After the death of Gaius Gracchus in 121, people hoped that the period of violence and turmoil in Rome would end

Unfortunately, challenges still faced Rome throughout the end of this century and into the next

Sketchy accounts of this period

Numidian adopted by King Micipsa (successor to Masinissa – ally of Rome)

At his death, Micipsa left his kingdom to his two sons and Jugurtha

Jugurtha killed one brother and drove out the other (Adherbal)

Rome (Opimius) intervened and divided the kingdom giving Jugurtha the West and Adherbal the more developed East (117) Bordered Africa – Rome wanted stability

Juguertha invaded Adherbal’s land Eventually Adherbal surrendered and was killed

(112)

Diplomacy failed Roman forces were not very effective Began improving around 109-108 under

Metellus, and then under Gaius Marius In 105, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, quaestor

to Marius, persuaded Jugurtha’s ally to betray him

Jugurtha was executed Roman honor was restored

Migration of German peoples south In 113, they defeated a Roman consul and

army who had been sent to observe them Roman legions continued to be defeated

over the next few years Marius was reelected consul in 104 and

sent to Gaul And subsequently reelected every year until 100 Defeated tribes and removed the threat Hailed as Rome’s savior

No longer three ranks divided by age and equipment

One unified body of heavy infantry Calvary and light-armed troops were

made up of allies Cohesive fighting power Eagle made the legions principle

standard (Aquila) Javelins made so that it would buckle

after landing

In 107, Marius was authorized to draft for his campaign, but instead he called for volunteers and promised them rewards (lowest classes)

Given plots of land in Africa (with the help of tribune Saturninus)

In 100, Marius needed help again rewarding veterans with land Saturninus again planned to settle veterans in Gaul He also proposed sending colonies to Greece and Sicily Additionally, Marius was allowed to grant citizenship to

a small number of settlers in each colony Hostility arose against the extension of citizenship Proposal passed only after a violent uprising

Each provincial community was locally autonomous

Paid a tax to Rome, but usually not required to provide manpower

Governor was supreme in his province Issued edicts to deal with immediate concerns

Language and cultural barriers Corruption was easy to get away with Quaestio de repetundis

Jury court to hear complaints again a governor Only held in Rome Governor could only be charged after his office

ended

Tribune in 91 Proposed the foundation of colonies and

the distribution of public lands to poor citizens

Wanted to grant Roman citizenship to all Latins and Italians

Opposition to these legislations gained enough support that it rendered them invalid

Drusus was killed by an assassin

Italians hopes of citizenship had been once again destroyed Began organizing to claim rights of citizenship by force 100,000 men with experience fighting in the Roman army

(primarily Samnites and Lucanians) Latin communities, and many other Italian cities remained

loyal to Rome Rebels caught Rome by surprise, inflicted some severe

defeats Eventually, Rome gained the upper hand and defeated the

rebel allies Rebels effectiveness proved to the Romans that they had to

be granted the rights that they desired Fall 90 – offered citizenship to all communities of allies that

remained loyal and those who would defect from rebels by a certain date

89 – extended citizenship to those who were not eligible in 90 and gave Latin status to others

Allied communities gained right to vote, run for office Latin spread and other languages died out Encouraged urbanization

Tribune in 88 New citizens from Social Wars were restricted to a

small number of tribes which could only vote after all the other 35 tribes voted

Sulpicius was determined to gain full voting rights for the new citizens

Opposition from both consuls (including Sulla) Gained support from Marius in return for Sulla’s

command against Mithridates Used intimidation and violence Consuls declared a iustitium (suspension of public

business) Street fighting broke out and Sulla agreed to lift iustitium

Redistribution proposal passed and reassigned Mithridates to Marius while Sulla was in Campania tying up the Social Wars

Very successful in the Social Wars Elected to consul in 88

Well earned If he accepted reassignment, he ruined

all of his hard-earned political prospects Knew that if he opposed it, he would have

to take the law into his own hands

Marched on Rome with his 6\six legions Change in Military philosophy under Marius created a new

class of citizens and created a loyalty to generals as opposed to Rome itself

Took Marius, Sulpicius, and the senate by surprise Once in control, Sulla made the senate declare

Marius, Sulpicius, and ten others (Marius’ son) enemies of the state because of their violent and rebellious behavior Only Sulpicius was killed, all others escaped Rome

Canceled all measures passed by Sulpicius after the iustitium Restored Sulla to Mithridatic command New citizens were not redistributed

The consuls elected in 87 were not supported by Sulla, but promised that they would uphold his measures

Sulla set out for Asia Minor

Consul elected in 87 Took up cause of redistributing new citizens again Octavius, the other consul was opposed Cinna decided to leave Rome and travel around Italy

gaining support The senate removed him from consulship and declared him an

enemy of Rome Marius came back from exile to support Cinna

Gained support of Samnites who were still dragging out the Social Wars

Attacked Rome Octavius was killed and Sulla was outlawed

Sulla had success in Mithridates, but saw that it was advantageous to make peace with him

Cinna planned to meet Sulla in Greece, but Cinna was killed before an major confrontation

Sulla returned to Italy and was joined by Crassus (32) and Pompey (23)

Rome and most of Italy were initially hostile to Sulla

Gaius Marius (“Young” Marius) was elected to consul – resistance against Sulla Made a stand against Sulla at Praeneste, and

fighting raged all over northern and central Italy during 82

Sulla won a narrow victory at Colline Gate (Rome) in November of 82

Pompey won in each province gaining the nickname “Young Butcher”

Resistance came to an end

Sulla Anti-Sulla •Opposed Redistribution

•Sulla

•Octavius

•Cassus

•Pompey

•Supported Redistribution

•Sulpicius

•Marius

•Cinna

•Samnites

•“Young” Marius

The senate recognized all Sulla’s past actions as legal

Appointed him as dictator Charged with bringing order back to the state and

formulating laws He could execute anyone without trial He was not required to submit any legislative

proposal to a citizen assembly No time limit

His goals were to return the state to the condition from over 50 years before (until Tiberius Gracchus)

List of individuals who were condemned to death without a trial

Anyone could kill them for a reward Penalties for those who helped the

proscribed to get away Purpose was to root out those who had

opposed Sulla (especially Senators and equites)

500-1500 people were killed

150 members of the senate left Sulla introduced 450 new members from the

equestrian class that had been loyal to him Doubled the number of quaestors, increased

praetors from 6 to 8, left number of consuls at 2 Cursus honorum became much more competative

Reinstituted restrictions on number of offices held in a row and age limits 10 year interval between holding any particular office

(impossible to repeat careers of Marius and Cinna) Lessened the power of the Tribune

Couldn’t run for any other office Revived restrictions on governors

To gain support, he redistributed all citizens granted citizenship in Social wars into the 35 tribes

Confiscated land to settle his veterans (80,000 men)

Sulla believed that Rome’s greatest threat was a commander who could persuade his troops to attack their own city – the shorter the command the better

He resigned dictatorship by the end of 81 Elected consul in 80 Retired and died in 78 Strengths: Sulla regarded the senate in the

Rome of the 1st century to be weak Reinforced certain Republican ideals Wanted to equip the state with stable leadership

Limitations: proscriptions and land redistribution created huge social dislocation