entativeCornmunication

PT'BLISIIER'S AUTIIORIZED COPYAugm€ntatiye Communication, IncI Surf Way, #237, Monaerey, CA 93940

Mrrch, 1993 Vol.6, No. I

INstosTInslssw. . .

IJPFRONTNonelectronic devices should be

a critical part ofrnosl, ifnot all, AACuser's communication systems,including those of expert users ofhighlechnology. This issue focuses on fhedesign and construction ofcommrmication displays for low lechdevices. Two inportant aszunptionsare made thoughoul l) appropriatevocabulary already has been selectedand 2) the symbols being used torepresent the vocabulary aremeaningful to the individualsinvolved, Nc.: topic" cover€d previdrsly inAugrnentative Cfirmunicatiql News (Vol.l,

f 5 -Vocabulary; Vol, 3, ,2 - Graphic syrnMs).In an effort to examine tends andissues, I spoke with master cliniciansand reviewed chapters and articlesdealing with mmmunication displays

News

and thought about how fir,mens (withand witbout disabilities) crtagorizeand organize their world at variousages and stages. Many thanks to thosewho contributed so much, so willingly(see list of Resoures on page 10).For Corsurners considers differenttypes of displays and introducesrelevant information from cognitivescience, human faclon engineering,and graphic design. Clinical Nervsprovides a step by st€p fram€wolt toassist in the design and conskuctionof displays, and gives two psges ofexanrples. Equipment considers howtechnology both constrains andenhances commrmication devices anddisplays, and Governrnental raisesissues of cost. Finally, University/Research highlights augmentativeactivities at Penn State Universitv in

For GonsumersThinking a little harder

about communication displays

7T!|' he purpose of a communication

diqlay is to arange larywge in.ipace so individuals can, by selectingfrom the available options, say whatthey wish to say as quickly as pos-sible, and can do so with a minimalaoount of effort. Cunently, cliniciaosdesign and coostruct displays andthen teach clienb to use them.Decisions about the organization ofsymbols are often based on the visualand motor capabilities of the user(i.e., size of symbols, access method,range of motion), Erd tbe 'Fitzgerald

Key." Janice Light' pos[rlates, how-ever, fhe design of AAC systemsstrould correspond to the individual'scognitive organization, be designed ioaddress strengths, and overscrmelimitations. Several ry,pes of organiza-tional arrangerents are currendyused on displays, including fow thatmay be viewed wirhin a cognitiveframework: Schqn ati c, t atotwni c,seruntic-syntqctic afr alphabetic.

l! Schematic: biographical grouprngs Daseo on exDenetrces.Pilpare,' To depict peopleoorng lhrtrgs or caDtwe an ex-perieinc-e (d,g., trip, birtbdayparty, tamrly reuruon,qrrmquaxe).E&ni2lat P hoao albuurs, con-versalion books, remnant b6gs,and activitv-based minikrards.CoTmgnt:

-Biographical or-

qanzauons are Damculafl yhelnful for vouris childred andpe<iple with- meriorv/cosritive?leffcits or dementiat wh=o relvon eoisodic memorv. Becaus6knofvledse exists a6ross con-texts hotever. schematic dis-olavs are most valuable whenivdilable in multiDle contexts.Orsanizine comniunicationbod'ks witfi' oases representinsvarious eveits-probibly will

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necessrtale reDeanng some sYm-bols. (continied on-page 2)'

News(from page 1) Continuing Education: Good news! Ifyou completed the 1992 CEU examination and retumedit to ACN, you have eamed 1.2 CEUs for 1992! ASHAwill rnail you a confirrnation within a few rnonths. Anyquestions call me or ASHA (301) 521-9000.From then to now: Exactly five years ago, Gary Poockand I published the tust issue of ACN (March, 1988.)We have worked very hard to promole ACN and ensureeach subscriber receive a quality publication. As manyof you know, Gary passed away in January after a

year-long battle with pancreatic cancer. In addition to being publisher, he was aprofessor for 25 years at the Naval Postgradrute School, a respected researpher inthe area ofspeech rccognition and biometrics, Editor in Chiefofttre AVIOS joumal,and an extraordinary man, husband, mentor, arld leacher. Words are bard to findunder such circumstances, but please know how deeply I appreciate yo.urexpressiom of zupport and ancouragement. I'd like to sbare a story sent to [le. ' Itnot only rcpresents my current reality, but has something important to say aboutteschers and leamers. In the field of AAC (and in life), each ofus is both!

tom JACOB THE BAKER - NOAH BEN SHEAolre lh€re was a srdell who was wilh r teacher for rnany 5rean. Ard, when the teacher felt he was

gdng io die, he warled to rnte even his dealh a lesson.

That night, lhe te{cher took ! torch, called his sdent, and set otrwifi him dvoi.rgh the fcre$.Soon th€y re€cbed the middle ofthe woods wherE lhe re€cher erdingui*Fd lhe torch,withou erylsrntiqr

'What k lhe fiu[er?' asLed the s{rdent.

"This torch has gqle our,' the rscher answer€d ard walked on.'Bul' drcr&d the sdent, his voice plucking his fe{r, "Will you ler!€ nE her€ in the dark?"

"No! I will rnt leave yo{r in lhe dark,' renrrfled his rescher's voice from the suirqrnding blackness.'I will lesve you serrchirg for fle liSltt.'

And so we shall! The ACN Hotline number is (,1O8) 649-3050.Sarah Blackstone, Ph.D.

For Corsumers Gont, Jrom page I)

@on categonqs.Purnosd: To arr*gevoclbulary items according tofamiliar t6xonomies (e.e.. -

clothing. food, Fegpte, -ptaces,

scnool. nolroavs. te€ungs) sosvmbols can tft tocatea inbreqirickly. "Topic " boards.oftenuse taxonomlc orgaruzahons.Examnlzs: Pictioniaries. Topicboards. e.s.. I want to talk'about home/familv/feelinps.Cgmm-ent:.ReqtiresknbwledgeoI- superoftlrnate qrtegones., _whlch tyDrcally emerges wrthformal 6ducation. This tvoe ofarransement makes it difficultto exfiress relational conceptsor complex thoushts and al-most iri, oossible-to use svntrax.

E Semantic+yntactic: groupulgsDaseo on some Knowlecse oIsranmaf.Purlos?: 'fo pr.ovide a way togenerate comPlex_ lhoughtsusrng expressrve langr.Bge, to

develoo linsuistic skills. and tofacilita'te liGracv skills.Ex amplzs : Gra6matical arran-semehts (subiect-verbobiect|:Fitzeeralil ke"v (nodifiedi+3 '4-Coiment:, Relriires at leist abesinnins understandins ofseirantic-relations and slvntacti-cal rules (e,p.. aeent/acjtiotr/desciipa-oi; iho, doinswhat, to whom) by both th--euser and listener. Can make itpossible for.partrers to modellanguage usrtrg augmentedinoit/aided laisua-se stimula-tidn techniouesl

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+Note: the Fitzeerald Kev is ! nelhoddeveloDed lo re;ch svnlai to de3fchildrenand la6r modified bi McDonald and orhefsfor use on communi6ation bo6rds.

!l Alphabetic,.groupings basedon tbe alphabet. ..E-AIWSS. -|o provroe un-resfncted access !o lansuase.to provide word boardJ. tdal-Dhabeticalize elements iithinLatesories. and to encourasethe ilevelobment of spellin-e.EJ4rdpik5:''Stand-al6De" a-l-

phabet boards, word boardsano comrrnatron svmmlboards.Comme i Configuration of thealohabet will de*nd on usersprior experiencds. future goalslnd the ielection techniouEbeins used. Word boards aretypic-ally arransed srammatical-lvl Reqidres li6rac-v skills andrire ta liri zu istic kno*ledse. t€r-ter cueiip can be usefufforpeonle with some intellisibleloeech to helo clarifu w6rds ort6 change/intioduce irew topics.

Young children begin 0o classiStheir world using sclrman:c organiza-tions and gradually leam tuonomiccategories. I:nguage-based schemasalso emerge, at first with semantic-syntac'tic c,jf8oies aldlLter, al-phabetic clasificatiou systerns. Theseorgarizational struchrres may assumediffercnt emphases over time. How-ever, it is clear that displays tbat donot reflect an individual's linguisticand cognitive skills/style are not like-ly !o be useful. For example, somechildren and adule with developnrn-tal and/or acquired disabilities do norleam linguistically-based systemsvery well or at all, and rrany dependon scbemadc or taxonomic classifica-hoDs,

Making good decisions about or-ganizing and coDstnrcting communica-tion displays is also depend€nt on anunderstanding of the peEon's motor,sensori-perc€ptual capabilities, lifestyle, goals, and preferences and in-formation about their partners. Or-ganizations based on Frequcncy ofuse and, PaftEr influences xedescribed below:

f,l Frequency- of.use: gr-oupingsbased on Dlacng svmbols/words thal are frost frequentlvused where thev can be ic-

'

cessed quicklv And easi.lv.Purpgsgl: 'fo irrangevocabulary so users can selectitems mos't efficientlv.lrems most emcleouy.Examolzs: Disolavs laid out inLXAnDwS: LISDIaVS tari sefriliircle for fooola semi-circle for people whouse head sticks- taoti'av dis-use head sticks. taotiav dis-plays forpeople w6o cln noplays torp€ople who can notctoss mldlme, wrth some rter$on left and others on risht.Wrist bands with hieh lre{uen-

:l"lF'llrTr for ambu-latory in-

C o m m e nt i Reqrfu es asssssmetrtof person's raige of motion,vis-ual perception. and aknowltidge <if the symbols the

uses most

ullect selecuon arrangementswill differ from those?esignedIOr SCaIUrng.

Partner influences: arranpe-ments based on listener orienta-tion and needs.Purposesi To model the use ofsymbols in an effort to expandlanguage. skills and encouiagecommuucatlve use ot svE-bols. To decrsse copnitiveand socio-emotional ilemandson Dartners.Ex dmnlcs : Displays desienedto allow facilihtois to m-odel.Highlighting biographical infor-matton and lDstructions for lis-teners. Displays orientedtoward list6ueis (e.g.. "uosidedown" to user and drieht'sideup" for the lisiener.)

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Com ment: Communication dis-plays can only be hteractiveineiliums if b6th the user andpartner know what to do. lt isrmporlant to consider tlre skilllev-el and needs of familiar andunfamiliar trrartners.

Designing displays is, more thananything, an organizational process.Even if lhere is only one vocabularyitem, decisions must be made aboutwhere aDd how to put what. A largequmber of factors affect the useful-ness of the organizational schernes weultimately select, including the natureof the material to be classified and thecognitive abilities of the person tryingio conslruct, Ieam or use the system.According to cognitive scientisls, thevery nature of categorization resultsin "patchwork syslens oforganiza-tion tbat emerge by way of com- _promise" for the following reasonso:

rcsist chanee. Itnary effortlo

must be dlnamic to be usefrrl, i.e.,vocabulary needs to be constantly up-dated. However, if we are constantlvchanging displays, we make autonrai-icity (i.e., being so familiar that youdo not have to "think" about whatyou are doing) impossible for the userNde: That's why we don't rcplace s di*layudil lhe use. is familiar vilh a rpw qte. Theorganization must urake sense io theperson dasisning the display and tothe user, or it will not be helpfirl.Renrember what makes perfect senseto you, may not be obvious to sore-one else. This is particularly kuewhen several organizational schernasare used on a single display (organiza-tional 'branching").

The visual display of informationon a mmmunication board is critical.Studies of hurnan nremory unani-mously show that organized maoerialis perceived, reiained, com-prehended, and rekieved beuer funconparable unorgani zed, naeial.tThus, it is advantageous io organizevisrul information in ways most com-patible with wbat we know abouthunurn perception, reten{on, com-prehension and retrieval, ' Human fac-ton research and graphic art theorycan be applied to help us consEuct dis-plays that make infornution clear andmore easily utilized. Reilly andRoach's research review gives ussome irnDortant hints: '

It Proportion: determininsrelaiionships amons thelimen-sions of objects anil their loca-tron rn space,

r Consider the height. width, d€pth,amoun! ot surroundtng spac€. ale&ree of siading, the iiteirsity andcnolce ot color-

! Croup logically related symbols.I Sepa.rate categories of data usinq

spacmg,-columns, borders or bivaryng Utensities and c-olols oTgrouDs oI data.

Ef Spaci"g, using 'white" spaceBe aware that usins columnsproduce an orderly7legible disphy,Know lhat warm colors. such asr€-d and. y€llow, usually appearErget man cool colors such asereen and btue-

Vse color codins to hishlieht related data (e.9., Headiigsi

f rrange data so similarities, dif-lerences. trends. and relationships

t Be aware cerlain things attracl theeye:. big more than sriall obiects.bnJht more than subdued c6lors.colo! morc than black & white: ir-regular more than regular shgpes,movulg oolects more than st l ones.

! For scanning, left-iustify [ists andahgn them v-erticanv '

El Emphasis: e"htncing impor,lant messaqes (e.s,. mstruc-tions and s-urvii,al-symbols. )' 31"4"" *'ffr "Twtft3!ffidf;1't

*nI Avoid _unnecessary omamentaliorr,

unwanteo graphtc ra[ems, Grusrons ano Ilaws rn ahenment.

I Use color conservative]y to avoidan appearance of olutter.'

r Display only information essential[o tne user's cudent needs-

I Minimize the numbe-r of items dis-ptayeo slmult4neously.

I Remember the more items dis-played, th€ more tim-e it takes todetect and extract intbmation.

I Research suggests no more tur 9Opercgnt of th-e available positjonssnoutd be used-

r Put the briqhtest color in the mostunportant Flace and use linle addi-uonal color

I Increase the amount of white sDaccsurrounding symbols you want toset aDart.

r Use iight colors on.a lark b-ack-grouno to aovance ntolmationtoward the viewer; use dark colorvon a light background to make in-Iormanon recede-

Zl Unitv' makinq elements of adispllay look a--s if tbey belong.

r Ar.ange data in losical souos(etg., s€4u€nti?lly^-fu ncfiondlly, byrnponance or by lrequency).

I Convey separation by using con-trasting colors. Convtv siriilaritvusing Suhilar, differentiable colo'rs.

r In addition to uni&ing compong sor a oNplay.. use oorders to unrJVtlle entlle orsDlav.

I Use.whito space to suroundsunuar rtems.

r Use symbol sets that are relat€d insze, shape. texture and color.

El Batance' distributins the 'oou-cal weight" in a display.

I Create fe€lings of stability and con-lldence by Usmg 4 balanc-ed displaylnore: unDaunced dlsplays crcate aIeeung oI Stress)

t Control^the.color, size, tqne andsnape oI oDJects ln a dlsplay.

over [me. A rfangefacilita-lethrough

seque[ces toeye movementtnlonnalron-

I

I

6

and

,lement new oI-rctures. lror@ver,ol contmultv wlth

it will be coifusinerg. As a result.

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dke do" rathei than

Commrmication displays are agood example of the difficulties in-herent io classification schemes. Eventhe txxt well+hought-out-i n-a4vancedisplays are likely to beconp more

I

! that

4upq4tat{veC-ommunication

News

CliniCal NeWS across multiple contexts, means theDesigning & constructing design and construction process will-

ai.-pf iv"' So-" iipl" be time and labor intensive' Both ap' proaches are important, and in each l. Give symbols that will be used to theindividual to sorl o. group. Repe{t seveialtimes. Anahze consistent Dattems.

2. Give a ts.get symbol to user, c.9.,symbol for toys or people, Presert odlersyrnbols .nd ssk individurl to elect itemthat "go€s witb" the targct item. Arulyzeconsistenl Datlcn$.

3. Mock up 2 altermtive orgsnizalioularrangenrents. Presenl clch !o user srdteach underlyitrg principle. ob*rve/a5kfor thcir DrefererEes.

)

Dasigning, mnshucting, and case, using a design-process model I liill'.if,*i#'"'.",k""", o"*"".evaluating a low tech display requires can iryrprove the quality oftbe dis- f_ _---= .rhought, i.x.pertise, pr,"";"g 8nd'time. play:E

' | 3;,ffi i"i,""ij :lTljl,: "fr;h.,

l$trffii;-'*'ltrf.Ytrff '*f,$frffi*ff;,',:?gi; lil{fll1$l[*#,H:mfrties they have obsewed. To srm- multipte contexti? '

ljT*i*_=-marize, displays perceived positively - ;^;^ _^:; ^;;^^_,. "

. | 3. Mock up 2 altermtive orssnizalioulbave &e tbtlowing feshres: rhey are

r Define goak of board' Ya1]: I i';,1';;;:";t: il+ cach t'o user and

orga[rzeo, looK aEracuve ans ur(e for today, but also for t]omorrow. I taach underlyitrg prirrciple. obcrve/a.sk

into account both the ne€ds of the lis- W l drcl bav.e mul-t'rnle ftrnctions I tor ocir preieJnies.

bner and user. Dirylays tbat do not :: P-T'-8'2,*-T1,iT:-*i- IoT.9T*:1 Y"Y'l :e$ t"or long period? Is goal to carry on ge rhinlcing about materials also.reflect best practices have imdequatevocabulary, are poorly orgauizni or conversa$ons? mtorm o-

o ̂ _ r Corsider a varbty of solutiomdisorganized, and are unattractive. about pain? answer^questions? en- andevaluate. It glerall_ y helpsaqru. p@rtr, aDsrwer questrons, en- and eValUate. It generally helps to

coufage peer inieraction? nock up fhe dispLy. MostTable I lists commerrts.

Best Practices NOT!l. When board is organized (e.9,,frequency of use, lopicr, alphabelically,or by activities).2. When orgsnizatior is made salienrthrough colo. snd msde eptcit topeople u$iog display.3. When motor, sensoay, mgnitivelinguistic skills of users are takcn irto

4. when design also is appr€prirtc for

5. Whetr size of irems Yrry sothatuser's accuaacy is inpaoved.6. When print is cnlarged to enhancereading.7. when gommercislly svailablc tool$are used, but individuslized.8. When disphy is stt.active !|ldreflecE personslity of lhe u6er.9. when people l|r'ho ure ihe displayoarticiDate in its devel@Inent.

l. Whcn vocrbulary is irupprop.iaE (e.g., 3 yesl old, ith onlytes, no, cat, ddnk, cobrr, when vocabularyonly rllows e user l,o respood or tite a single tum.)2. When you ask you.self, 'Am I having nm?' srd 6eaoswer is no! hobably the us€. i$r't either!3, When symbol$ don't rtuke s€nse io the user lrd/orconmunicntion pldrDrs.4. When user is re{dy to conrmunicde with Imreconplex language, and il h not avaihble.5 . When cornmudcntion board/book is rliluted 6.e., sornany activiti$ on it thrt it is us€less for saying anythingsubsuotisl).6. When therc is |lo organization or it do€sn't fiukc sense.7. When user doen't understard lhc org.nization oflhcboard.8. When u$erlpartner oao't read or s€€ synbols.9. When the board is sloppy or poorly corsrocted (e.g.,wheo writing sizc diffcrs scross board.l0 . When voclbulsry ir available for exprssion or y6,e., need !t lerst 12 it€ms on boards ifwantto usmodellinc).

clinicians start by using a grid andwriting words/phmse,s in spacesbefore deciding on cofor schemesand acnully adding symbols. It isquite common for designs tochange considerably during thisstep. Wheo you are ready, try themocked up version with the in-dividual. Do this before you em-bark on the next st?.

r Flnalize tlrc design and make thedisplay. Lots oftools andmaterials are required for this step(symbol buks, copy madincs, itl<pencib, cobred p ncils /paper,comp u er graphia pro gratn,Wte, scissors, rubrc, atd sooz.). Although it may feel hbor in-tensive, this step achBlly requirescomparatively little tinp. Forsome, this is the frrn part (the

l

Designing Displays: A Process I Obtain pertinent data- Know as graphic artist types), for otbersDeveloping a commrmication board much as possible about the user's who are not artistically inclined

is an ongoing'proce,ss. As long as a motor, seDsor-perc€ptual, cogni_ - (ne included), this is the tinre toaispfay i tetg usea, 6e prdess tive, linguistic capabfities. Table find a volunfeer with graphic/artis-never ends. lnitial steps always in- tr- sbares ideas about determining tic skills or ue coryuter{asedvolve decisions about vocabuiary and the type of organizational schema tools. Aesthetics are very impor-how best to rcpres€nt vocabulary. We to fy. The daily habits of_users tant. Displays should be neat andshall aszure these decisions already and partners, cont€xts and com- cheerfrrl and appropriately reflecthave been made. So now what? The municative tasks should be known. the person's age.proca*s of designing and constructing r Lbt slecificatiors/requiranents: r Deterrnine if it work. Prmf (ofa Oispt"y

"ray 6t" iny*tt"re ftom 13 Based on available data, rnake the effectiveness ofa display) is in

minutes to several weeks. even decisions about the size and sbape the pudding. . . so to speak.months depending on the corylexity, of the display' the organizational Tlv purpose ofa convnunicationwhelher it is someone's lst o;35th dis- schema/arrangement of symbols, displry is n arrange language inplay and so on. Getting symbols the use ofcolor, white space' text' space so individuals can, by selea-together before leaving to visit a rela- and graphics. Consider cognitive, ing from the available optiorc, saytivi can take minutes. On the other linguistic, motor, sensor-perc€F v,hat they wish to say as quic@ ashand, designing a display for someone tual, as well as instnrctional and possible, atd can do so with awith a large vocabulary ihat will serve frequency issues. Use good prin- nininul annmt of efon. Doe it!as his/her-main access to language ciples of design as discuss€d in l

o -

)

IDEA PAGE #1: Examples Of Communication Displays

For young childrcnr Dictionaries with pictures of familiar objects depict-

ing their fimction, e.g., an open refrigerator withfood inside labelled with a symbol.

r Category boards (e.g., weather, clothing, food,most frequently used objects).

. Topic/context boards and activity-based boards.r Single sheet therp displays can be made in dif-

ferent sbapes for the occasion (e.g., heart for valen-tines day).

r Folders with pockets for remnants and topic settersMobiles for young children Mandv's book is El/2' x I l' closed - 22 ' ooen. Iiside the front

cover-are picrures ofimportrnt oeoDle and th! syrnbol for warn.There rre-6 cardbo:rd irases. \ihiih conuin svinbols for obie.Bon one side and associrrid-verbs on rhe backsiae. The book-encourases her to construct meanins usins seouerKes ofsyrnbols.Some-svmbots have an addnional-svmb-ol "tiidina- ud;rns0r.The deiign is appropriare, aesdreticilly pleising-ard tun!- " ld Kirsiein, Michis;n:

Conbrt specific displaysr Bathhlb, swimming pool boardsr Engjneering a classroom (see page 8 for specifics)r Work site vocabulary arranged on person or at the

work site.r Topical Cans on sticks.

This board is for a 4 vear old with n limikd mnee of mo-lion. Svmbols a.e limiled lo 9. sDaced l'!oarl.-A I 112'svmbol size was selected becasua $e oned uses 2 frnsers !oD;int- Each svmbol was colored so she co'id use colo-r cuasio help her relognize rlre symbols. This swinuning overlaywas liminated a;d sewn lda styrofom rrat tray:Astvrofoam srid was llso sewn to th€ trv. h noals!

Pam Ma|ny-L!iklo a;d Carol Wes

- . e#+i " - #$b.FsA " ' . *gel 6E? 6 '+ "

This idea ofusine Tooical Cars conresfrom South Africi. Ir'was beinp us€d in aclass wirh autisric children, irside foreroomine and outside for eardenine. The;hildren-can s€lecr svmboli bv miniinerhe larpe cans to fiod rhe svmbol

Feedine lhe Birds is nn overlav desiened r,obe useilwith (or wilhout) sn elstm;icdevice. $is di;Dhv encoirraees ir eraclionand svmbol setiueircine. lL iiarraneei in aeram;natical laioul lo'make it easidr o useinultiple rymbcils during .ided langusge

Carol Coossens'

NI|iflt a lt E l

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F@dh'g the Airdsr-T)-;i-t a- a-.;-t -- a-ft-l

tr!lt]ilir*JLj1lt3r-.--\ -i:-\ a-;-\ a_-;) r-ii -\ r i;; -.\

t*J[ei|.qitliL"il19Ja-- -.] l-";-) f':q-') f;;^-i r-;qn a;;i l

t@Jt!ttltt!tt!tij{IlLtlJtEJLYJP:lt@LxJtsJt_&JLeltqJeilbXLq.JLqjtofjLo.Jtej

$4g4e4tativeCommunication

News

IDEA PAGE #2: Examples Of Communication Displays

For ambulatory adolescents/adultsr Displays on aprons, handkerchiefs, placemats, sleevesr Adult literacy type dictiornries (e.g., English 2nd lan-

guage picture dictionaries)r Alphabetic arrangements/word boardsr Displays with multiple pagas in 3-ring bindersr Yes/no on wrist bands for those without a readable

rcsponser Carrier phrases, repair strategies, information about the

userr Core page of survival vocabulary attached to keychain

(or wheelchair wih a bungi cord)r Displays folded in 3 sections with symbols on both sides

so it is easy !o carry in a purse of bag.r Use coniact paper to cover, rather than laminate so dis-

olav is bendable

A wallet tvDe ofdevice desisned lo encourase convers€-rion about iirrrenr evems.

- Anff Wani&

r Use enlarged text above graphicsr Gradually shift emphasis. Initially use large pichres/ snull

words. Then use small pich.rres/large wordsr For preschoolers, arrange alphabet in order. For direct

selection t''pers, arrange in QWERTY. For scanners, ar-range in @uency of occurrence array.

A large vo{abulary board which highlighii word, as welas prdvides symbtils. This display h-as 6 panels (Jou seeJ). lr folds uisnd is carried uiin! vekm arn sraps.

Joan Bnrrn

To support literacy development

I S T U V I J X Y 2

Shown here is a portion of a wo.d board. AIso nodce lhata taxonomic arrairgement is included on this di+lay, p€r-

- Anne Warrick

This is a board worn on the sleeve. It was coied di.ecdvon the Dersons sleeve and is us€d at his olacebfwork.

ua vanlaknnove.

--. t?

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GovernmentalCost effectiveness

of low tech displays.

Frurding issues in AAC always involve Governments.Our focus bas almost exclusively been on firnding electronicdevices and/or firnding services. To da!e, little informationerists about the cost of low tech devices. ln most cases, thecost of low tech displays and communication boards is in-cluded as part of clinical services, But, what is the true costof materials, tinre, and implication of low tech devices?

Ellen Kravitzlo conducted a Tirne Sirdy several yeanago in her facility. She formd that speech-languagepathologists were spending approximately 12 hours developing miniboards from start to finish (i.e,. observing the in-dividual in commrmication context, developing vocabulary,

selecting symbols, designing boards, making boarcls). Theywere spending between 40 and 80 hours developing largevocabulary mmmunication notebooks,

Vanclerheiden and Lloydl I pointed out in 1985 6at irconsidering the relative cost of low tech devices, one vari-able io facior in is the cost for an assistant to aid an in-dividual with a nonindependent ischnique, such as a manualcommrmication board.

Obviously, the notion that low tech dis?lays are "lowdost ilerls" is eroneous. We can, however, find many costsavings mechanisrns and continue to provicle quality com-mrmication boards and displays. By using technology tools(as described in the Equipment section on page 8), by im-plementing shategies for ogranizing symbol sets and developing displays that can be used by more than one individual ina classroom or at a worksioe (as described belo\ '), the costeffectiveness of low tech devices can be shown.

4

ceot/svmbol and arrange ac-coi'dirigly, e.g., phra€ :_Putrt_rn; -t(ey concept : m. rneyalso use temporal arrange-menls lor small scnDte{l con-versations containing 8 or 9symbols.

El Mqk" figrre (symbols) whileand cotor bacxsrouoo accoro-inp to srammadcal catesories.When fizure is cotored,-itcreates i swirl of color,

El If you use a cut atrd pastemdthod. reformat ttre SvmbolSet vou use. as follows:a) Photo coDv each Dase ofb6ok, Iamiridte each fr'ge. andcul svmools aDaft.b) L;bel 26 ciDs A to Z. Sorts!mbols (alphabetically).c) Label (using a Dermaflentniarker) tich Focket ofeachslide piotectoi sheet with a dif-ferenf svmbol name seouential-lv deriv?rd from the IrdLx.tabel both the front and backof each page.d) Srarthtwith the A's, placeeach svmbol rn a Docl(et oI aslide p'rotector shdet. Use a 3'thick.- three-rins binder andUse alphabeticdl naee dividers-e) Inse:rt at least 5 b'lank slidep'rotector sheets in front to as-list in organizbe symbols tobe placedon thdpfioiocopierwhen creatrns cofiunurucahondisplavs.fl Retirm each laminatedmaster svmbol to its resDectiveoocked ih the modified 6ooklfter developing each display.

3,10. Available from Southeasl Auemer rtivcCommunication conference Public-atiom.clinician Series,, 2430 I l$ Avenue Noah, IBirmingham. AL.35234 (205) 25414165 t

(cont. from page 6, Cinical Nevs)

Engineering {t;e heschoolEnvironment'-

This book is a maY have. Wrflr202 pages of creative ideas anddetailed instructions, it tells how todesign, make, construct, and leachthe use of displays to children in pre-school environments. Writt€n byCarol Goossens, Sheron Crain, MdPaneb EAer, chaplen included are: Il

r The Need for a Master Plan (sys-tem desig and system training is'sues.)

r Designing the Preschool Environ-rnent (delineating and prioritizingclassroom activities, generating

ffi;'3ffJ:rtr;ffiJ';f* 6dis?lay format, creating com-munication display(s) for each lar-get activity, incorporating zup-plemental symbols, making dis-plays and supplemental symbolsreadily accessible within 6e class-room envircnment,

r Training spontaneous, generativeuse (receptive and expressivetraining)

r Funding an Engineered Classroomr References (15 appendixes that

tell you more "How To's." ElPreschool is a time for children to

gain experiences with technology andfor professionals to 'figure out' how0o provide access !o language andcommrmication across environmgnts.Goossens feels that oreschool class-

rooms should have 100's of activity-based displays; and in the book, theylell youjust how to accomplish thistask. Examplx of specifics for design-ing core and zupplemental, non-electronic and electonic displays areincluded for Matrix Displays (16, 32,36 I-ocations); Horseshoe Eye-PointDisplays, Rotary Scanner Displays;Eye-point Vests; and Music Displays.Among the many ideas they share are:

Be consistent with the locationof vocabulary iloms tlnt areoften reoeated. (e.s.. more. alleone, fihished, in,air, otr). lfitem occurs on more than 50%of disolavs. it set s assisned aoerma'neirt localion. Noie: Canlssigr template locations onBoaidmakdr, making this easy!

After vocabularv is selectedfor each activiw. rank orderitems. #1 : voiabularv voucan't live without. Then.'beeinto organize display usins all-too rinked items Note: ihevo{ien work with disolavs c6n-tainins 36 locations'anil ex-pose/rincover svmbols over'time

to cut dorin on # of dis-Dlays you need io make.l.{oie: fuanv disolav aredeveloped for ule i,n commer-cially ivailable hieh techdevii:es and exoanded kev-boards.

Grouo ilems within categoriesand a'ssisn soots on the ilis-olav. PuI m<ist frequently usedioiard too of disofav. Note:with_word-based hisi ays, theyuse rrtzgeralc Kev/grammall-cal orpa-nizations.' Withohrasd/sentence based{is--plays,

they use a key con-

C-ommunicationNews

lffil Equipment 2. whv are so nattv low tech dis-lr+Hmd+F#ffi | Technorogy: p,P:::!yq,w: measure 8 t /2 bv

Conririirit" Il inch?s (or-sonv variation), ard

anO "nt

un""--"nii have 1" or 2" square grids?

r u) Becluse tes€{rch slrows lhrt dlese direF

l-ow tech or Iight tecb ::,'T-lf tglj:'Y'j.r€: ' orsvrnbokcommuuication aids arJ not just lll'l,jliiolii"1""

'**u."rv requuElne s'

"back up systems" to be pulled out _ - _wuea a ingi tech system fails. They _-,-tlf:::--*:-l"j*""1"]:11Y9""

are important components of an rems ." prperr ano mars now rssrd'

individual's communication system. *,-.l"Y"lf {.d."'lre

available comnrrciallv

Sore communicative task arc beuer tn

1:* o'-"nt'oT

. ,...-acconrplished with ele.tronic devi; Yol, q::1 fr41! However, with

and others with manuul .y.r"rn", Foi J4111! ta;tine on $e "best ways"

exarnple, a speech output devic; is 9 -dTpPI 9.ry9-" ^T-space for AAc

rmiquery uu.r at getrng atention, YTllt b :I#i*t to worft witht uing pt"", gitin! spe;nes, ;J wbaj. is.aYaill9le,and convenient' Theputting- some f, stenirs

- at ease; but consT:trts ol 9jay,will dtsappear

many-users find low tech clevices 9]"I TT,-T^leFf ':cv.T*t""

more effective during conversations more soPhisticat€d' so, in the inter-

and in certain enuirontootr, "*-

im' we should remain vigilant in our

beach, home. With familiar partre'rs, attempts !o discover tbe "best ways'"

the rate of commrmication using low Even now. technolosy is availabletech devices can be fuster. Also, to remve existins co"JtIaiot" -a i-_because low tech displays can be any prove bottr the q,ility ad the quan-size or shape, they are potentially, hty ofour low tecl disptays. Ei-more portable. amples are:

Manufactrers, rcsearchers, Neighborhood printing services:teachers, families and clinicians have Caichange tne size of-aisptaysskuggled foJ years to provide peoale (e.g., mafe a 4, x g, on an easel forwho have difficulty speaking with ac- claisroom circle time), provide highcess to as much language as possible. quality colored copies, and colorCurrently "hardware" s€sms to be hser orinters. Can mormt anddictating the size and sbape ofdis- laminate lalso 1,y sign making com-plays.to fi great€r exblt PT py. panies.)viously. '" This is particularly obvrouswhqr the low lech systems of users Computer-assisted tools. Those in-with 20G500 vocabulary iterns are terviewed feel computer aided toolscompared to available high tech sys- are making a huge difference intenrs. To acress tbat much vocabulary both the quality and quantity of dis-on a device nrans tbe user must plays they provid€ individuals.spell, use prediction, coding, levels, Drawing programs, graphic libraryor sorre combination of these techni- programs' and scarmers can assistques. Hardv/are constraints exist for anyone to make graphic displays.both high and low tech devices. Time Several products are already on thefor a Pop Quiz! market.

Access Bliss. This orosram makes1.. Wlty d9 Wu nnfose hiSh tech Slissymbols ,e"Oily ac-cessible on

dzies displtry only 128 symbob the Macintosh computer using Hy_simultarcousty? percard stacks. It is also svaiiab6s) Because reserrch has $own peaple wilh for use with other programs (e.g.,

severe-speechimpairmentsgeneratelangu.ge SlorvBliss)-most efficiently using squarc or rerangular i". dnr,.rl'"r..rn",i"" conhcr Kdhrvnshped casinss wirh 2.4,t,16,J2,64, or 128 S;ioJrd" 6r[iy-;'6.iiJ" c.ffi-,iliidi r'tr..switches? nalional; 250 Ferrsnd drive, Suitc 2m, Don

- b) B€csus€ compurers deal io base 2 oirurv) Mills' odrrio' canada M3c 3P2'

snd engineers like to wort ."irr, pon "o

iiil' Boar.dmakr (intemational): 199316,32, 12t swilches?

- version. $399 US + a drawing pro-gram. This tool is cbanging how wedo what we do. It is the Mayer

' ) ,

Johnson graphic symbol databos€.Currently the software is availablefor the Macintosh computer. AnIBM Windows version ofBoardmaker is coming out in theFall. Boardmaker now has 3000Mayer Johnson Pich.lre Communica-tion Symbols @ooks I,tr and III.)Each symbol is translated into tenlanguages @nglish, Spanisb, French(Canadian), Portugue,se, Danish,Swedish, German, Dutch, Nor-wegian, Italian). You can use twolanguages with each symbol. Textnow can be manipulated se;nratelyfrom the symbols. At my request,Terry Johnson provided a list ofpositive and negative feahresshared with him by clinicians. SeeTable III. He says, moct peoplelearn to use the program in ap-proximalely 5 !o 6 hours. Tben theycan select symbols, make tbem anysize and chose any spacing, copythem to a clipboard and paste themusing MacDraw/SuperPaint, orother desktop publishing program todraw grids and import symbols. Theprogram can be used with Speal<izsDynarnicallv software $299 turningthe Mac into a commrmication dis-play with speech ouFut.Reeistered owners o[ formea Boardmater csnupgrade for $ I 00. Codrcr Mlyer Jdutron for

Boqrd BuiA.er. $169. Re{uiresHyperCard. Symbol size, spacingand display sizes are limited. Twolanguages are available.For more information. w.ite or call Maver-Johnson Co. P.O. Box 1579. Solam DAch.cA 92075-1579. (619) 4El-2489 lhorrc(619) 259-5?26. Telefax.

l. Saves m@rybecause it slves tirne.2. Quality of dispkysis bettea.3. Ifhrve colo.printcr, can get color.4. Flexibility. Canmix symbol sets,cor$ine symbols,rnrte text chsng€se$ily, changc size ofl,ext viss vi siz€ ofsymbolr5. Increasesproductivigr., .canger|erate more boardsao update boards more

l, Must le{rn borry tousc (Board M6kerprogram I hour.Drawiog proFam 4 to5 hou.s. )2.Cmts $319 forBoard Mskcr, Sl50for drewing prograrn.Requires MacirfoctrPlus or grester with 2megs ofRAM ard ahard disk.3 . ComputeB sregreat whed everj4hingworks. . .they car driveyou nut8 whe[ lheydon'1.

Universitv& Researih

AAC Activities at PennState University

TI.fenn State Universitv in Univer-

sity Park, Pennsylvania has an increas-ingly active AAC curriculum and re-search program. Four counes are of-fered at the rmdergraduaie andgraduate level t0 studenb in Com-munication Disorders, Special Educa-tion, Therapeutic l-eisure Studies, andolher d€parbrents: Intrcduction toAAC, Ass€ssment and Intervention inAAC, Special Topics in AAC, and atransdisciplinary course, taught in con-junction with the Pennsylvania Assis-tive Technology Cenler CATC) inHarrisburg, during which studentsdevelop leisure programs that incor-porate opporhmities for social inlerac-tion. Irr addition to coursework, aclinical component is available withinthe Communication Disorders Depart-mant. Using primarily a community-based model, the Augmentative Com-muication Center provides assess-ment and intervention !o adults ardchildren. Clinic staff include x"rryWetb, Clinic Coordinalor, Gail Schifarn andBarbam Roberrs,

Research Activities in AACClinically grounded research ac-

tivities are underway. Arnong currentprojects in the areas of interaction,literacy, vocabulary usage and inter-vention strategies arc:

1,. Exemplnry wacties: Develop-inp thz communicatiw cttmpetence ofstudanls who we aupmetuative qnd aI-tern4tive communicqtion. Ix. taiceLighr in conjurction wirh lhe PATC.Sqdenr irFvesigalors: Dam Adkins, Jeff Bmwn, LyrmBuchefl, lGthy Harr Nrta creiner. Judy Jor-dan, Bri[ Livel$e.ee., Irri l-on$ard, LisaNailer. A 3 year project (1993{96)l nded by tbe U.S. Depfftment ofEducation with goals to betler identiryskills contributing !o commmicativecompetence in school-aged studentswho use AAC. Researchers will inve-tigate skills that may (or may not) con-tribue to corrununicative corq)etence.Then, they will develop instructionaliechniques shown to contribute andevaluate the efficacy of these techni-ques. Finally, staffwill develop and

disseminate instructional nrodulesbased on their findings.

2. Literaclt learnins in stud.entswho use AAC nstems. D.s. Jsnice Lghts|d David Kqpenluver of rhe Catolim LiteracyCede. at the University of Nonh C{rdina inconjurction wilh the Augrrprtalive Commrmica-tion Service at the Hugh MacMillan Cenler inTomn0o, O ario ard $e PATC. Stdents i'!v€s-igarois: Ifur€n Guggenheim, Elalne lre, Lird!Rime. A survey of parents and te€chersof studeDts (ages +22 years) who useAAC across tlre Commonwealth ofPA and the province of Ontario,Canada. Researchers will determine:a) what the expectations are forliteracy in sh,rdeots who use AAC? b)what the sbrdent's curent reading ex-periences and instruction are? c) wbatthe student's current writing ex-perience and instnrction entail? and d)what support is available for lil,eracyleaming?

3 . Investieabn of the effea of mospelline instruction techniouas on thesnelline Wrfomnnce of qdults whoase ,4,4C. Oavia VcNa'€hron ard JirnTawrry. Iavestigalors are comparingthe effects of 2 spelling instructionaltechniques (with each other and with ano instruction condition). The efficacyof these techniques with adults withcongenital disabilities who use AACwill be described.

4. Story readinp interaaions be-tween ftwthcn qnd AAC preschoobr\.ladce Light with Alison tclford Smith st Mc.

Ma$er University Medical Cenler. Strdent inveetigabs Clthy Binger, Mau.€€n Mnlshn

This study will describe tlm takingpatteros, the focus of inleraction, andspecifi c conrmunicative behavionmofters and children produce in theirstory reading interactions. In addition,question asking pattems of mothersand response types of children will bea\alyzeA.

S.Vocqbuhm usape bt nondis-ablzd preschoolcrs. Janice Lighr ard KapnFallon. This project will replicale theBeukelman, Jones, and Rowan'sstudy'- and look at tlre frequency andcommonality of word u-sage in pre-schoolels. Staffwill then develop anassessment tool based on semantic/syn-tactic categories to provide additionalguidance for vocabulary selection.

6. In\e$tipation ofeffects ofrepeqted. listeninp erperiences on iuel-lipibility of nnthesked soeedt o*;aMcNauglm, Karin Fdon, Julie Tod, FredWeirFr, Jack Neisnoih. Researchers aredelermining if adults and cbildren im-prove across repealed lislening ex-periences with DecTalk and Echospeech synthesizers. If so, they willdetermine if subjects are extractingphonological rules and applying themto novel words,

7 . Successful models of community-ba.ted qnpktltnent for ,4,4C users,Janice Light, Betty SrolE. David McNsughton.Goals are to describe the *ills ofemployed AAC users, the nahre oftheir employment sihrations, and thebariers, commrmicative demands,and shategies used to overcomeemployment barriers. This effort willassist vocational education programsto prepoxe AAC uson for thejobmarkel

8. Puterns ofwcabularv usape indatq enfi\ iobs. J€nice Lighr. S[dent inve+tigators Slacy &€.dey, Kdry Sifipson.

The project will collect and analyzevocabulary used by nondisabledworkers in data entryjobs.

9. Efrca.cn of hleraction strategiesb facihtute inleraction between ad.altpeers who use AAC, Janice Light adKslhy Johrgon. Sedent irlvesigatds: UsaIrrdo, Michele Rourke, ard Msry Amschober. A pilot study demonstrated alack of contingency between AACusers when no one with rnoredeveloped interaction skills was avail-able to provide scaffolding. Thisstudy used a prompting hierarchy toteach 2 adults with cerebral palsy whouse AAC techniques to enhance ioter-action and independence during fimc.tional tasks, i.e,. menu planning intheir group home. The ef;Ecacy of theintervention stmtegy is beingevaluated.For addilional information, contrct Dr. JsniceLigh-t._Cornmunicarion Disorde$ Depanrner4217 Moore, Penn Sr.are Univershy. UniversiryPark, PA 16802. (El4) 863-2010:SorDestiD€nds sre available.

AugrnentafryqC-ornmrrnication

NewsREFERENCES

I Carol Goossens' (February, 1993).Personal commrmication.

2 Light, J. (1992) cognitiveScience: Implications for ClinicalPractice in AAC. Miniseminarpresented at ASHA 1992, San An-tonio. TX

' Fitzgerald, E. (1954). Straieht I-an-suage for the Desf. Washington,D.C.: Volta Bureau.

a McDonald, E. & Schultz, A.(1973). Communication boards forcerebrallalsied children. Journal ofSpeecb and Hearing Disorders.38:1.73-88.

5 Blacksione, S. (1992). Masterclinicians' and reasearchers' viewson the AAC language learningprocess. Auqmentative Commrmics-tion News. 5:4,

6 Markman, E. (1989). Catesoriza.tion and Namine in Children:Problems of Induction. Cambridge,MA: The MIT Press, p.5.

7 R"illy, s. & Roach, J. (1986).Designing human/computer inter-faces: A comparison ofhuman fac-tors and graphic arts principles.Educational Technolow. January,36-40.

6 Blackstone, S. (198E). Augmetrta-tive communication: A clinicalmanag€ment process model. InBernstein, L. @ds). The Vocallv Im-paired: Clinical Practice and Re-search. Philadelphia, PA: Gnme &Stration.

e Light, J. (February, 1993). Per-sonal communication.

lo Krauitz, E. (1989). As reportedin S. Blackstone, Issues and Prac-tices, AeN. 2:2, p. 4.

I I Vanderheiden, G. & Lloyd, L.(1985). Communication systems andtheir components. In S. Blackstone(Ed.) Auqmentative Commmica-tion: An Introduction. Rockville,

There was no Janrury 193 issue ofAuenetuarive Comtunicatbn Nev/s. T omake up for this, the Marc!, May andJuly issues will be 10 pages insead of 8pages. All subsequent issues will rehrrnto our 8 pag€s fomaL Also, ACN willnowbe mailed to everyone in an en-velope. Any questions? Give us a call.

MD: American Speech-I-anguage-Hearing Association.l2 Goossens', C., Crain, S. &Elder, P. (f92). Ensineering thepreschool environment for interac-tive svmbolic comrmrnication 18months to 5 vears develoomentallv.Birmingham, AL: Soutleast Aug-mentative Communication Con-ference Publications. ClinicianSeries.

13 D"."."o, P. (February, 1993).Personal commrmication.14 Beukelmao, D., Jones, R. &Rowan, M. (1989). Frequency ofword usage by nondisabled peers inintegrated preschool classrmms.AAC. 5:4,243-248.

YOUR RESOURCES

Mary Hunt Berg, Barkley MemorialCenter, University of Nebraska, Lin-coln, NE 68583. (4O2) 472-2141.

Joau Bruno, Augmentative Coor-dinator, Children's SpecializedHospital, 150 New ProvidenceRoad, Mountaiaside, NF 07092.(9O8) 233-3'120 x339.

Patrick Demasco, Center for Applied Science and EngineeringLaboratories in Rebabilitation-Applied Science and EngineeringIJboaratories, A.I. DuPont, P.O.Box 269, Wilmington, DE 19810.(302) 651{830.

Carol Goossens', Rmm 817, 20West 22nd Street, New York, NYrooro. (2r2) 229-1862.

Ina Kirstein, Comrnrmication Con-sultant, Communication Enhancement Center, Oakland Schools, 2100Potrtiac Lake Road, Waterford, MI48328-n35

Janice Light, Department of Com- )munication Disorders. 217 Mcprcbuilding, Penn State University,University Park, PA l6W2

Pamela Mathy-Laikko, Universityof Nebraska Medical Center, MeyerRehabilitation Instihrte, 600 South42nd Stre€t, Omaba, NE 68198.(4O2) 5594ffi.

Mary Ann Ronski, Department ofCommunication, Georgia StateUniversity, University Plaza, Atlan-ta, GA 30303 (4O4\ 24+5828.

Gail Van Tatenhove , 8322 TangeloTree Drive, Orlando, FL 32836(4O7\ 876-3423.

Ann Warrick, Augmentative Com-munication Services, Hugh Mac-Millan Center, 350 Rumsey Road,Toronto. Ontario M4G 1R8 Canada(416\ 424-3805.

Carol West, University of NebraskaMedical Center, Meyer Rehabilita-tion Institute, 60O South 42ndStre€t, Omaha, NE 68198. (,1O2)5594460.

Additional ReadingsBlmmberg, K and Johnson, H. (Ed6.) (1991).Communicalion wilhoul Soe€ch: A suide forffiEIG;ii6fifFEG;?Eh Lrd, Radford House,Frederict Street, Hs\t(h on, Ybtoia 3l/2,Aust.slir.

chr.lesbois-Mo.ois. c. (l9t$. Evcrvbodv'sTechnoloev: A shsiinr df ideasl6'im;E:ffi;ITiEi;F:-

Kflst, A. (f9t5).Thcjurp ftom hngusgeD(}lrdr to clcctnorxc/conrDukn!€id devroesomc criticsl trrinins issries. Confer€rF€ oncommunicalion lhroieh techdolocv foi tfrephysicr y dislbl€.d, Dublin, Irelaift .

htoff. c. (l9tn. Cosnirivc nrodels andororotvoe thi:orv. ln tll Neisscr (Ed). Con-ieotr iid concebtual develoonrcri. NYi-eifrE-frdEE!fr ve_-iirIPiEGFJ- l m.

kkoff. G. (lgtD. womeo. Fire.rdDanpeious 'ihine;. CFE i6-3t6;ifon: TheUdieriiry-of ?fi

-rcagoNss.

Munson. J,. Nordouist. C. & Thunu-Rew. S.(l9t?). communicition Svstems for krsoiuwrh severe Neuromolor lrll)arrnF : AnI6EiIiGfr lisciSlinaFTSEGiE-ifi F[hiver-;itv ofEwa:-

Musselwhite. C. & St,Louis. K. (1988), ConFmunication Fosrammin! fd krions iviif$nEtmmficT;s--rVC;FimfFuffi ffi fveSim-es-iE!]6;6i:FfiFtrdEfrir-e-Comp-rny- Qff .)

Marhy-tsikto, P. & W.st, C. (1992).Tutorial on Ausment tive Communicrtion nVocsbularv Sefecdon. Universirv of Nebrada