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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Chapter 7: Memory
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
• The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Memory
• Encoding– Refers to the process by which information is
initially recorded in a form usable to memory
• Storage – The maintenance of material saved in the memory
system
• Retrieval– Material in memory storage is located, brought into
awareness, and used
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Three Systems of Memory: Sensory Memory
• Sensory memory– The initial, momentary storage of
information, lasting only an instant
• Iconic memory– Reflects information from our visual system
• Echoic memory– Stores auditory information coming from
the ears
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Three Systems of Memory: Short-Term Memory
• Memory store in which information first has meaning
• May hold 7 (plus or minus 2) chunks of information– A chunk is a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can
be stored as a unit in short term memory
• Holds information for approximately 15-20 seconds
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Three Systems of Memory: Short-Term Memory
• ChunkingPBSFOXCNNABCCB
SMTVNBC
PBS
FOX
CNN
ABC
CBS
MTV
NBC
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Three Systems of Memory: Short-Term Memory
• Rehearsal – The repetition of information that has entered
short-term memory
• Elaborative rehearsal – Occurs when information is considered and is
organized in some fashion resulting in greater likelihood to be transferred into long-term memory
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Three Systems of Memory: Short-Term Memory
• Mnemonics– Formal techniques for organizing
information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered
• ROY G. BIV for the colors of the rainbow– Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Three Systems of Memory: Short-Term Memory
• Working memory– A set of temporary memory stores that
actively manipulate and rehearse information– Stress can reduce the effectiveness of
working memory by reducing its capacity
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Three Systems of Memory: Short-Term Memory
• Working memory
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Three Systems of Memory: Long-Term Memory
• A storehouse of almost unlimited capacity
• Information in long-term memory is filed and coded so that we can retrieve it when we need it
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Three Systems of Memory: Long-Term Memory
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Modules of Long-Term Memory
• Declarative memory– Factual information: names, faces, dates, etc.
• Procedural memory– Skills and habits, such as riding a bike or
hitting a baseball
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Modules of Long-Term Memory
• Semantic memory– General knowledge
and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Modules of Long-Term Memory
• Episodic memory– Memory for events that occur in a particular
time, place, or context
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Neuroscience Of Memory
• Hippocampus– Part of limbic system
and plays a central role in the consolidation of memories
• Amygdala– Involved in memories
involving emotion
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Recalling Long-Term Memories
• Explicit Memory– Intentional or conscious recollection of
information
• Implicit Memory– Memories of which people are not consciously
aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior
– Priming
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Recalling Long-Term Memories
• Flashbulb Memories– Memories centered on
a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Recalling Long-Term Memories
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon– Inability to recall information that one realizes
one knows
• Retrieval cue– Stimulus that allows us to recall more easily
information that is located in long-term memory
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Recalling Long-Term Memories
• Levels of processing theory– Emphasizes the degree to which new material
is mentally analyzed– The amount of information remembered
hinges on how much attention was paid
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Constructive Processes in Memory
• Constructive processes– Processes in which memories are influenced
by the meaning we give to events
• Schemas– Organized bodies of information stored in
memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
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Repressed and False Memories
• Repressed memories– Recollections of events that are initially so
shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious
• False Memories– Develop when people are unable to recall the
source of a memory of a particular event about which they have only vague recollections
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Autobiographical Memory
• Our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives
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Forgetting: When Memory Fails
• Herman Ebbinghaus
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Forgetting: When Memory Fails
• Decay– Loss of information in
memory through its nonuse
• Interference– Phenomenon by which
information in memory disrupts the recall of other information
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Forgetting: When Memory Fails
• Amnesia– Memory loss that occurs without other mental
difficulties• Retrograde
– Memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event
• Anterograde– Memory is lost for events that follow and injury
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Forgetting: When Memory Fails
• Memory dysfunctions– Alzheimer’s disease
• Characterized in part by severe memory problems
– Korsakoff’s syndrome• Affects long-term alcoholics• Includes hallucinations
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Improving Memory
• Keyword technique
• Encoding specificity
• Organization cues
• Effective note taking
• Practice and rehearse
• Don’t believe claims about memory improvement drugs...save your money!
