© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Chapter 3 Culture and the Culture Learning Process 1

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Chapter 3Chapter 3

Culture and the Culture Culture and the Culture Learning ProcessLearning Process

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Defining CultureDefining Culture

Culture is socially constructed.Culture is socially constructed. Culture is shared by its members.Culture is shared by its members. Culture is both objective and subjective.Culture is both objective and subjective. Culture may be defined by geography, ethnicity, Culture may be defined by geography, ethnicity,

language, religion, history, or other important language, religion, history, or other important social characteristics.social characteristics.

Culture is socially transmitted.Culture is socially transmitted.

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Culture in Everyday UseCulture in Everyday Use

Terms commonly used to describe social groups Terms commonly used to describe social groups that share important cultural elements are:that share important cultural elements are:– SubcultureSubculture– MicrocultureMicroculture– Ethnic groupEthnic group– Minority groupMinority group– People of colorPeople of color

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SubcultureSubculture

Subcultures share Subcultures share characteristics that characteristics that distinguish them from distinguish them from the larger society in the larger society in which they are which they are embedded; these embedded; these characteristics may characteristics may be a set of ideas and be a set of ideas and practices or some practices or some demographic demographic similarity.similarity.

Some examples of Some examples of subcultures are:subcultures are:– Corporate cultureCorporate culture– Adolescent cultureAdolescent culture– Drug cultureDrug culture– Culture of povertyCulture of poverty– Academic cultureAcademic culture

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MicrocultureMicroculture

Microcultures also Microcultures also share distinguishing share distinguishing characteristics, but tend characteristics, but tend to be more closely to be more closely linked to the larger linked to the larger society, often serving in society, often serving in mediating roles; they mediating roles; they often interpret and often interpret and transmit the ideas, transmit the ideas, values, and institutions values, and institutions of the larger political of the larger political community.community.

Some examples of Some examples of microcultures are:microcultures are:– The familyThe family– The workplaceThe workplace– The classroomThe classroom– The schoolThe school

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Minority GroupMinority Group

Members of minority Members of minority groups occupy a groups occupy a subordinate position subordinate position in a society; they may in a society; they may be separated from the be separated from the dominant society by dominant society by disapproval and disapproval and discrimination.discrimination.

Some examples of Some examples of minority groups in the minority groups in the United States are:United States are:– Racial minoritiesRacial minorities– WomenWomen– People with disabilitiesPeople with disabilities– Language minoritiesLanguage minorities

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Ethnic GroupEthnic Group

Members of ethnic Members of ethnic groups share groups share common heritage, common heritage, history, celebrations history, celebrations and traditions, similar and traditions, similar foods; and might foods; and might speak a common speak a common language other than language other than English. Loyalty to English. Loyalty to one’s ethnic identity one’s ethnic identity can be very powerful.can be very powerful.

Some examples of Some examples of ethnic groups are:ethnic groups are:– Irish AmericanIrish American– Native AmericanNative American– Lebanese AmericanLebanese American– African AmericanAfrican American

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People of ColorPeople of Color

This term refers to This term refers to members of non-members of non-white minority groups; white minority groups; it is often preferred to it is often preferred to the term “minority the term “minority group,” but does not group,” but does not clearly identify clearly identify specific loyalties.specific loyalties.

For example, native For example, native Spanish-speakers Spanish-speakers may identify may identify themselves as themselves as “Hispanic people of “Hispanic people of color,” but their color,” but their cultural identity may cultural identity may be Puerto Rican, be Puerto Rican, Mexican, or Mexican, or Salvadoran.Salvadoran.

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Culture Solves Common Human Culture Solves Common Human ProblemsProblems

Means of communication—languageMeans of communication—language Determination of power—statusDetermination of power—status Regulation of reproduction—familyRegulation of reproduction—family Systems of rules—governmentSystems of rules—government Relationship to nature—magic, myth, religion, Relationship to nature—magic, myth, religion,

sciencescience Conception of time—temporalityConception of time—temporality Significant lessons—historySignificant lessons—history Cultural representations—music, story, Cultural representations—music, story,

dance, artdance, art

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Humans Construct CultureHumans Construct Culture

Culture is one factor that determines the kinds of Culture is one factor that determines the kinds of guidelines to which an individual is exposed.guidelines to which an individual is exposed.

The concept of culture usually refers to things, The concept of culture usually refers to things, both physical and mental, that are made or both physical and mental, that are made or constructed by human beings, rather than to constructed by human beings, rather than to things that naturally occur in the environment.things that naturally occur in the environment.

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Culture is SharedCulture is Shared

Culture is socially constructed by human beings Culture is socially constructed by human beings in interaction with one another.in interaction with one another.

Cultural ideas and understandings are shared by Cultural ideas and understandings are shared by a group of people who recognize the knowledge, a group of people who recognize the knowledge, attitudes, and values of one another.attitudes, and values of one another.

cont.cont.

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Moreover, human beings agree on which cultural Moreover, human beings agree on which cultural elements are better than others, arranging these elements are better than others, arranging these in a hierarchy of value, which can also change in a hierarchy of value, which can also change over time.over time.

In nearly all instances, shared cultural In nearly all instances, shared cultural identification is transmitted from one generation identification is transmitted from one generation to the next.to the next.

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Culture Is Both Objective and Culture Is Both Objective and SubjectiveSubjective

Objective cultureObjective culture– Physical artifactsPhysical artifacts– LanguageLanguage– ClothingClothing– FoodFood– Decorative objectsDecorative objects

Subjective cultureSubjective culture– AttitudesAttitudes– ValuesValues– Norms of behaviorNorms of behavior– Social rolesSocial roles– Meaning of objective Meaning of objective

cultural elementscultural elements

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Two Ways to Understand Two Ways to Understand CultureCulture

Culture-Specific Culture-Specific Approaches:Approaches:Helps to understand a Helps to understand a particular cultural group, particular cultural group, for example, Native for example, Native AmericansAmericansA problem with this A problem with this approach is that it does approach is that it does not account for in-group not account for in-group differencesdifferences

Culture-General Culture-General ApproachesApproaches::

Helps to understand Helps to understand how culture “works” in how culture “works” in people’s lives; a people’s lives; a universal perspectiveuniversal perspective

Suggests questions to Suggests questions to ask of any culture ask of any culture

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The Culture-Learning ProcessThe Culture-Learning Process

Sources of Cultural Knowledge and IdentitySources of Cultural Knowledge and Identity– Individuals in complex societies like the United States Individuals in complex societies like the United States

tend to identify themselves as belonging to various tend to identify themselves as belonging to various cultural and social groups, depending on their cultural and social groups, depending on their personal biographies.personal biographies.

– There are twelve major sources of cultural identity There are twelve major sources of cultural identity that influence teaching and learning.that influence teaching and learning.

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Sources of Cultural IdentitySources of Cultural Identity

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Cultural Knowledge Is Transmitted Cultural Knowledge Is Transmitted by People and Experiencesby People and Experiences

We gain the knowledge that contributes to our We gain the knowledge that contributes to our cultural identities through interaction with various cultural identities through interaction with various socializing agents.socializing agents.

These agents mediate our cultural knowledge in These agents mediate our cultural knowledge in particular ways.particular ways.

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Important Socializing AgentsImportant Socializing Agents

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How We Learn Culture: How We Learn Culture: SocializationSocialization

Three stages of socializationThree stages of socialization Primary socialization—of infants and young Primary socialization—of infants and young

children by the family and early caregiverschildren by the family and early caregivers Secondary socialization—in childhood and Secondary socialization—in childhood and

adolescence, by the school, the religious adolescence, by the school, the religious affiliation, the peer group, the neighborhood, and affiliation, the peer group, the neighborhood, and the mediathe media

Adult socialization—the workplace, travel, and Adult socialization—the workplace, travel, and assuming new roles in lifeassuming new roles in life

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Some Results of SocializationSome Results of Socialization

Because the process of socialization is intended Because the process of socialization is intended to cause individuals to internalize knowledge, to cause individuals to internalize knowledge, attitudes, values, and beliefs, it has several attitudes, values, and beliefs, it has several results which should not be surprising, as results which should not be surprising, as follows:follows:

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EthnocentrismEthnocentrism

The tendency people have to evaluate others The tendency people have to evaluate others according to their own standards and experienceaccording to their own standards and experience

While this tendency can help bind people While this tendency can help bind people together, it can also become a serious obstacle together, it can also become a serious obstacle when those who have internalized different when those who have internalized different ideas and behaviors begin to interact with one ideas and behaviors begin to interact with one another.another.

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PerceptionPerception

Stimuli received by our senses would overwhelm Stimuli received by our senses would overwhelm us if it weren’t somehow reduced; thus,us if it weren’t somehow reduced; thus,

What we perceive—what we see, hear, feel, What we perceive—what we see, hear, feel, taste, and smell—is shaped in part by our taste, and smell—is shaped in part by our culture.culture.

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CategorizationCategorization

Categorization is the Categorization is the cognitive process by cognitive process by which all human which all human beings simplify their beings simplify their world by grouping world by grouping similar stimuli.similar stimuli.

Our categories give Our categories give meaning to our meaning to our perceptions.perceptions.

A prototype image A prototype image best characterizes the best characterizes the meaning of a meaning of a category.category.

Example: for the Example: for the category “bird,” we category “bird,” we usually think of usually think of robins, not chickens.robins, not chickens.

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StereotypesStereotypes

Stereotypes are socially constructed categories Stereotypes are socially constructed categories of people.of people.

They usually obscure differences within groups.They usually obscure differences within groups. They are frequently negative and play to They are frequently negative and play to

ethnocentric ideas of “the other.”ethnocentric ideas of “the other.”

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Some Limits on SocializationSome Limits on Socialization

While socialization is a powerful process, it does While socialization is a powerful process, it does have limits. have limits. – It is limited by a child’s physical limits.It is limited by a child’s physical limits.– It is limited because it is never finished, and thus It is limited because it is never finished, and thus

never absolute; it can be changed.never absolute; it can be changed.– It is limited because human beings are not just It is limited because human beings are not just

passive recipients but also actors in their passive recipients but also actors in their environments.environments.

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Understanding Cultural Understanding Cultural DifferencesDifferences

In a complex, pluralistic society like the United In a complex, pluralistic society like the United States, all people are in some ways multicultural.States, all people are in some ways multicultural.

While we all draw on common sources of While we all draw on common sources of knowledge, we are socialized by different knowledge, we are socialized by different agents, with different perspectives on that agents, with different perspectives on that knowledge.knowledge.

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The Culture-Learning ProcessThe Culture-Learning Process27


Variations in Cultural Variations in Cultural EnvironmentsEnvironments

Although the sources of cultural identity are the Although the sources of cultural identity are the same in all societies, the content in those same in all societies, the content in those sources may be different.sources may be different.

Moreover, each community varies considerably Moreover, each community varies considerably in the number and character of its socializing in the number and character of its socializing agents.agents.

cont.cont.

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Given this complexity, it is wise to consider the Given this complexity, it is wise to consider the possible cultural elements in our own lives and possible cultural elements in our own lives and in the lives of others.in the lives of others.

Despite this potential for variation among Despite this potential for variation among individuals and within groups, there are individuals and within groups, there are similarities or generalizations that can be made similarities or generalizations that can be made about individuals who identify with particular about individuals who identify with particular groups.groups.

cont.cont.

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What is needed is a more sophisticated way of What is needed is a more sophisticated way of looking at diversity.looking at diversity.

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Such an approach to diversity Such an approach to diversity involves several elements:involves several elements:

Questioning the “dominant model,” or the Questioning the “dominant model,” or the prototype imageprototype image

Questioning stereotypesQuestioning stereotypes Looking for commonalities among our Looking for commonalities among our

differencesdifferences Thinking of differences as resources to learn Thinking of differences as resources to learn

fromfrom

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Something to Think AboutSomething to Think About

““By ignoring the cultural and social forms that are By ignoring the cultural and social forms that are authorized by youth and simultaneously authorized by youth and simultaneously empower and disempower them, educators risk empower and disempower them, educators risk complicity in silencing and negating their complicity in silencing and negating their students. This is unwittingly accomplished by students. This is unwittingly accomplished by refusing to recognize the importance of those refusing to recognize the importance of those sites and social practices outside of schools that sites and social practices outside of schools that actively shape student experiences and through actively shape student experiences and through which students often define and construct their which students often define and construct their sense of identity, politics, and culture.” sense of identity, politics, and culture.”

——Giroux and SimonGiroux and Simon

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© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Chapter 3 Culture and the Culture Learning Process 1