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@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Chapter 1Chapter 1
What is ScienceWhat is Science?
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Topics
1. Science as a Way of Knowing2. The Scientific Approach3. Early Approaches4. Studying Behavior and Experience5. Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective
Experience of Research Participants6. The People Who Perform Science
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Science as a Way of KnowingScience as a Way of Knowing
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Science as a Way of Knowing
• Science: merely one way of examining human processes
• Other channels of understanding behavior:– Art, philosophy, religion, and literature
• Science helps us to know if our ideas about the world are wrong
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Science as a Way of Knowing (cont’d.)
• Tenacity– Acceptance of a belief based on the idea that “we
have always known it to be this way”– Example: “You can’t teach an old dog new tricks” – Problems
• Accuracy of statement may never have been evaluated• No means for correcting erroneous ideas
– Extension of childish behavior
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Science as a Way of Knowing (cont’d.)
• Authority– Acceptance based on authority– Example: parents directing a child’s behavior– Brings a stability that allows for consistency– Problem: authority can be incorrect
• Example: accepting the view that the earth was the center of the universe
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Science as a Way of Knowing (cont’d.)
• Reason– Basic method of philosophy– Often takes the form of a logical syllogism– Example: “All men can’t count; Dick is a man;
therefore, Dick can’t count”– Potential problem: original assumption must be
correct
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Science as a Way of Knowing (cont’d.)
• Common sense– Appeals to direct experience– Based on past experiences and perceptions of the
world– However, experiences and perceptions may be
limited• Example: optical illusions, cognitive illusions
– May prevent us from understanding new areas
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Science as a Way of Knowing (cont’d.)
• Alfred North Whitehead (1925) suggested two methods for the “purification of ideas”– Dispassionately observing by means of bodily
senses – Using reason to compare various theoretical
conceptualizations based on experience
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Science as a Way of Knowing (cont’d.)
• First method– Direct extension of the commonsense approach– Science is open to anyone’s direct experience
• Second method– Direct application of the principles of logic– Logic is combined with experience
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Science as a Way of Knowing (cont’d.)
• Isaac Newton’s rules of reasoning in science:– Law of parsimony– Assumption that there exists a unity to the
physical universe in which we live– Possibility of generalizing from experiments– Acceptance of empirical data over opinion
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Science as a Way of Knowing (cont’d.)
• Key characteristics of psychological science according to Alan Kazdin (2003b):– Parsimony– Consider rival alternative explanations of findings– Replication is central to doing good science– Consider results with great care and apply
appropriate logic to the situation
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Science as a Way of Knowing (cont’d.)
• We have a long history of relying on magic and superstition as ways to guide our decisions
• Pseudoscience: phenomenon of presenting information as if it is based on science when it is not
• We need a means for testing our ideas• We need ways of knowing if we are wrong
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
The Scientific Approach
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
The Scientific Approach
• Major characteristic of science: reliance on information that is verifiable through experience
• Once you know the methods of science, you can:– Evaluate science as a method of knowing about
the world– Decide whether science is the way you choose to
understand the world
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The Scientific Approach (cont’d.)
• Croesus: king of Lydia, 560 to 546 BC– Beginnings of a scientific approach to experience– However, he had not learned the:
• Role of chance in science • Nature of the language of science
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
The Scientific Approach (cont’d.)
• Galen: physician, second century AD– Went past observation– Began to ask “I wonder what will happen if I do
this?”– Performed what we now would call a single-case
experiment
• Ignaz Semmelweis: physician, 150 years ago– Findings shaped modern medical practice
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
The Scientific Approach (cont’d.)
• These three stories show the beginnings of a scientific approach to human problems
• Croesus devised a test– An evaluation of the sources to decide which one
he would use to direct his behavior
• Galen sought evidence of a causal relationship by examining the woman directly– Went beyond the opinions of available authorities
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
The Scientific Approach (cont’d.)
• Semmelweis observed patients with a definite purpose in mind– Sought to determine what was unique to his
patients– Used logic and common sense to design tests– Began with a problem and followed it through to
the end
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Studying Behavior and Experience
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Studying Behavior and Experience
• Empiricism– Process of relying on sensory experience to verify
ideas about reality– Combined with the scientific method, has been a
productive approach for psychology
• We study topics on a variety of levels– Cognitive, emotional, physiological, molecular
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Studying Behavior and Experience (cont’d.)
• Two worlds in our study of behavior and experience– Objective, physical world– Subjective world of personal psychological
experience
• The challenge: to explore and understand scientifically the behaviors as well as the experiences of ourselves and others
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Studying Behavior and Experience (cont’d.)
Table 1-1
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Studying Behavior and Experience (cont’d.)
• Cell 1 – Represents that with which we are all immediately
acquainted– Private experience of being who we are and living
in our world
• Cell 2– Represents the inner world of all beings other
than ourselves– We can ask, “What does it feel like to be you?”
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Studying Behavior and Experience (cont’d.)
• Cell 3 – Represents our outward behavior: “How do I
appear in the eyes of others?”
• Cell 4 – Represents the behaviors of other people or
animals that anyone can directly observe, measure, or objectify
– Traditional domain of psychological research throughout the 20th century
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of
Research Participants
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Behavior: A Road into the Subjective Experience
• Marker variable: an event that occurs along with the process we are studying
• Blindsight: phenomenon in which people who are normally blind can correctly identify the locations of particular patterns in experimental situations
• Synesthesia: perceiving with a different sense than would usually be the case
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
The People Who Perform Science
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
The People Who Perform Science
• All people of the world are represented in the history of science
• Women have been an integral part of psychology since its beginning as a science
• We perform science with the support of other scientists
• Human sensitivity of scientists adds life and spirit to the scientific enterprise
@ 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Summary
• We use various ways of accepting or rejecting ideas: tenacity, authority, reason, common sense, and science
• Science combines experience, reason, and a desire to answer questions about reality
• Psychology is interested in the study of outer appearances as well as inner experiences
• We use behavior to make inferences concerning the inner worlds of organisms
