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© 2013 Cengage Learning
OutlineOutline
Humans Engage in Cultural Learning Enculturation and Socialization Culture, Parenting, and Families
Whiting and Whiting’s Six Cultures Study Diversity in Parenting as a Function of Economics Parenting Goals and Beliefs Global Parenting Styles
Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)
Culture, Parenting, and Families (cont’d.) Parenting Behaviors and Strategies A Domain-Specific Approach to Parenting Siblings Extended and Multigenerational Families
Culture and Peers Exposure to Peer Groups Peers and Bullying
Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)
Culture and Education Cross-National Differences in Math Achievement Social and Cultural Factors That Influence Math
Achievement Summary
Putting it All Together
HUMANS ENGAGE IN HUMANS ENGAGE IN CULTURAL LEARNINGCULTURAL LEARNING
Humans Engage in Cultural LearningHumans Engage in Cultural Learning
Unique human ability to engage in shared intentionality allows for "cultural learning“
Learning not only from others but through others Michael Tomasello studies:
Children understand intentionality, social learning, and communication more complexly than great apes
Social learning and communication provides foundation for cooperation with other humans
Only humans are capable of creating culture
ENCULTURATION AND ENCULTURATION AND SOCIALIZATION SOCIALIZATION
Enculturation and Socialization Enculturation and Socialization
Constant across cultures: people wish to become competent, productive adults
Different across cultures: meaning of "competent" and "productive”
Culture must be learned with practice through prolonged process
Socialization: process by which we learn and internalize rules and patterns of society
Enculturation: process of youngsters learning and adopting ways and manners of their culture
Source: Santrock, J. W. (2007). Child Development. Eleventh edition. NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
CULTURE, PARENTING, CULTURE, PARENTING, AND FAMILIESAND FAMILIES
Culture, Parenting, and FamiliesCulture, Parenting, and Families
Family: most important microsystem to child’s development
Margaret Mead: by observing parents we are observing essence of a culture
Study of parenting within cultural context tells us what is important to that culture
Whiting and Whitings’ Whiting and Whitings’ Six Cultures StudySix Cultures Study
Anthropologists collected field data in Mexico, India, Kenya, USA, Okinawa, and Philippines
Major focus: examine child rearing and children's behavior in varied cultural contexts
Child’s behavior and personality is intimately connected to characteristics of broader ecology
Women's work roles contribute to children's social behaviors
Diversity in Parenting as a Diversity in Parenting as a Function of EconomicsFunction of Economics
Diverse economic conditions produce socialization processes that vary across cultures
Caregiving environment reflects set of goals ordered in importance: Physical health and survival Promotion of behaviors leading to self-sufficiency Behaviors that promote other cultural values, i.e.
prestige
Parenting Goals and BeliefsParenting Goals and Beliefs
Parenting goals provide motivation and framework for raising children
Parenting goals lead to variations in parenting behaviors across cultures
Parental ethnotheories: parental cultural belief systems
Parents’ cultural belief systems motivate and shape what parents think is “right” way to parent
Global Parenting StylesGlobal Parenting Styles
Authoritarian parents: expect unquestioned obedience; child needs to be controlled
Permissive parents: warm and nurturing; allow children to regulate own lives with few guidelines
Authoritative parents: sensitive to child's maturity; firm, fair, reasonable and affectionate
Uninvolved parents: do not respond appropriately to children; indifferent
Parenting Behaviors and StrategiesParenting Behaviors and Strategies
One of most representative cultural differences in parenting behaviors is sleeping arrangements
Studies using HOME Inventory describe three general areas in which cultures vary: Warmth and responsiveness Discipline Stimulation/teaching
Parenting beliefs and practices are congruent with developmental goals dictated by culture
A Domain-Specific A Domain-Specific Approach to ParentingApproach to Parenting
Criticism of global parenting: ignores differences due to particular child, situation, and context
Domain-specific approach: Focuses on parenting behaviors rather than general
styles Emphasizes complexity of socialization process Domains include: protection, control, reciprocity,
guided learning, and group participation Parenting practices must be appropriate for domain in
which child is functioning
SiblingsSiblings
Siblings play important role in socialization of children
Siblings can fulfill many roles: tutors, buddies, playmates, caretakers
Skills important to culture are learned from siblings: perspective-taking, social understanding, conflict negotiation
Repeated and prolonged interaction means older siblings can be influential role model to younger siblings
Extended and Extended and Multigenerational FamiliesMultigenerational Families
Extended families: members other than parents and children (aunts, uncles, cousins, and grandparents)
Multigenerational families: grandparents in addition to parents and children or just children
Extended- and multigenerational-family child rearing is integral part of enculturation process
Extended and multigenerational families have in common sharing of resources, emotional support, and caregiving
CULTURE AND PEERSCULTURE AND PEERS
Culture and PeersCulture and Peers
Postfigurative cultures (culture change is slow): Socialization occurs primarily by elders transferring
their knowledge
Cofigurative cultures (culture change is quicker): Adults socialize their children, but peers play a
greater role in socializing each other
Prefigurative cultures (culture change is rapid): Culture is changing so rapidly that young people may
be the ones to teach adults
Exposure to Peer GroupsExposure to Peer Groups
Cultures vary in exposure that children have to peer groups
Industrialized countries: children spend significant amount of time with same-aged peers
Solitary farm settlements: children will have limited options to interact with wide range of playmates
Hunting and gathering society: children may be socialized by multiple-age peers
Peers and BullyingPeers and Bullying
Three criteria of bullying Intentional physical or psychological harm Based on a power imbalance between the bully and
victim Repeated over time
Rate of bullying varies across cultures Cross-national comparisons may be problematic
if cultures define bullying in different ways
CULTURE AND CULTURE AND EDUCATIONEDUCATION
Culture and EducationCulture and Education
Educational system is single most important formalized mechanism of instruction in many societies and cultures
Most think that country's educational system is solely an institution that teaches thinking skills and knowledge
Educational system is most important institution that teaches and reinforces cultural values
Cross-National Differences Cross-National Differences in Math Achievementin Math Achievement
Math and culture have a very special relationship
Stigler and Baranes (1988): math skills “…forged out of a combination of previously acquired (or inherited) knowledge and skills, and new cultural input"
Culture is not only a stimulator of math, but is itself represented in math, and how a society teaches and learns it
Social and Cultural Factors That Social and Cultural Factors That Influence Math AchievementInfluence Math Achievement
Language School systems Parental and familial values Teaching styles Teacher-student relationships Attitudes and appraisals of students
Summary Summary
Cross-national differences in academic achievement not due to biological differences
Many social and cultural factors play a role: Economics Geography Resources Cultural values and beliefs Abilities and experiences Language Family dynamics
PUTTING IT ALL PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHERTOGETHER
Putting it All TogetherPutting it All Together
Each culture's way of raising children represents culture's way of ensuring values and norms are transmitted to children
Practices are ritualized to transmit information from generation to next generation
Contemporary theories: children's active processing of information results in reproduction of culture and production of new elements