are non-finite.Compound verbs contain a finite and a non-finite part.A non-finite verb can be used after a finite verb, sometimes with a noun between.

e.g: Finite: I walked home. We saw a deer.Non-Finite: To open, pull tab. Looking around I saw it.

Helen was running. I had been living.I like getting up early. I like to get up early.We want John to be secretary. We persuaded them to join.

Non-Finite Forms

Base Form: After modal verbs, let and make.After feel, see, hear, watch, smell, and an objectAfter a to infinitive followed by and.

To Infinitive: After an adjective preceded by too or proceeded by enough.After an adjective of emotion or behaviour (sometimes followed by of + noun).After an adjective of difficulty such as easy or difficult.After a noun phrase such as good, good idea, mistake.Sometimes, follows be in formal speech to refer to an action in the future.After interrogatives.After a verb followed by for.After a transitive or intransitive verb.

Participle: After a transitive or intransitive verb.

e.g: Base Form: You must stop. He should think. Let me go. Make him stop.I saw him run upstairs. We heard them leave.I want you to sit and listen.

To Infinitive: He was too small to reach. He was small enough to reach.I am glad to see you. It was silly to go. It was kind of you to ring.I don't know what to buy him. I wondered how to get there.The Prime Minister is to visit Portugal.It was a mistake for Jim to buy it.

Participle: I avoid going when I can.

Example Transitive and Intransitives

Intransitive: agree, arrange, attempt, choose, decide, fail, hope, learn, manage, offer, plan, seemTransitive: advise, allow, command, forbid, force, invite, order, persuade, remind, teach, tellEither: ask, expect, help, intend, like, love, hate, mean, prefer, want, wish

e.g.: Intransitive: I hope to see you, I agreed to help.Transitive: I told John to call. I invited Richard for tea.Either: I want to have a cat. I want Susan to have a cat.

Negatives

In negative statements, word order is generally the same as for positive statements, and can be categorised as follows:

Be/have/do: Add not after the main verb.subject + main verb + not

Simple tense: Add the appropriate form of do not before the main verb infinitive.subject + do (conj) + not + main verb (inf)

Auxiliary verb: Add not after the first (generally) auxiliary verb.subject + auxiliary + not + (auxiliary) + main verb

e.g: Be/do: He is not ready. I do not.Simple tense: I do not see. He does not run.Auxiliary verb: I am not running. I will not have been swimming. He could not drive.

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verb: Only certain verbs can form phrasal verbs that are generally known expressionsThey generally have a different meaning to the verb by itself. Created by following the main verb with one or two prepositions.Can be transitive or intransitive.In most cases the noun must come after the preposition.In all cases, if the noun is a pronoun, it must come after the preposition.If there are two prepositions, the noun must come after both.

e.g: I give in. Don't pick on me! Put up with it!

Intransitive :

break down, break in, break up, carry on, come back, fall down, get about, get at, get down, get on, get up, give in, give up, go away, go off, go on, grow up, hold on, sit down, sit up, stand down, stand up,

Transitive - Noun can come before preposition :

blow out, blow up, break off, bring up, catch up, clear up, close down, give off, give up, leave out, look after, make out, make up, pick up, put away, put down, run over, tidy away, turn away, turn down, work in, work out, put up

Transitive - Noun must come after preposition :

agree with, apply for, approve of, arrive at, ask for, believe in, belong to, call on, care for, come across, deal with, insist on, make out, take off, pick on, refer to, rely on, run into,

Two prepositions :

break in on, break out of, carry on with, catch up with, check up on, come up with, cut down on, do away with, face up to, fall back on, fed up with, get on with, get out of, go back on, go in for, keep away from, lead up to, look back on, look forward to, look out for, look up to, make up for, put in for, put up with, run away with, run out of, run up against, stand up for, walk out on, watch out for,

To Be

To Be: Can be used as a main or auxiliary verb. As an auxiliary verb it is used to form progressive and passive tenses. As a main verb it is used to talk about feelings and states (simple tense), and behaviour (continuous tense). It is often found joining the subject to it's complement.

e.g: Progressive: I am walking to the shops.Passive: The letter is posted.State: I am delighted. I was feeling tired. There is a toothbrush in the cupboard.Behaviour: I am being careful.

To Have

To Have: Can be used as a main or auxiliary verb. As an auxiliary verb it is used to form the perfect tenses. As a main verb it is used to talk about states and conditions for possession or relationship (simple tense), and activities (continuous tense). It is often found joining the subject to it's complement.

e.g: Perfect: I have read some good books. I had already seen the film.State: I have a car, I have seen him. I have something for you.Activity: I am having a shower. He was having his lunch.

In the informal form can be used with got:

e.g: Have you got a pen.

To Do

To Do: Can be used as a main or auxiliary verb. As an auxiliary verb it is a supporting verb used to form questions, negatives, or emphasise a point. As a main verb it is used to talk about carrying out or performing an action, often replacing a more specific verb.

e.g: Auxiliary: I did not feed the cat. I did feed the cat. Do not do that!Do you know where it is? Do I do the plates as well?

Main: I will do the laundry. Are you doing your homework? I'll do (paint) the wall now.

It is also used to avoid repeating a main verb in additions, commands, sentence tags, and short answers:

e.g: If they go to the cinema, then so do we. She sings better than I do.Do you play cricket? Yes I do.

Contract ions

Contracted forms of verbs can be created in several cases. There are grammatically correct contractions, and colloquial contractions.

Pronoun + Verb: I'm, you're, he's, she's, we're, they're, I've, you've, he's, we'veI'll, he'll, she'll, you'll we'll, they'll, I'd, you'd, he'd, she'd, we'd, they'd

Verb + Negative: isn't, aren't, wasn't, weren't, haven't, hasn't, hadn't, don't, doesn't, didn'twon't, can't, couldn't, shouldn't, wouldn't, mightn't, oughtn't

Modal + Have: should've, would've, could've, might've, will've, ought've, i'd've, ther're(p.s. not good).

The Noun Phrase

Noun phrase: A group of words that can function as the subject, object, or complement of a sentence.It must always contain a noun or a pronoun.The noun/pronoun is the headword, the other words describe or modify the headword.

e.g: The manager interviewed all the applicants.The very tall girl with green eyes.

Premodifiers

Premodifier: A word that goes before the headword. There are several types of premodifier:Determiners, adjectives, numbers, another noun, the present or past participle of a verb.When a preposition is used, the phrase becomes a prepositional phrase or adverbial.

e.g: Determiner: the bus, a car, some rice.Preposition: on time, in January, as per instruction.Adjective: square round boxNumber: three daysNoun: the railway station buffetPresent participle: an annoying habitPast participle: an overworked man

Postmodifiers

Postmodifier: A word that goes after the headword. There are several types of postmodifier:A prepositional phrase, a subordinate clause, certain adjectives

Prepositional phrase: A noun phrase with a preposition in front of it.Subordinate clause: A clause, usually beginning with who, which, that.Adjectives: Certain adjectives.

e.g: Prepositional phrase: The man in the coroner, the house across the valley.Subordinate clause: The people who had gathered there.Adjectives: The princess royal.

Determiners

Determiners: A word making the reference of nouns more specificThere are eight classes of determiners (TBD pg160 - 182):

Indefinite Article: a, anDefinite Article: theDemonstrative: this, that, these, thosePossessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, theirQuantifiers: some, any, enough, no, all, both, half, double, several, much, many, more, most,

few, fewer, a few, little, less, least, a littleNumbers: on, two, three (cardinal), first, second, third, fourth (ordinal)Distributives: each, every, either, neither.Exclamatives: what, such.

e.g: A man, the rabbit, this book, these ones. I gave my share to her brother.Have you got much money on you?

Pronouns

Pronoun: a word that is used in place of a noun or noun phrase that has already been mentioned,or when the noun name is either not known or obvious.

e.g: Sam is at the airport, can you pick him up. I'm sorry. Who's he?

Personal: Can be used as subject or object of a clause.Reflexive: Used when the action of a verb is used on the subject or object.Possessive: To indicate ownership.Demonstrative: To indicate items that are near to or far from us.Relative: To link a modifying clause to a noun phrase or clause.Interrogative: To ask a question about the noun phrase they replace.Indefinite: When not necessary or possible to use a personal pronoun.

Personal: I, you, he, she, it, we you, they, me, him, her, us, themReflexive: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, yourselves, ourselves, themselves, oneselfPossessive: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirsDemonstrative: this, that, these, thoseRelative: that, who, whom, which, whoseInterrogative: what, who, whom, whose, whichIndefinite: someone, somebody, something, everyone, everybody, everything,

anyone, anybody, anything, no one, nobody, nothing, all, most, some, most, many, few, none, both, either, others, enough, neither, much

e.g: Personal: He gave her a box of chocolates.Reflexive: I entangled myself in the rope. He gave it to himself.Possessive: It's mine. I think it is theirs.Demonstrative: These are nice That is his.Relative: I know what you mean. That is the guy who sends me chocolates.Interrogative: Who is responsible? What do you want?Indefinite: Everyone has a compass. Much needs to be done.

Prepositions

Preposition: A small group of words that relate different items to each other.Allow us to express relation to places, time, relationships, and abstract concepts.Require a noun phrase, participle, or a relative pronoun (wh-word).Come at the beginning or sometimes end of the phrase.Can be simple (one word), or complex (a group of words).Prepositions can also be used after certain verbs to create phrasal verbs.

e.g: The box is under the table. He is on time. Thanks for looking. The card with which he paid.He went in. That's who I was talking about.

Simple: in, on, underComplex: due to, together with, on top of, in spite of, out of.Location: on, in, under, over, inside, outside, next to, out of, together withMovement: to, towards, from, across, over, ontoTime: at, on, in, by, before, after, until, for, in time forAction: for, by, inAbstract: belongs, per, regarding, because

Types of Noun

Nouns can be classified according to what they refer to:

Proper Noun: The name of a person or place.Common Noun: Refer to things in general, and can be abstract or concrete. Concrete Noun: Refer to tangible items. Abstract Noun: Refer to intangible items, feelings, and thoughts.

e.g: Proper Noun: John, Spain, Thursday, Doctor JonesCommon Noun: basket, balls, brother Concrete Noun: table, sugar, granite, car Abstract Noun: honesty, idea, anger, time, behaviour

Common nouns can also be classified into further categories:

Collective: Collections of people or animals.Countable: Items that can be counted individually, the noun has singular and plural form.

Must be used with a determiner if in the singular.Uncountable: Things not usually thought of as countable, qualities, or ideas.

Do not usually have a plural, and is used with some or much.May take a plural form when talking about types or servings of the substance.When necessary to think of as countable, used with a partitive noun.

Verbal: Verbs can be used in the present participle to describe an action as a noun.Partitive: Used to describe partitions of uncountable nouns.

Is followed by of, and comes before the noun it is describing.

e.g: Collective: a herd of cows, a crowd of people.Countable: you have two chairs, fetch a chair, horses run wild, the horse ran wild.Uncountable: ask for some advice, our knowledge of space.

a selection of French cheeses, two teas, three beers.a piece of advice, two spoons of sugar, a sheet of cardboard.

Verbal: You should try walking, cycling is good for youPartitive: Two pieces of furniture, a pile of sugar, a slice of cheese.

Noun Possession (TBD pg 147)

Compound Nouns (TBD pg 151)

Number in Nouns (TBD pg 155)

Verbal Nouns (TBD pg 159)

Nouns without determiner (TBD pg 166) - by car, on foot, at, before, after dawn....

Adverbials

Adverbial: Can modify the meaning of a verb, adjective, adverb, prepositional phrase, or sentence.Used to add information about how, when, where, or extent something happened.Can describe manner, place, time, degree, frequency, affirmation, reason.Can come before or after the subject, verb phrase, object, or before the main verb.Can be a single adverb, phrase, prepositional phrase, or clause.

e.g: Verb: I greatly admire you. She quickly ran to the door.He ran across the lawn. It exploded with a bang. I put it on the table.

Adjective: He is absolutely terrified. That is quite silly.Adverb: I thought about it quite seriously. He is behaving remarkably well.Prepositional: We are really in a good situation.Sentence: Honestly, he didn't mean it. I think he is lying, quite frankly.

e.g: Manner: slowly, well, with carePlace: there, here, up, down, in townTime: now, today, last, latelyDegree: largely, extremely, much, byFrequency: rarely, often, sometimes, every, daily

Submodifiers: Can only be used with other adverbs or adjectives to strengthen or weaken their meaning. Example: rather, very, really, quite, fairly, too, extreme.

Broad Negative: Some adverbs can be used to form broad negatives. If they start a subordinate clause, it takes the question form. If they come between auxiliary and main verb, it acts similarly to not.

e.g: Seldom have I seen such behaviour. He had hardly eaten anything.

Split Infinitive: Sometimes an adverb can be placed between to and the verb infinitive.

e.g: I really need to think. I need to really think.

Complements

Some verbs are or can be linking verbs that require further information to give them meaning or further descriptive detail about the subject. These verbs take a complement instead of an object. A complement can be either a noun phrase, and adjective, or a prepositional phrase.

Linking always: be, feel, seem, becomeLinking sometimes: appear, look, grow, prove, remain, smell, sound, taste, turn

e.g: Linking always: Andrew is a mechanic. He is very tall. He felt a bit silly.They became friends. He is in the lounge.

Linking sometimes: You look tired. It tastes terrible. You appear lost.State: Mark is silly.Action: Mark is being silly.

Formation: subject + verb + subject complement

Adjectives

Adjectives: Used with nouns to make their meaning more specific (attributive modifier).Can also be used with a linking verb (predicative) to describe the subject or object.If used predicatively, a prepositional phrase is usually required to continue the phrase.

e.g: Attributive: The tall girl. The green grass.Predicative: Subject: The girl is tall. The rose is yellow.

Object: I painted the room green.

He was intent on continuing. He was glad to help.

Some adjectives can also come after the noune.g.: absent, present, involved, concerned

Predicative only: afloat, aloft, abroad, afraid, alike, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, awake.

Form: Attributive:

Adjectives can also be modified by adverbs of degree.

Adjective Order

Several adjectives can be used to describe a single noun (although more than four is uncommon). and is not used between adjectives unless they describe the same quality. If numerous adjectives are used, they usually take the order below:

number, quantitysize, shape, age, temperature, measurementcolournationality, originmaterialqualifier

e.g: The four big round blue and green very crumpled German cardboard boxes.The beautiful old English timbered house.

Types: quality, quantity, number, demonstrative, interrogative

Categories: colour, size, shape, distance, feelings, qualities, quantity, temperature, time, nationality/origin, material, age, purpose

TBD pg 183 - 190

Adverbs

Adverbs: For the use of adverbs, see adverbials.When a pronoun is used in front of a noun, this also creates an adverb.

Forming an adverb:

Regular: Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the end of the related adjective.Irregular: -ble: replace the -e with -ly (also true and due).

-ue: replace the -e with -ously.-c: add -ally.-y: replace the -y with -ily.-ly: need to put in phrase, in a lively way/manner

Unchanged: short, long, early, late

Comparatives & Superlatives:

less, least, more, most, very, far more, far less

The person John was standing next to was very tall.The person John was standing next to a box.The box I was carrying.It was in the box the carpenter was carrying.The pillar the box was next toThe table the box stood on explodedThe table John stood on explodedThe person I stood next to talked about walking to the pub.The person stood next to tall John talked the way I remembered people from the Alderon Galaxy talking, with a slight lilt to their voices and a quizzical expression.The man in the phone booth.The way I remember it

Sentence Word Orders

Word order in an English sentence is very important. A change in word order will often change it's meaning.

Neutral Word Order

Most sentences have a subject then something that is said about the subject (the predicate), which is usually the rest of the sentence. When the neutral order is changed, this changes the meaning or emphasis of the sentence.

e.g: The old wall (subject) was pulled down (predicate).

Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative

Most sentences are a statement, question, command, request, denial, or a response etc. The choice and order of the parts of the sentence help us express these meanings:

Declarative: Most statements and denials (expression of fact or opinion).The subject comes before the verb.

Interrogative: The form of most questions.i) the subject comes after the main or auxiliary verb.ii) the subject is replaced by a special question word.iii) the declarative form is used with a question mark.

Imperative: The form of most commands.There is no subject, and is assumed to be the person being talked to.

e.g: Declarative: You are here. I saw you at the theatre.Interrogative: Are you here? Who won the race? Did I see you? It's raining again?Imperative: Buy a ticket. Don't buy a ticket. Leave me alone. Get well soon.

Focusing

If you want to focus the attention on a particular part of the sentence, you can use different word orders, such as putting the subject last, splitting the clause in tw, or repeating a part of the sentence.

e.g: We used to call him "Johno". "Johno", we used to call him.

Declarative

Declarative : Used to make statements, usually a statement of fact or opinion.Declarative phrases can take the following forms:

1) subject + verb phrase2) subject + verb phrase + direct object3) subject + verb phrase + adverbial4) subject + verb phrase + direct object + adverbial

5) subject + verb phrase + indirect object + direct object6) subject + verb phrase + direct object + to/for + indirect object7) subject + verb phrase + complement

There are certain verbs that must or usually have an:

2) Object: find, prefer, take, see He found a camera.5) Direct and Indirect Object:give, but, offer He bought his dad a present.7) Complement: be, become, seem I am tired.3) Adverbial: put, place, stand Richard placed the box on the table.

e.g:

1) Kate is working.2) Ross is writing a letter.3) Dominic was eating very slowly. Lyndsey was studying in her room.4) Mike was eating his lunch very slowly.

5) Laura offered me another biscuit. She called me a fool. Peter made Maureen very happy.6) Stuart bought a present for Marie.7) Alan is a nice person. Alison seems very well educated.

Negatives

Negative: Basic word order is the same as the non-negative form.Must contain a not, and must have at least one auxiliary verb, or be as a main verb.If there is no auxiliary verb, the supporting auxiliary verb do is added.Not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

e.g: John has gone there. John has not gone there.That is my book. That is not my book.He runs. He does not run.

Formation: auxiliary + not + (auxiliary) + main verbbe + not

Interrogative

Interrogative: Used to make questions. It contains a verb phrase followed by the subject.There are two main types of question:

Closed Question: Can be answered with a yes or no.Open Question: Must be answered with a sentence or piece of information.

e.g: Closed Question: Were you there? Do you have some money?Open Question: Must be answered with e sentence or piece of information.

Closed Questions:

If the phrase contains one or more auxiliary, it is moved directly before the subject.If the phrase does not contain an auxiliary, the auxiliary do is added before the subject.If the main verb is be, this is counted as the auxiliary.If a negative question, n't is added to the auxiliary immediately before the subject, or not is placed immediately after the subject (very formal).

e.g: You have been walking. Have you been walking.He likes talking. Does he like talking.Does he like talking. Doesn't he like talking. Does he not like talking.

Closed Formation: auxiliary + subject + (not) + (auxiliary) + main verb (inf)be + subject + (not)

Open Questions:

When a detailed answer is required, interrogatives (wh-words) are used.The interrogative can be used as a determiner, pronoun, or adverb:

determiner: Ask about a noun or a noun selection (pronouns one or ones can also be used). adverb: Ask about time, place, manner, or reason.

How can also be used to ask about quantity, degree, rate, or timing.pronoun: Used when you want to know the subject.

If a preposition is required, it is placed before the interrogative or at the end of the sentence.Can be used as the subject or object of the verb.

determiner: what, whose, which, which ofadverb: when, where, how, whypronoun: who, whom, whose, which, what

e.g: determiner: What book are you reading? Which of these colours? Whose jacket is this?adverb: When will they arrive? How do I get there? Where is my coat?

How much money do you have? How far is the station? How often?pronoun: Who can help me? What happened next? Whose is this?

To whom did you speak? Who did you speak to?TBD

determiner: interrogative + (of) + object + auxiliary + (not) + subject + main verb (inf)adverb: interrogative + auxiliary + subject + (not) +(auxiliary) + main verb (inf)pronoun: interrogative + auxiliary + (not) + (auxiliary) + main verb (inf)

Sentence Tags:

Sentence Tag: A short addition to the end of a declarative sentence. Usually used for confirmation.Formed by taking the subject and the first auxiliary verb, if no auxiliary, do is used.The auxiliary followed by the subject are then added to the end of the sentence.The sentence tag is usually negated. If both are positive/negative, can sound judgemental.

e.g: It isn't raining again, is it? You've seen it, haven't you? You've seen it, have you?

what feels the best?

which of these colours look good?what road did you take?what road is it?

the book you had been reading what book had you been readingyou had been reading a book

it is this book which book is it?

Imperative

Imperative: Used to give commands, instructions, advice, warnings, and invitations.Uses the infinitive of the main verb without a subject. The subject is assumed to be you.Let's is used to include the speaker.Do is used for politeness, persuasiveness, or irritation.

e.g: Stop that. Walk to the corner, and cross the road. Be careful. Have some cake.Let's go. Do be careful. Do try to eat. Do stop talking.

Formation: (Let's/Do) + (not) + main verb + (object)

Vocative

Vocative: Used when you want to specify the recipient of a statement.

e.g: John, come here! Stop that, David!Peter, do you know where John is? Andrew, I have your book.You over there, come here! You lot on that wall, get down!

Subjunctive

Subjunctive: Used in old or formal English when expressing a wish.

Present: Is found in a subordinate clause using the conjunction that.Uses the infinitive of the main verb.

Past: Is used after if, wish, as if, or as though.Uses were instead of was.

Present: I ask that he cease behaving like that. It is vital that they be stopped.Past: If he were here he could help. I wish I were taller.

You look at me as if I were wrong. You act as though nothing were wrong.

Exclamations

Exclamations: Short utterances or exclamations made when surprised or upset.

Single word: A single word.Interjection: A noise word.What: What plus a noun phrase.How: How plus an adjective.Question: A negative question.Echo: Repeat part of a previous sentence.

Single word: Help! Blast! Nonsense! Rubbish!Interjection: Wow! Phew! Ugh! Huh!What: What a pity! What a lovely day!How: How silly! How kind of him!Question: Isn't it a nice day! Aren't they kind!Echo: Richard's passed! She's here!

Responses

Responses: May be a whole sentence, a phrase, or a single word.Can also use the subject and the first auxiliary.Often do not make sense on their own.

e.g: Yes. On Tuesday. I certainly will.Has the postman been? He has.You should go running. Yes, I should.

Sentences and Clauses

Sentence: Can contain zero or more clauses, and can be simple or complex.Clause: A group of words that contain a verb, subject, and possibly object or other part.

Coordinating Clause: A further clause of equal importance to the main clause.Usually introduced using a coordinating conjunction (linking word).

Subordinate Clause: Contains further information about the main clause.Usually introduced using a subordinating conjunction (linking word).

Conjunction: Used to join a clause, and comes at the beginning of the clause.Clauses can also be separated by a comma.

Sentences :

Simple: Has one (main) clause.Compound: Has two main clauses, joined by a coordinating conjunction.Complex: Has a main and subordinate clause, joined by a subordinating conjunction.Compound-Complex: Has more than one main clause, and at least one subordinate clause.

Conjunctions :

Coordinating: and, (either) or, (neither) nor, but, yetSubordinating: when, which, if, since, because, that, wheneverSubordinating phrase:so that, supposing that, as soon as, as long as, just as, as though

e.g: Simple: I went to the bank.Compound: I went to the bank and withdrew ten pounds.Complex: I was in when she phoned. When I arrive, I will phone you.Compound-Complex: She arrived and we decided to stay in because it was raining.Subordinate Clause: He stayed at home because he felt ill.

Coordinating Clauses

Coordination: Joins two clauses of equal importance using a coordinating conjunction.Can be used to join two phrases of the same kind, or words of the same class.Can come before, after, or within the main clause, depending on emphasis.If the subject of both clauses is the same it does not need to be repeated.If joining multiple clauses using and or or, earlier clauses can be joined by simply using a comma, and the last joined using the conjunction.

And: Used when all of the clauses are included or occurred (no contrast or choice).Or: Used when there is choice between the clauses.

Either can be used for emphasis, and can come before the subject or the verb.Nor: Used when none of the clauses are included or occurred.But/Yet: Used when there is contrast, yet is used when this contrast is surprising.

e.g: And: She came over and gave me a hug. I need to buy ham, eggs, cheese, and oysters.This book is used for researching and planning my work. Jack and Jill said hi.

Or: You can (either) have (either) ham or eggs.Nor: It is neither here nor there.But/Yet: I wanted to go, but I couldn't find my shoes. He was strong, yet couldn't lift it.

Subordinating Clauses

Subordination: Contains further information about the main clause.Usually when the conjunction is other than and, but, or, or yet.There are several types of subordinate clause:

Noun: Can be used as either subject, object or noun phrase of a sentence.Usually introduced using that or the interrogatives.

Adverbial: To give further information on the main clause.Can refer to: when, where, how, reason, purpose, result, or contrast.See below for more information on Adverbial Clauses and Conjunctions.

Relative: To give more information about a noun, and is a postmodifier to the noun phrase.Can be defining or non-defining, and can relate to the subject or object of a phrase.Defining: Acts like an adjective, and is never separated by a comma.Non-defining: Adds extra detail to the main clause, and always uses a comma.If the object of the sentence, the relative pronoun can be left out.The relative pronoun can also be the object of a preposition.Usually begin with a relative pronoun: who, whom, whose, which, that.

Conditional: Can come before or after the main clause.Usually begins with: if, unless

Reported: Used when reporting what someone said. Can be direct or indirect.Direct: A direct quotation in speech marks, separated by a comma.Indirect: When someone reports what someone said.

When a statement, optionally preceded by that.When a question, must be preceded by if or whether.

e.g: Noun: What matters is that you are here. I don't know where you live.How the thief got in is a mystery. I think (that) they'll succeed.

Adverbial: They stayed in when it rained. He looked as if he was happy.Relative: Pick up the blue box that is on the table. The dog that bit me had to be put down.

Defining: The man who lives upstairs is having a party.Non-defining: Thomas left the keys, which was useful.

Conditional: He will move if he can. If we leave, we'll lose our seats.Reported: She shouted, "Hello". She told me that he is here.

Adverbial Clauses and Conjunctions :

Time: after, as, as soon as, before, once, since, till, the moment (that), until, whenever,when, while

Place: where, wherever, everywhereManner: as, as if, as though, how, just as, the way (that)Reason: as, because, sincePurpose: to, so that, in order that/to, in case, lestResult: so <adjective/adverb> that, such a <noun phrase> thatContrast: although, even though, even if, however, much as, while

e.g: Time: We should go as soon as you are ready.Place: I put it where you asked me to.Manner: He looked as if he was happy.Reason: I sat down, since no one was ready.Purpose: I opened it to get some fresh air.Result: He was so angry that he shouted. She is such a nice person that everyone likes her.Contrast: The ground was still dry although it had rained.

Summary

Sentence Structure:

Sentence: Can contain zero or more clauses.Simple: Has one (main) clause.Compound: Has two main clauses, joined by a coordinating conjunction.Complex: Has a main and subordinate clause, joined by a subordinating conjunction.Compound-Complex: Has more than one main clause, and at least one subordinate clause.

Clause: A group of words that contain a verb, the subject of that verb, often an object, and others.Phrase: A group of words that go together naturally.

Formation:

Declarative: subject + verb phrase + direct object + adverbialsubject + verb phrase + indirect object + direct objectsubject + verb phrase + direct object + to/for + indirect objectsubject + verb phrase + complementnoun phrase + verb phrase + noun phrase

Passive: subject + be + main verb (past part) + (by/with + object)subject + be + main verb (past part) + (to + indirect object)

Impersonal: subject + be + main verb (past part) + be (to inf) + noun phrase Causative: subject + have + direct object + past participle Reported: it + passive + that + clause

Imperative: (let's/do) + (not) + main verb + (object)

Two main verbs: noun phrase + feel/see/hear/smell/let/make + noun phrase + main verb (inf)noun phrase + verb phrase + (too) + adjective + (enough) + main verb (to inf) be/feel + adjective + (of + noun) + main verb (to inf)interrogative + main verb (to inf) + (noun phrase)noun phrase + verb phrase + (object) + main verb (to inf / participle)

Interrogative:

Negative: subject + be/have/do + notsubject + do (conj) + not + main verb (inf)subject + auxiliary + not + (auxiliary) + main verb

Response: wordphrasepronoun + first auxiliary

Vocative: noun phrase + sentenceExclamative: word

what + noun phrasehow + adjective

Parts of a Sentence:

Subject: The person or item performing the action.A pronoun or noun phrase, usually comes before the verb.

Verb: The main action of the sentence.A verb or verb phrase containing the main and possibly auxiliary verbs.

Intransitive: When a verb does not have an object.Transitive: When a verb has an object.Ditransitive: When a verb takes both an indirect and a direct object.

Object: The person or item the action is related to.A pronoun or noun phrase, usually comes after the verb.

Direct Object: The item or noun phrase upon which the verb or action is being performed.Indirect Object: The name or noun phrase of the person to or for whom the verb is done.

Complement: Required with certain (linking) verbs to provide further detail about the subject.An adjective, noun phrase, or prepositional phrase.

Adverbial: Can be added to a phrase to give extra detail to the verb (also called an adjunct).An adverb, phrase, clause, or prepositional phrase.

Verb Phrase:

Simple verb: When the verb phrase is a single word.Compound verb: When the verb phrase consists of one or more auxiliary verbs.

Main verb: The main verb describing the action.Auxiliary verb: Used with the main verb to define tense, certainty, or completion.

Formation:

Verb Phrase: modal + to have + to be + main verb + adverb

Noun Phrase: premodifier + noun + postmodifier

Premodifiers: Determiner, Adjective, Number, Noun, Present or Past participle.Order: Preposition + determiner + number + adjective + noun

(participle anywhere)Postmodifiers: Prepositional phrase, Subordinate clause, Adjective

Premodifier: Determiner: the bus, a car, some riceAdjective: square round boxNumber: three daysNoun: the railway station buffetPresent participle: an annoying habitPast participle: an overworked man

Postmodifier: Prepositional phrase: The man in the coroner. The house across the valley.

Subordinate clause: The people who had gathered there.Adjectives: The princess royal.

Word Types:

Verbs: Primary: be, have, doAuxiliary: be, have, doModal: will, can, cannot, must, might, may, should, would, could, ought

Main: Action, State: Transitive, Intransitive, Ditransitive

Linking Verbs:Always: be, feel, seem, becomeSometimes: appear, look, grow, prove, remain, smell, sound, taste, turn

Tenses: Present: present (I walk)Present Progressive: be + pres part (I am walking)Past: past (I walked)Past Progressive: be + past part (I was walking)Future: will + inf (I will walk)Future Progressive: will + be + pres part (I will be walking)Perfect Present: have + past part (I have walked)Perfect Present Progressive: have + been + pres part (I have been walking)Perfect Past: had + past part (I had walked)Perfect Past Progressive: had + been + pres part (I had been walking)Perfect Future: will + have + past part (I will have walked)Perfect Future Progressive: will + have + been + pres part (I will have been walking)

Pronouns: Personal: I, you, he, she, it, we you, they, me, him, her, us, themReflexive: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, yourselves, ourselves,

themselves, oneselfPossessive: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirsDemonstrative: this, that, these, thoseRelative: who, what, where, when, whom, whose, which, thatInterrogative: who, what, where, when, whom, whose, which, howIndefinite: someone, somebody, something, everyone, everybody, everything,

anyone, anybody, anything, no one, nobody, nothing, all, most, many, some, few, none, both, either, neither,others, enough, much

Determiners: Indefinite: a, anDefinite: theDemonstrative: this, that, these, thosePossessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whoseDistributives: each, every, either, neither.Quantifiers: all, every, many, some, several, much, enough, sufficient, any, no,

both, half, neither, few, fewer, fewest, little, less, least, more, most, certain, each, another, double, twice, what, which ,whichever,

whateverNumbers: on, two, three (cardinal), first, second, third, fourth (ordinal)Exclamatives: what, such.

Prepositions: aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, alongside, amid, among, around, as, at,atop, bar, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, despite, down,during, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, opposite, outside, over, past,pending, per, prior, pro, re, regarding, round, since, than, through, throughout, till, to,towards, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, via, with, within, without

Prep Phrases: next to, out of, together with

Conjunctions: Coordinating: and, but, (either) or, neither, nor, yetSubordinating: when, if, because, that, which, as, lest

Contractions: Pronoun + Verb, Verb + Negative, Modal + Have:To Be: 'm, 're, 's To have: 's, 'd, 'veWill: 'll Would: 'dNegative: n't, won't Possessive: 's, s'Of: o'

Interrogatives:Determiner: what, which, whoseAdverb: when, where, how, whyPronoun: who, whom, whose, which, what

adverbs: too, so, almost

Similar Words List:

Senses: sense, feel, sea, spy, hear, watch, observe, spectate, taste.

Emotion: angry, happy, sad, glad, sorry, surprised, excited.

Behaviour: good, bad, kind, unkind, silly, stupid.

Reporting: advise, agree, answer, ask, comment, hear, inquire, explain, remark, reply, say,snap, shout, suggest, tell, wonder, yell

To classifynever, rarely, barely, hardly, scarcelyrather, quite, fairly, very.next, now, already then, there, here.maybe

To watch out for:

Some words can be a noun or a verb: The school play, In cricket, John scored several runs.

Have you got much money? I have some.Has Jack got any cards? He has some.To add to vocab list:

To whom do you speak?

putting feel wish mean belong expect see.

We must must mustily in the must.I know that that that that that boy wrote is correct.You have not been running. I have been not running, it is very different.I have not not been running.What was his name? Cool. What? I know you said. Cool name What. Cool, not his name though.I should've gone. You should have. Yeh, I know, that's what I said.One goes on when one goes off on one.That's the one that I want.Oneone was a race horse, Twotwo was one too. Oneone won one race. Twotwo won one too.Peter Piper picked a pickled pepper.