1

2010 

Edited and Compiled by Robert Brinkmann 

University of South Florida 

12/1/2010 

Greening Newtown‐The Results of USF’s  Environmental Science 

and Policy Capstone Seminar

Authors:

Jennifer Ascani Leslie Babiak Todd Bogner Alana Brasier

Rebekah Brightbill Melissa Brogle

Melanie Decesare Sara Giunta Justin Heller Garrett Hyzer

Katrina Johnson Jason Kendall

Christopher Klug Anna Leech

Corey Leonard Scott Moore

Lin Ozan Adrien Roth

Matthew Torrence

Table of Contents

Introduction Robert Brinkmann……………………………………………………………………………page 1 A Sustainable Urban Environment: the use of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ in Newtown, Sarasota Jennifer Ascani…………………………………………….…………………………………page 3 Green Roof Gardens for Enhancing Sustainable Development in Newtown Leslie Babiak………………………………………………………………………..………page 17 What a Greenway Park could mean socially and environmentally to a diverse population within Sarasota Todd L. Bogner………………………………………………………………………….…page 36 A Green Infrastructure Network to Sustainably Redevelop Newtown, Sarasota Alana Brasier………………………………………………………………………………page 52 Minority Business Creation in Newtown: Equalizing the Reach of Green Rebekah G. Brightbill……………………………………………………………….……page 68 Waste Reduction, Litter Prevention, and Litter Control in Newtown Melissa R. Brogle…………………………………………………………………………page 87 Newtown Residential Bus Stop Inventory Christopher Cochran……………………………………………………………………page 100 A Citizen’s Initiative for Sustainable Urban Living through Expanded Recycling and Conservation in the Home and Community Melanie M. DeCesare……………………………………………………………………page 117 Brownfields to Created Wetlands: A Project Initiative for Newtown, Sarasota Sara Giunta……………………………………………………………..…………………page 135 Benefits of Improved Street Lighting Using Energy Efficient LED Technology Justin Heller………………………………………………………………………………page 152 Sarasota’s Food Desert:A Case for Providing Newtown’s Residents Access to Healthy Foods Garrett Hyzer……………………………………………………………………………page 168 Sustainable Redevelopment within the Newtown Community of Sarasota, Florida: Green Streets Katrina Johnson…………………………………………………………………………page 183

Promoting Sustainable Redevelopment in Newtown with Urban Forestry Jason Kendall…………………………………………………………………………page 199 The Potential Effects of Rising Sea Levels on Sarasota and Newtown, and the Lessons learned from Hurricane Katrina. Christopher Klug………………………………………………………………………page 213 Bicycle Infrastructure in Newtown Anna Leech……………………………………………………………………………page 227 Assessing the Potential Benefits of Florida Friendly Municipal Landscaping in Newtown, Sarasota Corey Leonard…………………………………………….…………………………page 243 Noise Pollution and Environmental Justice Scott A. Moore…………………………………………………………………………page 258 The Benefits of On-Site Power Generation for Newtown Lin Allen Ozan…………………………………………………………………………page 272 A Natural History of Newtown, Sarasota, Florida: Including Geology, Hydrology and Soils Adrien Roth……………………………………………………………………………page 288 The Feasibility of Public Wi-Fi in Newtown, Sarasota: Investigating Community and Economic Development through Public Wireless Internet Access Matt Torrence…………………………………………………………………………page 307

1

Introduction

Robert Brinkmann, Ph.D.

Professor of Geography

Months ago, I had my first encounter with Newtown. I drove from USF in Tampa to visit my

friend and colleague, Ms. Lorna Alston. She just started her new position as the General

Manager of the North Sarasota Redevelopment Division and I was anxious to see how she liked

her new position. I was familiar with her impressive work in East Tampa and I knew she was

going to make a big difference in the community and in the lives of its citizens. As I drove into

Newtown’s main street, I was struck by its small-town charm. In many ways, the structure of

Newtown is similar to that espoused by those who seek a “New Urbanism” in American cities.

New Urbanists recommend developments with small downtowns within walking distance of

homes and places of work, and with access to public transportation and parks. Indeed, Newtown

has many things in place that make it a highly desirable place to live. It has a distinct

neighborhood feel, parks, and easy access to transportation. Yet, there are also problems of

underemployment, crime, environment, and economic development. Around the United States,

there are many Newtowns. Many people are working to improve these communities and there

are many success stories. I have no doubt that North Sarasota will be among the success stories.

To many, Sarasota is considered one of the greenest cities in the United States. It was

one of the first in Florida to embrace many of the key elements of the modern sustainability

movement. Thus, it makes sense to think about Newtown and the North Sarasota region within

the context of environmental sustainability. How can this part of Sarasota become a bigger part

of Sarasota’s national and international reputation as an urban ecotopia?

Each time I teach my graduate seminar called Capstone Seminar in Environmental

Science and Policy, I try to give my students opportunities to work within a community on

examining sustainability issues. To me and my students, environmental sustainability includes

not just the environment, but also social and economic issues. Thus, I challenge my students to

look at all aspects within a community to evaluate how to make improvements and to develop

plans and ideas that are practical and that can assist others in making their communities a better

place. In the past, my classes have done similar projects in Clearwater and Tampa. I am thrilled

that I was given permission to work with Sarasota in examining the North Sarasota

2

Redevelopment area. I am grateful for the assistance of many who gave of their time to assist

students in their efforts.

Within this document are reports from 20 students. This is the largest group I have ever

had in this course. The students include individuals working on masters degrees in Geography,

Planning, or Environmental Science and Policy. In addition, some of the students are completing

a Graduate Certificate Program in Environmental Management. The student projects vary

considerably from green job training to green roof development. The nature of the reports very

as well in that some are very applied programs with concrete suggestions, while others are more

theoretical in nature. Regardless of the content, each student brings a unique perspective to the

understanding of the North Sarasota area.

3

A Sustainable Urban Environment: the use of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ in

Newtown, Sarasota

Jennifer Ascani

Abstract

Urban Environments are commonly depicted by their man-made infrastructures -

skyscrapers, parking garages, roads, sidewalks, restaurants, and apartments. Often times, natural

landscapes must be altered to accommodate a proposed structure. This can be done through a

number of means: dredging, filling, clearing and flattening. Native vegetation and natural

environments are more often than not altered, if not completely demolished, in the process of

urban expansion. While destruction of these natural environments is harmful to inhabitants of

these ecosystems, lack of green spaces in new urban environments can be just as harmful to its

new residents. The implementation of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ is a proposed effective

strategy to halt, replenish, and even prevent the loss of natural ecosystems in Florida’s urban

environments. In urban neighborhoods, such as Newtown, Sarasota, implementation of native

vegetation in residential yards yields a plethora of benefits to the neighborhoods’ wildlife as well

as its residents.

Outline

The following outline highlights the main sections of this technical report:

I. Newtown Sarasota

A. History of the Newtown Community

B. New Beginnings for Newtown

C. Goals & Objectives of Newtown Community Redevelopment Area

II. Current Conditions

A. Newtown Boundaries

B. Focus on Residential Yards

1. Newtown Gospel Church

2. City of Sarasota Housing Authority

3. Residential House 1

4

4. Residential House 2

5. Residential House 3

III. Proposed Conditions

A. “Curb Appeal”

B. Smart Landscaping

C. Be an Environmental Advocate

D. Your Residence Could Look Like This

IV. About The Florida-Friendly Landscaping Program™

V. Nine Principles of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™

VI. Education & Introduction of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ into the Newtown Community

VII. Benefits of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ for the Newtown Community

A. Becoming a Sustainable Community

B. Environmental Benefits

C. Environmental Benefits

D. Residential Benefits

E. Communal Benefits

VIII. Conclusion

Newtown, Sarasota

History of the Newtown Community:

The town of Sarasota, originally platted in 1883, was founded in 1902 (History of the

Newtown Community, 2008). In 1904, the Florida West Shore Railway was constructed in the

region that is now considered Newtown, thus bringing the rail service to Sarasota. Newtown is

considered the second historic African-American core district of Sarasota. The first African

American core district, originally called Overtown and more recently known as the Rosemary

District, boomed at the turn of the century and into the 20’s, demanding further growth north.

Charles Thompson, a well-known circus manager, led the development of Newtown in

1914. Thompson’s motivation for development stemmed from his desire to better the quality of

life for Sarasota’s African-American community. Around the same time, Sarasota’s Downtown

was expanding, thus thrusting the African-American population northward. By 1960, Newtown

was home to approximately 7,000 people, or about 6% of Sarasota County’s population.

5

In the 1960’s, Newtown’s commercial community prospered. The community boasted

many restaurants, grocery stores, service stations, a drug store, repair shops, beauty parlors,

barbershops, and a doctor and dentist’s office (City of Sarasota, 2008). Sadly, decades of

decreased investment and financial flight, along with creation of government subsidized housing

and social services, have resulted in residential properties in disrepair alongside flourishing

single-family homes. Additionally, many multifamily houses in the community have not

received continued care, thus resulting in extensive community decomposition.

New Beginnings for Newtown:

The city of Sarasota held a community-wide meeting with Newtown residents on

February 11, 2010, requesting ideas on how to improve the quality of life of the Newtown

community, particularly within the areas of Economic Development, Law Enforcement,

Neighborhoods, Social Services, and Youth Services (New Beginnings for Newtown, 2008). The

intended outcome of this meeting was to discover ideas and solutions that would assist, as well

as equip, the residents of Newtown to bring about positive change within their community. On

February 23, 2010, the city of Sarasota held another community-wide meeting with Newtown

residents, where they presented the proposed changes and adopted a grass-roots effort to achieve

these changes. The meeting attendees then broke into focus groups based on their area of interest

and developed action plans to accomplish their goals.

Goals & Objectives of Newtown Community Redevelopment Area:

The lists of assets and issues generated at the public meeting have been developed into a

list of goals and objectives that provide the guidelines for redevelopment in the Newtown

Community, referred to as the Newtown Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan 2020 (Newtown

Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan 2010 Goals and Objectives, 2010). For the purpose of this

technical report, the focus will be on the establishment of functional, aesthetically pleasing

community development. The following is a list of objectives from Newtown Comprehensive

Redevelopment Plan 2020 in which the research of this technical paper will aid in achieving:

1. Administration (Redevelopment Administration and Policy):

Goal III: Prevent the occurrence of slum and blight.

Objective 2: Eliminate conditions that decrease property

6

values and reduce the tax base.

2. Economic Development:

Goal II: Re-establish old neighborhoods through redevelopment and

revitalization of the housing stock. Establish a safe, functional, and aesthetically

pleasing community environment.

Objective 4: Work with the City to clean up vacant, unattended

properties.

4. Land Use:

Goal 1: Establish Land use pattern that reflects the redevelopment area as a

community of diversified interests and activities while promoting compatibility

and harmonious land-use relationships.

Objective 4: Protect and enhance existing residential neighborhoods.

8. Urban Design/Parks:

Goal I: Establish Parks, recreation, open space, and beautification efforts to create

an identifiable character for the redevelopment area, one which will reflect a

pleasant, appealing atmosphere for working, shopping, touring, and residing in the

district.

Objective 3: Prepare landscaping, streetscaping and lighting plans for

public to strengthen the historic character of the redevelopment area and

encourage the use of these features when negotiating private sector

development plans.

Objective 8: Utilize a variety of beautification techniques to provide

comfortable, pleasing, and healthful work, leisure, residential, and shopping

environments.

Objective 9: Develop urban site design, landscape design, and architectural

design guidelines for new and redevelopment projects.

Current Conditions

Newtown Boundaries

According to the Geographic Boundary Map of Newtown (pg. 2 of Front Porch Florida

Communities Newtown, 2007), the Newtown neighborhood boundaries are as follows: Old

Bradenton Road to the west, US Hwy 301/North Washington Boulevard to the east, Myrtle

Street to the north and 17th Street to the south.

7

Focus on Residential Yards

On October 30, 2010, photographs were taken of five random residential sites to illustrate

current conditions of residential yards in Newtown. As the photographer was alone, observations

cited in this paper are based on the photographer’s observations of the yards during a less than

five-minute drive-by and observed from the photographs.

Table 1.1

Name Location Site Name Newtown Gospel Church 1815 Gillespie Avenue Site 1 City of Sarasota Housing Authority

Corner of 24th Street and Dixie Avenue

Site 2

Residential House 1 2831 Maple Avenue Site 3 Residential House 2 2830 Goodrich Avenue Site 4 Residential House 3 2728 Goodrich Avenue Site 5

Newtown Gospel Church

According to the Sarasota Property Appraiser, Site 1 is zoned as RMF2: Residential,

Multi-Family (9 units/acre) with (land) use code 7100: Institutional- Churches. The Land Area of

the parcel is 47,564 square feet. The 2010 Assessed Value of the parcel is $ 329,900.00

(Appendix A).

According to the Natural Resources Conservation Service Web Soil Survey, Site 1 is

composed (as a percentage of total area) of the following soil types: 100% EauGallie and

Myakka fine sands (Appendix B). The current vegetation is mostly sparse, exposing many areas

of soil. There are a fair number of established deciduous and coniferous trees as well as a few

palms on site. The established deciduous and coniferous trees are located at the rear of the

church (west) and provide shade for the building (Appendix C). There is a concrete sidewalk that

perimeters the front of the site and an unpaved parking area is located to the right of the building

(Appendix D).

City of Sarasota Housing Authority

According to the Sarasota Property Appraiser, Site 2 is zoned as G: Governmental Use

with (land) use code 0390: Residential Multi-Family - 100 or more units. The Land Area of the

8

parcel is 586,811 square feet. The 2010 Assessed Value of the parcel is $ 2,059,000.00

(Appendix E).

According to the Natural Resources Conservation Service Web Soil Survey, Site 1 is

composed (as a percentage of total area) of the following soil types: 100% EauGallie and

Myakka fine sands (Appendix F). The current vegetation is mostly turf grass. There are a fair

number of established deciduous and coniferous trees as well as a few palms on site. The

established deciduous and coniferous trees are located to the west and south of the Housing

Complex and providing shade for few buildings (Appendix G). There are concrete sidewalks that

perimeter each neighborhood block. Additionally, there are no paved or unpaved parking areas

as all parking is street parking (Appendix H).

Residential House 1

According to the Sarasota Property Appraiser, Site 3 is zoned as RSF4: Residential,

Single Family (5.5 units/acre) with (land) use code 0100: Residential - Single Family. The Land

Area of the parcel is 5,000 square feet. The 2010 Assessed Value of the parcel is $ 39,100.00

(Appendix I).

According to the Natural Resources Conservation Service Web Soil Survey, Site 1 is

composed (as a percentage of total area) of the following soil types: 100% EauGallie and

Myakka fine sands (Appendix J). The current vegetation is overgrown and unmanaged. There are

a fair number of established deciduous and coniferous trees as well as a few palms on site. The

established deciduous and coniferous trees are located at the rear of the residence (west) and

provide shade for the building (Appendix K). There is a concrete sidewalk that perimeters the

front of the site. Additionally, there are no paved or unpaved parking areas as parking for this

residence is street parking (Appendix L).

Residential House 2

According to the Sarasota Property Appraiser, Site 4 is zoned as RSF4: Residential,

Single Family (5.5 units/acre) with (land) use code 0100: Residential - Single Family. The Land

Area of the parcel is 5,000 square feet. The 2010 Assessed Value of the parcel is $ 49,800.00

9

(Appendix M).

According to the Natural Resources Conservation Service Web Soil Survey, Site 1 is

composed (as a percentage of total area) of the following soil types: 45.4% EauGallie and

Myakka fine sands and 54.6% Holopaw fine sand, depressional (Appendix N). The current

vegetation is mostly turf grass. There are a fair number of established deciduous and coniferous

trees as well as a few palms on site. The established deciduous and coniferous trees are located at

the rear of the residence (east) and provide shade for the building (Appendix O). There is a

concrete sidewalk that perimeters the front of the site as well as a concrete driveway.

Additionally, there is a chain-link fence that perimeters the property (Appendix P).

Residential House 3

According to the Sarasota Property Appraiser, Site 5 is zoned as RMF2: Residential,

Multi-Family (9 units/acre) with (land) use code 0820: Multi-Family/less than 10 units/Duplex.

The Land Area of the parcel is 5,000 square feet. The 2010 Assessed Value of the parcel is $

64,500.00 (Appendix Q).

According to the Natural Resources Conservation Service Web Soil Survey, Site 1 is

composed (as a percentage of total area) of the following soil types: 100% EauGallie and

Myakka fine sands (Appendix R). The current vegetation is mostly turf grass. There are a fair

number of established deciduous and coniferous trees as well as a few palms on site. The

established deciduous and coniferous trees are located at the rear of the residence (east) and

provide shade for the building (Appendix S). There is a concrete sidewalk that perimeters the

front of the site as well as a concrete driveway to the south (Appendix T).

Proposed Conditions

“Curb Appeal”

One strategy used to raise aesthetic value of a residence is to improve “curb appeal.”

Shows such as HGTV’s Curb Appeal take a less than aesthetically pleasing residential yard and

transform it via new landscaping into an eye-catching, property with the potential to sell quickly.

10

As many of the objectives of the Newtown Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan 2020 include an

aesthetically pleasing sector, creating “curb appeal” has been a supported strategy for achieving

this.

Smart Landscaping

While creating an aesthetically pleasing residential yard increases property value as well

as meets objectives of the Newtown Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan 2020, when executed

in a particular fashion this creation can also be environmentally sustainable. One of the 9

Principles of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ (FFL) is “Right Plant, Right Place.” Unlike

nutrient rich soil found in the north, central Florida boasts mostly xeric (dry) conditions

(Appendix U). While many people want a lush, green lawn, they don’t realize that the soil

conditions of Florida do no support that type of vegetation. Homeowners end up pumping

excessive amounts of water and fertilizer into their lawns, believing if they add enough they will

be rewarded with a lush, green lawn. Conversely, lawns that go unattended and unmanaged are a

breeding ground for exotics species.

The majority of people are unaware that excessive watering depletes Florida’s aquifer.

While the aquifer does get replenished through rain, if the state experiences a drought, residential

lawns suffer. This is not aesthetically pleasing, nor does it support a favorable ecosystem for

wildlife. FFL offers a sustainable solution to this all too common problem. Choosing native

plants capable of thriving in xeric conditions by adapting to periods of little to no water can keep

residents’ lawns looking beautiful, while reducing irrigation demands and associated costs

(McKinney, 2008). Introducing rain barrels (Appendix V) as an alternative means of watering,

through the capture and re-use of rainwater, can also help to transform lawns into sustainable

ecosystems (Bucklin, 1993). Native vegetation also attracts and supports wildlife that would not

be found in turf grass (Doody et al, 2010). Wildlife displaced by urbanization can thrive in a

residential lawn of native vegetation allowing residents to live in harmony with nature (Chen,

2009).

Be An Environmental Advocate

In addition to residents misusing water to keep their lawns lush and green, over

11

fertilization is another environmental issue (Manning, 2008). Urban environments usually have

high amounts of impermeable surfaces such as sidewalks, driveways, and roads where water

does not filter through but runs across the surface. Natural rain, as well as sprinkler systems and

self-watering that comes in contact with fertilized lawns, carries the fertilizer down storm drains

and into wetlands, lakes, and ponds. While large amounts of fertilizer may be beneficial to

plants, excessive nutrient loads have the opposite effect in water bodies (Erickson et al, 1999).

Excessive amounts of nutrients feed algae blooms, making lake and pond management extremely

difficult. Utilizing native plants that require little to no fertilizer will aid in reducing urban run-

off as well as keep water bodies more biologically and aesthetically pleasing.

Your Residence Could Look Like This

Go to http://www.floridayards.org/interactive/index.php to use Florida-Friendly

Interactive Yard. This online interactive tool will give you step-by-step directions to transform a

common turf yard into one dominated by FFL plants. The site is a copyrighted production of

Fusionspark Media, Inc. so no part of the production can be copied and reproduced. Additionally

found on the site is a Florida-Friendly Plant Database that can be utilized in FFL transformation.

Black (2003) compiled a list of Florida’s native plants that he believes has the greatest potential

landscape use. These plants are equally practical and attractive when utilized in rural and urban

environments.

About The Florida-Friendly Landscaping Program™:

The Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ (FFL) Program is an extension of the University of

Florida, Institute of Food & Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) Environmental Horticulture

Department. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) primarily funds the

FFL program and as of 2009, has required that UF/IFAS use the term “Florida-Friendly

Landscaping” in all of its research, publications, and associated materials to match the language

that is used in Florida’s state legislation (citation*). FloridaYards.org is a project of the Florida

Springs Initiative of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) and is

presented by UF/IFAS. The FFL program was created to include Florida Yards &

Neighborhoods (FYN) program and the Florida-Friendly Best Management Practices for

12

Protection of Water Resources by the Green Industries (GIBMPs). The FYN program and the

GIBMP program both promote the 9 Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ Principles, which apply

equally to homeowner and industry sanctions.

Nine Principles of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™:

The University of Florida, Institute of Food & Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) created

The Florida Yards & Neighborhoods Handbook that highlights nine principles that will aid

residents in reaching their goal of a Florida-Friendly Yard. The nine principles are as follows:

1. Right Plant, Right Place

2. Water Efficiently

3. Fertilize Appropriately

4. Mulch

5. Attract Wildlife

6. Manage Yard Pests Responsibly

7. Recycle Yard Waste

8. Reduce Stormwater Runoff

9. Protect the Waterfront

Education & Introduction of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ into the Newtown

Community

While knowledge can be a powerful tool, many times it can go to waste if it is not shared

and therefore does not have the opportunity to impact others. The following section highlights

strategies to effectively educate and expose the Newtown community to the sustainable

landscape approach of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™:

Display of Informative Posters at high traffic community areas such as community

centers/schools /libraries/grocery stores. Colorful, eye-catching posters are visual tools

that can attract the attention of passers-by and encourage them to learn more.

Creation of a website link to Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ Program

(http://fyn.ifas.ufl.edu/) and Florida-Friendly Landscaping™

13

(http://www.floridayards.org/) from Newtown’s website. A simple link that connects

Newtown’s residents to the “How-To” of FFL (Naveh, 2007).

Presentations at schools/community centers of the Nine Florida-Friendly Landscaping™

(FFL) Principles. Children are sometimes the environment’s best advocates. FFL is an

active, outdoor activity that many children would enjoy doing with a parent or guardian.

“Model FFL Yard” in the community. Many times a Model, able to be seen, touched, and

observed can be a highly effective tool in motivating others to apply the same Model

principles to their properties. Pick a parcel that is in a high community traffic area to

maximize learning potential.

Creation of a Gardening Club that abides by the Nine FFL Principles. Creation of a

Gardening Club to uphold FFL Principles as well as build community camaraderie can be

offered through the community center.

Handouts/brochures: Creation and distribution of handouts/brochures of FFL is a non-

spoken way of getting word out into the community. Handouts can supplement posters

and presentations and can always be made available at the community center.

Benefits of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ for the Newtown Community:

Becoming a Sustainable Community

FFL has environmental, communal as well as economic benefits. In a community such as

Newtown that is striving to become a more sustainable town, FFL is a simple strategy that

supports the big picture idea of sustainable living. While it does not solve every environmental

and economic issue, it is a small step that nearly every resident can take and will contribute

toward the realization of Newtown’s goals in becoming a sustainable community (Kuo, 2003).

Environmental Benefits

As mentioned in previous paragraphs, environmental benefits of FFL include a reduction

in watering amounts and costs, minimizing urban run-off, and recruitment of native (plant and

animal) species. Additionally, installing FFL trees increases CO2 uptake, which is quite plentiful

in urban environments (Manning, 2008). Tress, if planted in particular locations, can shade

residences, which in turn reduces the need to run air conditioning thus saving money and

resources.

14

Residential Benefits

Increasing green spaces in urban environments increases the quality of life of residents

(Kuo, 2003). Residents who utilize FFL in their yards will most likely spend more time outside,

enjoying the work of tending to their yards. This could lead to communal bonding and, as

mentioned before, the creation of a Gardening Club. Native plants can be purchased from local

nurseries, thus supporting sustainable business practices in Newtown. Enjoyment of such

gardening activities may also lead to an interest of a career pursuit in landscape architecture;

landscape ecology, botany, and many related fields, as well as small business opportunities.

Communal Benefits

Lastly, general aesthetics of the community of Newtown would improve drastically if

residents took part in the FFL program. The community as a whole would enjoy a newly founded

cohesion through their unity of practicing the 9 Principles of Florida-Friendly Landscaping™.

While aesthetics is beneficial to the community, it meets many objectives from Newtown

Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan 2020 (Newtown Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan 2010

Goals and Objectives, 2010). FFL would increase property value as well. Very few people are

interested in living in areas that are not aesthetically pleasing, with overgrown lawns and

mismanaged vegetation. An entire community implementing FFL would only increase outsider’s

interests in joining the community and willingness to pay the extra dollar to have a low-

maintenance, aesthetically pleasing lawn.

Conclusion

Newtown is faced with a tremendous opportunity to transform a neglected neighborhood

to a sustainable, model community for the entire city of Sarasota. Small changes that residents

can accomplish on their own that will aid in helping their community become more sustainable

while giving residents a sense of pride of ownership of their community. The implementation of

FFL as an effective strategy to halt, replenish, and even prevent the loss of natural ecosystems in

Florida’s urban environments will in turn create a sustainable ecosystem for wildlife as well as

for residents. Most importantly, FFL is an opportunity for the citizens of Newtown to come

15

together and collectively make a positive difference within their community as well as the planet.

Works Cited: Black, RJ. (2003). Native Florida Plants for Home Landscapes. Retrieved from: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ep011. Bucklin, R. (1993). Cisterns To Collect Non-Potable Water For Domestic Use. Retrieved from:

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ae029. Chen X, Wu J (2009) Sustainable landscape architecture: implications of the Chinese philosophy of “unity of man with nature” and beyond.” Landscape Ecol. 24: 1015-

1026. City of Sarasota. (2010). Newtown Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan 2010. Goals and

Objectives. Retrieved from: http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/Newtown_CRA_G&O.pdf#page=1.

City of Sarasota. (2008). New Beginnings for Newtown. Retrieved from: http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/newbeginnings.html. City of Sarasota. (2008). History of the Newtown Community. Retrieved from: http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/history.html. Doody, B., Sullivan, J., Meurk, C., Stewart, G., Perkins, H. (2010). Urban realities: the contribution of residential gardens to the conservation of urban forest

remnants. Biodiversity and Conservation 19:1385-1400. Erickson, J., Volin, J., Cisar, J., Snyder, G. (1999). A Facility for Documenting the Effect of

Urban Landscape Type on Fertilizer Nitrogen Runoff. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 112: 266-269.

Florida Department of Community Affairs. (2007). Front Porch Florida Communities Newtown. Retrieved from: www.dca.state.fl.us. Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ Program | UF Dept of Environmental Horticulture. (2010). These nine principles will help you reach the goal of a Florida-Friendly Yard.

Retrieved from: http://fyn.ifas.ufl.edu/homeowners/nine_principles.htm. Fushionspark Media Inc., (n.d.) Florida-Friendly Interactive Yards. Retrieved from: http://www.floridayards.org/interactive/index.php. Google Earth. Imagery Date December 15, 2008. Retrieved from: www.googleearth.com.

16

Haynes, J., Hunsberger, A., McLaughlin, J., Vasquez, L. (2001) Drought-Tolerant, Low- Maintenance Plants for Southern “Florida Yards” and “Florida Landscapes.” Proc. Fla.

State Hort. Soc. 114:192-194. Kuo, F. (2003). The Role of Arboriculture in a Healthy Social Ecology. Journal of Arboriculture 29:148-155. Manning, W. (2008). Plants in urban ecosystems: Essential role of urban forests in urban

metabolism and succession toward sustainability. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 15:362-370.

McKinney, ML. (2008). Effects of urbanization on species richness: a review of plants and

animals. Urban Ecosyst. 11:161–176. Naveh, Z. (2007). Landscape ecology and sustainability. Landscape Ecol. 22:1437–1440.

17

GREEN ROOF GARDENS FOR ENHANCING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN NEWTOWN Prepared by Leslie Babiak

“Is it not against all logic when the upper surface of a whole town remains unused and reserved exclusively for a dialogue between the tiles and the stars.” Le Corbusier EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

An increased public awareness of the importance of maintaining ecological systems in an

expanding built environment has led to the development and application of technologies that

allow us to live more lightly on the planet, strengthen our connections between people, and

create more sustainable communities. The concept of sustainability and sustainable development

has evolved over time to incorporate various meanings; however, sustainability is usually

associated with living within the earth’s means through the alteration of individual and collective

human behavior in ways that improve the quality of life while preserving environmental

potential for the future. The natural environmental elements of a community are essential, not

only for human survival, but also for emotional and psychological health; thus, finding ways to

build a stronger connection between community residents and natural landscapes enhances

community sustainability.

Green roofs, layered systems in which a vegetated area becomes part of the roof, offer the

potential to provide a greater array of benefits to the built and natural environment, than any

other sustainable building technology. The sustainable development of a community can be

further enhanced by using green roofs as a viable solution for growing healthy food locally. The

long distance production and transport of fresh foods, typically 1500 miles from field to table,

arrives with environmental and social costs attached. Growing food locally on a green roof can

18

contribute to a community’s food security network, improve the nutrition of local residents,

provide job skills training and other educational opportunities, and create opportunities for

revenue. Underutilized rooftop space can be transformed into a new avenue for cultural

expression and citizen involvement; hence, strengthening community ties.

Though prevalent throughout many parts of the world, green roof technology has only

recently received recognition in the United States and Canada. Public education of the value of

green roofs and the ways in which they reduce environmental impacts and provide social,

ecological, and economic benefits will help increase widespread awareness, remove institutional

barriers, and strengthen the likelihood that local policy-making and incentives supporting green

roof installations will become more of a reality. A green roof growing fruits and vegetables in

Newtown would serve not only as a learning tool but would be a promising stride toward setting

a community standard for sustainable development.

This paper begins by offering an overview of the benefits of a green roof and of growing

food closer to home. Secondly, an account of green roof garden design considerations and an

illustrative case for successful green roof food production will be presented. This will be

followed by a depiction of how this innovative approach in taking advantage of unused roof

space can impact Newtown’s redevelopment in a sustainable way.

WHAT IS A GREEN ROOF?

While the modern day green roof originated in Germany over one hundred years

ago, green roofs have existed for thousands of years in many different parts of the world.

Although recently introduced within the past decade in the United States and Canada, robust

growth in installation efforts and progress in policy-making are indicative of a strong likelihood

that green roofs will become widespread throughout North America in the near future. Installed

19

on top of the existing roofing membrane, the green roof system components are typically layered

as follows: waterproof membrane protection layer, insulation or separation layer, root barrier,

drainage layer, filter fabric aeration layer, growing medium (often referred to as substrate), and

vegetation (figure 1). Modern green roof technology incorporates patented soil blends that are

customarily composed of a mix of organic and inorganic ingredients including perlite, compost,

peat moss, small stones, and expanded clay or shale.

FIGURE 1: SECTIONAL VIEW OF LAYERED GREEN ROOF COMPONENTS practitiionerresources.org/document64941

Extensive green roofs, categorized as having a substrate depth of 2 to 6 inches and

usually not accessible to the public, are less expensive to install as the building load rarely

requires modification. Having a substrate depth of six inches or greater, intensive green roofs

are usually more costly to construct and maintain, are designed to accommodate a wide range of

20

plant and tree species, and may even contain public park-like areas. The goals of the green roof

project and its intended usage will determine the type of green roof constructed. As the

cultivation of food crops necessitates soil depths of 6-18 inches, an intensive green roof system

engineered for adequate weight bearing capacity would be the type of green roof required for this

project (Weiler & Scholz-Barth, 2009; Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

WHY SHOULD WE PLANT GREEN ROOFS?

Although green roofs are not a panacea for the problems brought about by urban and

suburban development, green roofs provide a greater range of benefits than any other green

building technology (Cantor, 2008). The proven environmental benefits from green roofs

include: the capture and filtration of rainwater resulting in a decreased quantity of water entering

storm drains and flowing into rivers and other water bodies, reduction of the urban-heat-island

effect by cooling and cleaning the air, provision of natural habitat, and reclamation of green

space previously lost to development. Benefits to the built environment, due to the insulating

effects of the green roof system, include doubling the life span of the roof membrane and

improving the thermal performance of buildings, thereby reducing energy consumption and

lowering heating and cooling costs. Provision of space for local food production and other uses,

potential sources of revenue, therapeutic and recreational outlets in caring for plants, and the

strengthening of community ties in working together toward a common good are some of the

cultural benefits that can be derived from green roofs.

On the other hand, the drawbacks of green roofs pertain to the comparatively high initial

costs and the necessary prerequisites for satisfying the additional weight load to the building

(Oberndorfer et al., 2007). When a roof surface is transformed into useful space, the building

becomes economically and functionally more efficient; however, the important point to consider

21

accrue over the life of the roof, will outweigh the upfront capital costs. Even though intensive

green roofs are typically more expensive to construct and maintain, the environmental and social

benefits will be far more substantial than those of extensive, or shallow, green roofs. In a cost-

benefit analysis, it is important for full life-cycle costs, including the extended lifespan of the

roofing membrane resulting from the protection provided by the green roof, to be considered.

For example, a gravel-covered roof usually requires replacement after 25 years, in comparison to

a green roof membrane which should not require repairs for 40-50 years (Ngan, 2004).

GROWING FOOD CLOSER TO HOME

Urban or peri-urban agriculture, the production of fruits and vegetables within city or

suburban areas to provide the local population with access to high quality food, is an emerging

industry in the United States, where the ingredients for an average meal travel for roughly 14

days and up to 1500 miles from farm to table (Pirog, 2003). This long-distance transport of

produce increases the cost of the food, contributes to energy consumption and pollution, and is

associated with a decline in the food’s nutritional value (Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). Roof

surfaces offer a viable opportunity for growing healthy food in urban and suburban areas where

garden space may be restricted, soil may be contaminated, or access to inexpensive, high quality

fresh foods is often limited. In contrast to growing food in containers placed atop the roof, a

green roof design is an integrated system which allows the growing medium, or soil, to cover the

rooftop. Due to the greater surface area of greenery and its integration with the green roof

components, the green roof yields more environmental, structural, and food security benefits

than those obtained through growing food in containers (Garnham, 2002).

The green roof garden would afford Newtown the opportunity to reap the social,

economic, and environmental benefits derived from gardening, in combination with those

22

provided by green roof technology. It has been conservatively estimated that if 6% of Toronto’s

roofs were greened, jobs for 1,350 people per year would be created. If 10% of these green roofs

were covered with food producing crops, the city could reap 10.4 million pounds of produce—

with a market value of 4 to 5.5 million dollars per year (Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008).

DESIGNING THE GREEN ROOF GARDEN

There are many interactive factors that need to be taken into account when designing a

green roof for food production; hence, an outline of the considerations and constraints regarding

design, safety, and maintenance is in order. When considering the suitability of an existing

building, evaluation of the roof’s load bearing capacity, or weight load of the people, crops, and

equipment that the roof is capable of supporting, will be the most important consideration

(Snodgrass & Snodgrass, 2006). In consulting with a structural engineer, the type of green roof,

depth of soil, total surface area, and intended use will be dictated by the structural support and

load bearing capacity of the roof. The engineer will analyze the type of roofing construction

(concrete, steel, wood) and roofing framework, identify obstacles such as roof vents and ducts,

chimneys, electrical equipment and drains, as well as document potential solutions to designing

around them, and verify the real load capacity of the roof. The water saturated weight of the

green roof system, including vegetation, must be calculated as permanent load to the roof

(Weiler & Scholz-Barth, 2009).

Although the building standards that determine minimum load-bearing capacity will vary

across the United States, the typical loadings of intensive green roofs range from 300-1000

kg/m2 (61-205 lb/ft2) or more (Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). The live load specifications for a

roof will include water, wind and safety factors required for the building’s performance as well

as human traffic and anything transient in nature such as furniture or maintenance equipment.

23

Dead load includes the weight of the roof itself and any permanent structural elements including

roofing layers, heating and cooling mechanical equipment, and projected wind and rain loads.

The American Standard Testing Methods, (ASTM), a non-profit technical society that

develops and publishes standards for materials, has published several standards for green roof

systems, specifically related to the determination of roof loads for the weight of the green roof

system and guidance in the selection, installation, and maintenance of plants for green roofs

(Getter & Rowe, 2006; Weiler & Scholz-Barth, 2009; Dvorak & Volder, 2010). For further

detail, these standards are featured in Appendix A. Final analysis should include a survey

designating the feasible locations for the green roof or a proposed framework for reinforcement.

Engineered reinforcements will result in added costs, possibly negating the viability of the site;

hence, undergoing a structural analysis at the beginning of the project is highly recommended.

In addition to the engineered survey, an analysis of the roof’s daily exposure to the natural

elements-- - sun, wind, and rain-- will be necessary and can be conducted by a landscape

architect or designer. Maximizing yields from food-producing plants mandates eight to ten hours

of sunlight each day. Although roofs are elevated and the sun exposure on the roof is generally

more ample than the sunlight at ground level, a study of daily sunlight exposure on the roof will

prove useful in designing the layout of the garden to correspond with specific needs. For

example, in areas that are exposed to a stronger amount of sunlight than is desirable for some

plants, such as certain varieties of herbs, varying degrees of shade can be created by installing

architectural features such as an arbor or small storage building, or by adding living features such

as a grouping of tall plants. Allocating certain plants to areas of the roof that are shaded by

neighboring buildings may be another viable option. When wind intensity proves to be stronger

24

on the rooftop than at ground level, wind breakers can be designed to protect plants from the

threat of wind damage.

Water is another fundamental need for plants and installing a rainwater collection

system, such as rerouting rooftop gutters to a cistern, (or holding tank), to store the water until

needed, is a vital component to the green roof. Sarasota County’s Low Impact Development

(LID) Manual of strategies for enhancing the local environment, protecting public health, and

improving community livability is currently moving towards finalization (L. Ammeson, personal

communication, Sept. 14, 2010). The green roof designer should refer to the LID Manual:

Chapter 3.4: Green Roof Storm Water Treatment Systems, as it offers preliminary details for

requirements and guidelines for the installation of green roofs and for cisterns enabling the

storage and reuse of captured rainwater (LID, 2009). As overhead watering on a rooftop can

quickly evaporate or be misdirected by wind, an irrigation system utilizing plastic drip lines

should be installed with connections running to the cistern to allow for supplemental irrigation in

a more sustainable fashion. Plans should include provision for an additional water source at the

roof for backup irrigation and in case of fire (LID, 2009).

Roof access and safety are other important considerations which will need to be

addressed. Stairs or a working elevator will be necessary to transport people and materials to the

green roof garden. In instances where the parapet does not meet local building codes for public

access, safety features such as railings or a wall should be included (LID, 2009). An attractive

safety wall can be created by installing chain link fencing, which can then be transformed into a

wall of greenery in offering additional growing space for climbing or trailing plants needing

vertical support. If within budgetary means, enclosed storage for equipment will provide

25

protection from the outside elements and the convenience of having gardening tools close at

hand; and, a designated area for compost production will prove worthwhile.

A wide selection of proprietary green roof systems, also known as vegetated roof

assemblies, are currently available for the design professional to choose from. The basic

components of these systems support the basic requirements of a green roof: optimal water

retention, drainage of excess water, and provisions for growing medium and airflow (Weiler &

Scholz-Barth, 2009). The site chosen by Newtown for the green roof, the amount of capital

available, and the community’s desired outcomes for the garden are some of the main factors that

which will determine the specific requirements for the design, function and maintenance of the

agricultural green roof. Successful realization of the project will require the integration and

collaboration of professionals from varied disciplines, as well as owners and stakeholders who

are willing to shoulder higher short-term costs to achieve long-term gains. As there are many

factors influencing total costs, details regarding an approximation of costs involved with

installing an intensive green roof on an existing building can be found in Appendix B, Table 1.

SUCCESS IN GREEN ROOF FOOD PRODUCTION

The production of an array of marketable fruits and vegetables atop roofs and balconies is

common in other countries including Thailand, China, Japan, Australia, India, Russia, Columbia,

and Haiti (Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008; Joe, M. 2010). As urban agriculture continues to evolve

into a full-fledged commercial industry, successful projects in North America are showing that

rooftop agriculture combined with green roof systems is a viable method for producing food

locally. The designs, activities, and outcomes of these projects vary and examining each project

would be beyond the scope of this paper. The case featured here illustrates some of the ways in

which a community can benefit from an agricultural green roof, and many of these ideas could

26

be implemented by Newtown.

A model for utilizing the benefits of a green roof in combination with providing fresh

produce to the local community, Eagle Street Rooftop Farm is a 6000 square foot green roof

organic vegetable farm located on a warehouse rooftop. The lightweight growing medium, a

manufactured soil for green roof applications, is 5 to 9 inches in depth and consists of a blend of

compost, rock particulates and shale. The medium can retain over 1.5” of rain, providing a

marked reduction in storm water runoff. Sixteen north-to-south beds measuring a maximum of

four feet in width are divided down the middle by a single aisle and all aisles are filled with

mulched bark. Constructed in 2009, the cost was lower than most green roof installations,

(approx. $10 per square foot), due to the existing structural details of the building and the use of

recycled materials, including used rafters for edging.1

In its first season, Eagle Street yielded over 30 different kinds of produce, with the most

successful plants being tomatoes, micro-greens, onions, garlic, and herbs, while production per

square foot yielded highest on tomatoes, kale and chard. At market, mixed salad greens yielded

the best overall price per foot planted. Eagle Farm sells its harvest through its own Community

Supported Agriculture (CSA) program in which members provide the farm with seed money by

paying a lump sum for a weekly supply of the season’s produce. In exchange, members enjoy

fresh local produce and the benefits from a direct relationship with a trusted source. Produce is

also sold at community based local markets and to several local restaurants.

Brooklyn residents also enjoy the benefits of Eagle Street’s commitment to community

outreach and environmental education. During the 2009 growing season, Eagle Street conducted

_________________ 1.http:www.rooftopfarms.org/Eagle_Street_Rooftop_Farm_Fact_Sheet_2010.pdf rooftop workshops to over 30 different schools and groups who had the opportunity to learn

27

about their food’s journey from the soil to the kitchen. On Sundays, volunteers—from beginner

to green thumb—are invited to participate in exchange for learning how to maintain the green

roof farm. Due to Florida’s mild weather and extended growing season, a green roof in

Newtown can provide a sustainable environment for year-round cultivation. Varieties of beans,

cabbages, endive, kale, lettuces, collard and mustard greens, spinach, peppers, squash, tomatoes,

and herbs, as well as broccoli, cauliflower, celery, cucumbers, onions, radishes, strawberries, and

small melons can be harvested at different times throughout the year (Stephens et al., 2009).

IMPLICATIONS FOR NEWTOWN

The demand for fresh produce is apparent in Newtown, as residents participate in

impromptu sales of fresh fruit and vegetables out of the backs of trucks that park near busy

intersections lacking traffic safety and easy access. An outdoor market in Newtown featuring

locally harvested produce would aid in keeping local dollars within the community while

providing safe and reliable access to healthy food and opportunities for strengthening social ties.

The green roof garden would be an important step in helping Newtown to overcome the

challenge of forging stronger connections amongst Newtown residents and between those

residents and the natural environment.

Considered a leader in the state, Sarasota is known for its commitment to educate local

citizens and other jurisdictions on sustainable technologies and green building policy (Ranwater

& Martin, 2008). An edible green roof demonstration project located in Newtown offers the

opportunity for Sarasota to extend its education and outreach to green roof applications. The city

of Sarasota is a vibrant tourist magnet and the green roof has the potential to attract not only

local interest but attention from national and international visitors as well. Opening the green

roof to guests and conducting guided tours of this roof top food production system would be a

28

significant force toward the positioning of Newtown as a destination.

Designated as one of Florida’s Enterprise Zones, Newtown, also referred to as North

County, has been targeted for economic renewal. Available tax credits for real estate property,

business equipment, and building materials, as well as other business assistance benefits can be

utilized by locating the green roof in this Enterprise Zone. At the same time, the food producing

green roof would help revitalize the Newtown Community by reducing unemployment through

new and diverse job opportunities, and expanding the economic base through the attraction of

outside businesses and the formation of partnerships between property owners and private and

public sectors. If the decision is made to pursue large-scale marketing of the harvested produce,

the Entrepreneur Center (slated for establishment in 2011), a part of Newtown’s Business

Incubator Program, may be a valuable source of assistance and support during start-up.

An investigation was conducted to determine potential sites for a green roof within the

Enterprise Zone boundaries. Search criteria were limited to commercial or institutional buildings

with flat to low pitched roofs and poured concrete load bearing frames. Roofs constructed with

metal or shingles over wood were eliminated, as well as any buildings having a roof footprint of

less than 1500 square feet. After mapping the sixteen candidate roofs, the average productivity

per unit of area per month was calculated in order to obtain an annual estimated food yield for

each candidate roof (figure 2). Estimated average yields ranged from 2400 to over 58,000

pounds of fresh produce. Atop the Fairmont Hotel in Vancouver, a 2100 square foot green roof

garden has been thriving since 1991. Supplying the hotel’s restaurant with honey and sixty

varieties of herbs, vegetables, and fruits, it saves the hotel nearly $30,000 per year in food costs.2

____________ 2.http.www.fairmont.com/NR/rdonlyes/WFC_Herb_Garden_Dec01_pdf

It is important to note that further structural analyses by qualified professionals is necessary to

29

confirm the suitability of the candidate roofs identified within Newtown’s Enterprise Zone.

Figure2: POTENTIAL SITES FOR GREEN ROOF GARDENS IN NEWTOWN’S ENTERPISE ZONE WITH ESTIMATED ANNUAL FOOD YIELD (Leslie Babiak)

Building upon Newtown’s sense of place, through the linkage of the neighborhood to the

natural landscape, a food-producing green roof in the community would serve as a model of

sustainability at the neighborhood scale. This green roof offers the potential for contributing to

the fulfillment of the following goals and objectives, as set forth in Newtown’s Comprehensive

30

Redevelopment Plan-2020.3

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: Make Newtown a destination

Expand the economic base by creating new and diverse employment opportunities

Encourage the development of regionally competitive businesses to help retain Newtown consumer dollars in the community

LAND USE:

Promote and locate land use activities of regional importance within the redevelopment area to attract visitors and capture additional market opportunities

URBAN DESIGN/PARKS:

Establish parks, recreation, open space and beautification efforts to create an identifiable character for the redevelopment area

An edible garden green roof in Newtown would serve as an example of how a

community can play a proactive role in enhancing its sustainability. Beyond food production,

this project would provide the Newtown Community the potential for job skills training and

local employment while increasing green space and promoting city pride. Additionally, the

utilization of the untapped resource of rooftop space of multi-family, commercial, warehouse,

and institutional buildings through the leasing of this unused space for agricultural production

capabilities is a concept that is rapidly gaining attention in North America and would afford

Newtown with a novel opportunity for income generation.

This project presents unique learning opportunities that foster community empowerment.

Seniors, youth and the under-employed can work side by side and learn from one another while

overcoming social barriers and building understanding and respect. A program that teaches

youth how to grow, harvest, and cook vegetables helps young people to learn that fruits

____________ 3.http.www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/Newtown_CRA_G&O.pdf#page=3 (pp11-19) and vegetables don’t simply come from the store, but require the effort of people working

together in ways that respect and care for the environment. The rooftop garden can also serve as

31

a place to host educational workshops and social events, thus promoting neighborhood cohesion.

CONCLUSION

Greening efforts, such as street tree planting, brownfield redevelopment, and constructing

green roofs enhance a region’s natural resources and quality of life. Communities that highlight

and restore their natural environments will be places where people will want to live, work, and

play. While green roofs hold promise for addressing a myriad of problems that have resulted

from development, a green roof boasting a bountiful harvest of fresh fruit and vegetables reflects

the harmonious efforts of a community and holds promise for building a stronger connection

between community residents and the natural landscape.

This paper has illustrated how green roof gardens would reflect the efforts of the

community in taking control of food security and social ills while providing food, jobs,

environmental enhancement, education, beautification, inspiration, and hope. The benefits and

design considerations of green roofs and the advantages of growing food close to home have

been depicted through a spotlight on how the implementation of a green roof for local food

production affords the opportunity to enhance economic, environmental, and social

sustainability. A green roof featuring an edible garden in Newtown would be a powerful agent

for change in introducing an innovative environmental feature for the community to enjoy,

profit, and learn from while providing a learning landscape for a vast audience.

Works Cited

American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM Book of International Standards. (2007). vol.4.12 Armstrong, Donna. (2000). A survey of community gardens in upstate New York:

Implications for health promotion and community development. Health and

32

Place, (6) 319-327. Berghage, R., Beattie, D., Jarrett, A., Thuring, C., & Razaei, F. (2009). Green roofs for

stormwater runoff control. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Cantor, S. L. (2008). Green roofs in sustainable landscape design. New York, NY:

W.W.Norton

Dvorak, B. & Volder, A. (2010) Green roof vegetation for North American ecoregions: A literature review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 96 (4), 197-213. Dunnett, N. & Kingsbury, N. Planting Green Roofs and Living Walls. (2008). Portland, OR. Timber Press Eagle Street Rooftop Farm. (2010) Farm Fact Sheet. Retrieved from http:www.rooftopfarms.org/Eagle_Street_Rooftop_Farm_Fact_Sheet_2010.pdf Fairmont (2001). How does our garden grow? Retrieved from http. www.fairmont.com/NR/rdonlyes/WFC_HerbGarden_Dec01.pdf

Garnham, Luke. (2002) Green roofs and the promise of urban agriculture. The Green Roof Infrastructure Monitor 4(2), 17-19. Getter, K. & Rowe, D.B. (2006) The role of extensive green roofs in sustainable

development. HortScience, 41 (5), 1276-1285. Joe, M. (2010). Urban Farming: Veggies with a view. Retrieved from

http://www.cnngo.com/Tokyo/eat/urban-farming-veggies-view-958246. Le Corbusier, (1946). Towards a new architecture. London, UK: Architectural Press Newtown Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan-2020. Retrieved from http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/Newtown_CRA_G&O.pdf#page=3.

Ngan, G. (2004). Green roof policies: Tools for encouraging sustainable design. Retrieved from http://www.lacf.ca/system/files/Policy%20report.pdf

Oberndorfer, E., Lundholm, J., Bass, B., Coffman, R.R., Doshi, H., Dunnett, N., Gaffin,

S., Kohler, M., Liu, K.K., & Rowe, B. (2007). Green roofs as urban ecosystems: Ecological structures, functions, and services. BioScience, 57 (10), 823-833.

Peck, S. & Kuhn,M. (2001). Design guidelines for green roofs. Retrieved from http://www.cmhc.ca/en/inpr/bude/himu/coedar/loader.cfm?url=/getfile

33

Pirog, R. (2003). Checking the food odometer. Iowa State University: Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture. Retrieved from

http://www.leopold.iastate.edu/pubs/staff/files/food_travel1072103.pdf

Ranwater, B. & Martin, C. (2008). Florida counties pushing ahead. In American Institute of Architects Report, Local leaders in sustainability: Green counties (pp.36-37) Wash, DC: AIA

Sarasota County (2009).Greenroof stormwater treatment systems. In: Sarasota county

preliminary LID manual (chapter 3.4). Retrieved from http://www.scgov.net/Environmental/Services/Water/SurfaceWater/documents

LIDManual_Changes_Aug_Sep09.pdf.

Snodgrass, E.C. & Snodgrass, L.L. (2006). Green Roof Plants: A Resource and Planting Guide. Portland, OR. Timber Press

Stevens, J.M, Brown, S.P., Treadwell, D., Webb, S., Gevens, A., Dunn, R.A., Kidder, G.,

Short, D.,& Simone, G.W. (2009). Florida vegetable gardening guide.(pub#SP103) University of Florida: Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Retrieved from http://www.edis.ufl.edu/vh021.

Wegscheid, C. (2009) Living with a green roof. Construction Specifier (14)1; 18-35 Weiler, S.K. & Scholz-Barth, K. (2009) Green roof systems: A guide to the planning,

design, and construction of landscapes over structure. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley &Sons

Wheeler, S. (2004) Planning for Sustainability: Creating Livable, Equitable, and

Ecological Communities. New York, NY: Routledge.

APPENDIX A

National Green Roof Standards, as published in the Annual Book of ASTM International Standards, (2007), Volume 04.12. 

E2396 ,2005,      Standard Testing Method for Saturated Water Permeability of Granular Drainage Media [Falling‐Head Method] for Green Roof Systems 

34

E2397, 2005,      Standard Practice for Determination of Dead Loads and Live Loads Associated with Green Roof Systems  

E2398, 2005,      Standard Test Method for Water Capture and Media Retention of Geocomposite Drain Layers for Green Roof Systems  

E2399, 2005,      Standard Test Method for Maximum Media Density for Dead Load Analysis* of Green Roof Systems 

E2400, 2006,     Standard Guide for Selection, Installation, and Maintenance of Plants for Green Roof Systems 

*Method E2399 includes tests to measure moisture retention potential and saturated water permeability of media.  

ASTM E2397 ‐ 05 Standard Practice for Determination of Dead Loads and Live Loads associated with Green Roof Systems

1.2 The procedure addresses the loads associated with green roof systems. Components that are typically encountered in green roof systems include: membranes, non‐absorptive plastic sheet components, metallic layers, fabrics, geocomposite drain layers, synthetic reinforcing layers, cover/recover boards, insulation materials, growth media, granular drainage media, and plant materials. 

1.3 This procedure also addresses the weight of the green roof system under two conditions: (1) weight under drained conditions after new water additions by rainfall or irrigation have ceased (this includes the weight of retained water and captured water), and (2) weight when rainfall or irrigation is actively occurring and the drainage layer is completely filled with water. The first condition is considered the dead load of the green roof system. The difference in weight between the first and second conditions, approximated by the weight of transient water in the drainage layer, is considered a live load. 

ASTM E2399 ‐ 05 Standard Test Method for Maximum Media Density for Dead Load Analysis of Green Roof Systems: 

This is a standardized procedure for predicting the system weight of a green roof system. 

The density of mixed media materials will vary depending on the degree to which they are subjected to compaction and the length of time that the material is allowed to hydrate and subsequently drain. Most green roof media materials have a large capacity to absorb and retain moisture. Furthermore, moisture will drain gradually from the media following a hydration cycle. The maximum media density measured in this procedure approaches the density at the theoretical saturation point. 

The value of this test method to the green roof designer is that it provides an objective measure of maximum probable media density (under drained conditions) for estimating structural loads. It also provides a method for estimating the lower limit for the water permeability of the in‐place media. This latter value is important when considering drainage conditions in green roofs. Finally, the maximum media water retention has been shown to be a useful indicator of the moisture retention properties of green roof media.  

1.1 This test method covers a procedure for determining the maximum media density for purposes of estimating the maximum dead load for green roof assemblies. The method also provides a measure of the moisture content and the water permeability measured at the maximum media density.  

35

1.2 This procedure is suitable for green roof media that contain no more than 30% organic material as measured using the loss on ignition procedure Test Methods F 1647, Method A. 

1.3 The maximum media density and associated moisture content measured in this procedure applies to drained conditions near the saturation point. 

1.4 The test method is intended to emulate vertical percolation rates for water in green roofs.  

ASTM E2400 ‐ 06 Standard Guide for Selection, Installation, and Maintenance of Plants for Green Roof Systems: 

This guide addresses performance characteristics for green roof systems with respect to the planting. A rooftop is an extreme environment with strong and variable wind patterns and little or no protection from the sun’s intense heat and ultraviolet radiation. Selection of plant material can be crucial for success of the green roof system.  

5.1.1 This guide provides general guidance only. It is important to consult with a professional horticulturist, green roof consultant, or work with similar professionals that are knowledgeable, experienced, and acquainted with green roof technology and plants. 

(Determining these performance characteristics of green roof systems provides information to facilitate the assessment of engineering aspects of the facility. Such aspects may include structural design requirements, mechanical engineering and thermal design requirements, and fire and life safety requirements) 

This guide covers the considerations for the selection, installation, and maintenance of plants for green roof systems. 

1.2 This guide is applicable to both extensive and intensive green roof systems 

APPENDIX B Table 1: Costs Associated with Installing an Intensive Green Roof on an Existing Building

Component Cost Notes & Variables

Design & Specifications cost 5 - 10% of total roofing project depends on project size & complexity

The number and type of consultants required

Project Administration & Site Review 2.5 - 5% of total roofing project cost. The number and type of consultants required depends on project size & complexity

Re-roofing with root-repelling membrane

($10.00 - $15.00 per ft2) Cost factors include type of new roofing system to be installed, ease of roof, nature of flashing required

Green Roof System (curbing, drainage layer, filter cloth, growing medium, decking and walkways)

($15.00 - $30.00 per ft2) Cost factors include type & depth of growing medium, type & height of curbing, decking type, & project size

Plants ($5.00 - $200.00 per ft2) Cost is completely dependent on the type and size of plant chosen, since virtually any type of plant suitable to local climate can be accommodated

Irrigation System ($2.00 0 $4.00 per ft2)

Cost factors include type of system used & size of project

36

Guardrail/Fencing ($20.00-$40.00 per ft.) Cost factors include type of fencing, attachment to roof, size of project/length required

Installation/Labor

($8.00 - $18.00 per ft2)

Cost factors include equipment rental to move materials to and on roof, size of project, complexity of design, & planting techniques used

Annual Maintenance

($1.25 - $2.00 per ft2) Cost factors include size of project, irrigation system, and size and type of plants used

Adapted from Peck & Kuhn.(2001). Design guidelines for green roofs (p.16)

37

What a Greenway Park could mean socially and environmentally to a diverse population

within Sarasota

Todd L. Bogner

Abstract

Dividing Newtown and Ringling Art College in Sarasota is Whitaker Bayou. The bayou

is currently used as a way to rid both populations of excess surface water complicating the

ecology for Sarasota Bay. There is a proposal to build a Greenway Park on the Newtown side of

the bayou. This paper discusses the ecological history of the watershed in which Whitaker bayou

lies and management approaches to the watershed. Next, I will discuss what a greenway is and

what a greenway park is. Finally, I will describe what this park can achieve through a

multifunctional design for the environment as well as for the residents of Newtown and the

surrounding areas.

Sarasota Bay Watershed

Sarasota Bay, in central western Florida lies between Anna Maria Island to the north and

Venice to the south. It is comprised of 52 square miles of open water and a watershed of

approximately 150 square miles called the Sarasota Bay watershed, which is split between

Sarasota and Manatee counties. The main source of freshwater to Sarasota Bay is Phillippi

Creek, which accounts for 38% (57 square miles) of the watershed (SWFWMD, 2002). Other

major tributaries include South Creek, Bowles Creek, and Whitaker Bayou. Whitaker Bayou

accounts for only 5% (8 square miles) of the Sarasota Bay watershed, however along with

38

Hudson Bayou and Cedar Hammock Creek, Whitaker Bayou has one of the highest levels of

contaminant discharge into Sarasota Bay (EPA, 2007).

Whitaker Bayou was chosen for this paper because it is the smallest of the major

contributing sources of surface water to Sarasota Bay, has one of the highest sources of

contaminants discharged into Sarasota Bay, and is a proposed site to build a greenway park in

Newtown. This paper will examine the Sarasota Bay watershed, what a greenway park is, and

what the social and ecological affects of a greenway park in Newtown could mean.

Sarasota Bay was created about 5,000 years ago due to sea level rise and fall resulting in

the formation of barrier islands which frame the westernmost part of the bay. People have lived

in the Sarasota Bay area as far back as around 10,000 B.C. (Sarasota Bay SWIM Plan, 2002).

The landscape was much different then than it is now mostly due to human influences shortly

after Florida gained statehood in 1845. One hundred and fifty years ago the Sarasota Bay

watershed had pockets of isolated wetlands, which played an important role in its hydrology and

biodiversity (Sarasota County Comprehensive Plan, 2006).

Early American Settlers found living in the Sarasota Bay watershed to be uninhabitable

for most of the year due to the high mosquito populations. In order to combat the mosquito

populations, a Mosquito Control District was established in the early 1900’s. This organization

interconnected many of the isolated wetlands by ditches, severely altering the hydrology of the

watershed (Sarasota County Comprehensive Plan, 2006).

The assault on Sarasota Bay’s wetlands did not stop with the mosquitoes. Drainage

Districts were created in the 1920’s under the Land Reclamation Act of 1913 to drain wetlands to

be used for agriculture (Sarasota County Comprehensive Plan, 2006). The draining would

continue until the early 1960’s under the pretenses that it was for the alleviation of flooding. It is

39

estimated that there are some 800 miles of ditches in Sarasota County originating from this time.

At the present time about half are now on privately owned lands (Sarasota County

Comprehensive Plan, 2006).

With the rise in population came the need for development, and with it came the filling in

of wetlands for houses, roads, and other impervious surfaces (Sarasota County Comprehensive

Plan, 2006). Prior to development, during extreme rain events, water would sheet flow and

collect in the isolated wetlands. With the alterations in the natural hydrology, water from storm

events would cause flooding if not directed elsewhere.

The solution to directing water away from harming people and economic loss, was to

direct it to the largest body of water as fast as possible. That body of water for the Sarasota Bay

watershed was Sarasota Bay (and subsequently the Gulf of Mexico) via various bayous, creeks,

and other tributaries. With redirected water comes the added hydrologic load of municipal

wastewater and runoff from agriculture, residential, and commercial irrigation. Also, any

contaminants on roads have a direct path to Sarasota Bay.

Management and Politics

In 1987 Sarasota Bay became an Estuary of National Significance by the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency. The Sarasota Bay National Estuary Program (SBNEP),

formed in 1989 to be the acting body which would care for the interests of Sarasota Bay and its

natural resources (SWFWMD, 2002). In 1995 SBNEP issued a document called the

“Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan” (CCMP). The Florida Legislature created

the Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) Act of 1987. This act gave the water

management districts the ability to “protect the ecological, aesthetic, recreational, and economic

40

value of the state’s surface waters…”, and stated that pollution sources can come from non-point

as well as point sources (SWFWMD, 2002 pg.3). The Sarasota Bay SWIM plan was created in

1997 and focused on projects outlined in the CCMP, such as improvements in sediment and

water quality, habitat losses, and recreational uses (SWFWMD, 2002). The projects on the

SWIM plan are prioritized by the SBNEP.

The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires states to identify waters which are “impaired”.

Impaired waters are listed as “fair” or “poor” in the Florida Department of Environmental

Protection (FDEP) report. Through the CWA and the 1999 Florida Watershed Restoration Act,

the FDEP sets Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDL’s) of nutrients, bacteria, chemicals,

sediments, or other pollutants that are causing the impairment through the Watershed Approach

Initiative. The most notable efforts to improve surface water quality came with the 1972 Federal

Water Pollution Control Act Amendments (FWPCAA), which gave the EPA deadlines to grant

permits to water pollution sources, make wastewater guidelines, require water pollution sources

to have water pollution control technology, and eliminate pollution discharges to make the

nation’s waterways fishable and usable for recreational purposes (Switzer, 2004).

It has been found that although the FWPCAA gave the government Command-and-

Control governance over point source pollution, it did little to nothing for a more pressing

concern: non-point source pollution. Non-point source pollution includes agricultural runoff,

urban runoff, and stormwater runoff and is the leading cause of impairment in the nation’s

waterways. Pollution from these sources include: increased nitrogen, phosphates, heavy metals,

sediments, and animal wastes. Non-point pollution not only affects surface-water, but can

infiltrate to ground water sources as well, contaminating drinking water. Unfortunately, non-

point sources are the hardest to identify, and even more difficult to regulate.

41

Wetland restoration as a priority project

Wetlands in the Sarasota Bay watershed include both inland freshwater ecosystems, as

well as coastal freshwater and saltwater ecosystems. Mitsch et.al describes wetlands as “the

kidneys of the landscape”. The reason for this designation is because they receive waste from

upstream water sources, and cleanse it for sources downstream, shorelines, and for groundwater

recharge (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000).

Wetlands also serve as reservoirs to hold water for flood protection in times of heavy

rains and storm events. Biodiversity is often more varied in wetlands than they are in their

adjacent ecosystems and provide a habitat which is conducive for a wide variety of flora and

fauna.

With the destruction of wetlands for agricultural and urban uses comes a decline in water

quality downstream, increased chances of flooding, and a loss of biodiversity. For these reasons,

the SBNEP lists wetland habitat restoration projects as a priority throughout the Sarasota Bay

watershed. Other priority projects by the SBNEP include projects such as determining water

quality, identifying toxic loads, determining nitrogen loading, updating the pollutant loading

model, integrated water resource evaluation, and the evaluation and implementation of

stormwater retrofit (SWFWMD, 2002).

Whitaker Bayou

Like most coastal bayous and creeks in Florida, the creeks and bayous of Sarasota Bay

were historically tidal extensions of the estuaries with most of the freshwater influxes coming

from storm events and heavy rains. Whitaker Bayou is one such source for Sarasota Bay.

42

Kathryn L. Meaux, classifies Whitaker Bayou as a “Tidal Creek” and quotes Holland et al., as

saying “tidal creeks are sentinels that provide early warning of the degree to which land

development affects coastal environmental quality” (Meaux). Tidal creeks link upland wetlands

with coastal estuaries.

In October, 2010 while kayaking Whitaker Bayou, I observed stormwater drains and

other surface water runoff culverts draining unfiltered, directly into Whitaker Bayou. Some of

the human artifacts observed were an innumerable amount of plastic bottles, bicycles, cans,

various articles of clothing, every imaginable type of fast food container, and shopping carts,

which Ann Riley describes as an “indicator organism” of the urban creek in her 1998 article,

“What is Restoration” (Riley, 1998).

This waste comes from both sides of the river. Ironically, the two sides could not be more

different from each other. On the eastern bank is Newtown; on the western bank is the Ringling

College of Art and Design. Newtown is a city within a city in Sarasota. It is the poorest area of

Sarasota with over 30 percent unemployment and 40 percent transient residents. Ringling on the

other hand, is a leading private not-for-profit art institute. Even with this stark dichotomy of

cultures, each side’s trash and pollutants end up in Whitaker Bayou.

Meaux’s data shows that Whitaker Bayou is the most impacted of the tidal creeks which

extend into Sarasota Bay, one of the poorest in water and sediment quality, and the least in

habitat richness (Meaux). The bayou itself, excluding the poor water quality, poor clarity, and

lack of aquatic life, is a beautiful meandering waterway through an otherwise urban

neighborhood.

According to Rutherford Platt, there does not need to be a strict dichotomy between

nature and city. An urban watershed (often first and second order streams under the Strahler

43

classification system) should serve the same functions as any upstream tributary. The various

parts of a watershed provide ecological services as well as recreational purposes such as fishing

and canoeing (Platt, 2006). Negative impacts of urbanization will increase as the population

grows unless measures are taken to control pollutants and bad management practices (Platt,

2006).

Greenways

In its natural state, Whitaker Bayou would serve as a “greenway”. Although there is no

absolute definition of a greenway, Jack Ahern defines greenways as,

“… networks of land containing linear elements that are planned, designed, and managed

for multiple purposes including ecological, recreational, cultural, aesthetic, or other

purposes compatible with the concept of sustainable land use” (Ahern, 1995 pg 134).

A greenway by design is linear allowing biotic communities to migrate. Many greenways

are situated along riparian corridors. These greenways act as a buffer to mitigate runoff from

agriculture and stormwater for the health of water bodies downstream (Ahern, 1995).

Past management techniques for stormwater management and flood control have been to

design catchment ponds. These catchment ponds only serve as “islands”. Without linear

interconnections, the biodiversity and breeding populations are isolated (McGuckin and Brown,

1995). Restored wetlands should not only take into consideration flood control, and groundwater

recharge, but the biotic community as well. This should be done through planning their

44

interconnectivity thoughtfully to be a greenway, and not an isolated island.

Robert Searns describes three generations of greenways. Originally greenways linked

points of destination in an aesthetically pleasing way. Next, they took the traveler out of the city,

not for the purpose of transportation, but for the journey itself. Now, we are in what he describes

as the third generation. This is where attitudes change from what people want to do with the

environment for their own pleasures, to environmental stewardship (Searns, 1995).

In this phase of greenway development greenways are built not just for the human

psyche, but for the betterment of the environment, taking into consideration other species, habitat

conservation, health of the environment, and functioning environmental services (Searns, 1995).

Environmental services are things the environment provides which would be costly for us to do

mechanically, if it could be done at all. Examples of environmental services are water

purification and flood control.

According to the Sarasota County Comprehensive Plan, protection and restoration of

natural systems is an important part of Sarasota’s watershed management program (Sarasota

County Comprehensive Plan, 2006). The amendment known as the “2050 plan,” includes

Resource Management Areas (RMA’s), which are areas designed to protect contiguous

greenways on waterways with ecological benefits (Sarasota County Comprehensive Plan, 2006).

Greenway Parks

A “greenway park” is a linear park which uses open spaces, often along a riparian

corridor, to create an aesthetically pleasing environment which allows for biodiversity, and

environmental services. This type of park is also built with the human residents in mind as well

as the environment.

45

Many people who live in urban areas do not experience green open spaces on a regular

basis. Studies have shown that green open spaces are beneficial to an individual’s quality of life

by reducing stress as well as other benefits for mental health and well being (Hartig et al., 1991;

Conway, 2000). Along with reducing stress in individuals comes a reduction of violence and

aggression in society. A greenway park, with its open green spaces, can also provide both social

and economic benefits for the entire community in which it lies.

It has long been established that green open spaces and parks are important for social

gatherings, which in turn build social bonds. However, many factors must be considered in the

planning of any park, especially an urban greenway park as urban environments typically have

ethnically and culturally diverse populations.

Research conducted by Paul H. Gobster at Chicago’s Lincoln Park showed that people of

Caucasian origin are more likely to travel farther than minority groups, often travel alone or as a

couple, and are more likely to participate in individual sports than minority groups surveyed.

Minority groups would tend to use the park more for social activities, would come in larger

groups, and participate in group sports. People of Latin American origin had the greatest amount

of age-diversity and were the largest in terms of group sizes. People of African origin also used

the park for social gatherings such as picnics; however they preferred more open, maintained

landscapes than Caucasians (Gobster, 2002).

Studies such as theses are important not for the reason of stereotyping, but to understand

that people use parks in different ways, and have varying perceptions on how a park should

function and be designed. Not all people will see or use a park in the same manner.

Gobster considered four different “visions of nature” while studying Chicago’s Lincoln

Park. These four visions are: as a designed landscape, for habitat, for recreation, and finally

46

restorative to pre-European development (Gobster, 2001). In designing a greenway park,

planners may each have their own view of what that park should be, and how it should function,

from the view of the participant.

Whitaker Bayou Greenway Park

There is a proposal to build a greenway park on the Newtown side of Whitaker Bayou. A

project such as this could mean very different things to various stakeholders. Careful

consideration should be taken to include all parties such as those living in Newtown, Ringling

College of Art, as well as those who live downstream in Sarasota Bay. The design of the park

itself should incorporate many different activities and services for people as well as the

environment.

A greenway park should be multifunctional in that it provides habitat as outlined by the

SBNEP, protects ecological benefits as stated in the Sarasota County Comprehensive Plan, and

functions for the well being of the people who live in the area. It should embody parts of each

“vision of nature” in that people can see their individual vision within the design of the park.

It is impossible to restore an urban park to pre-European development, but aspects of the

park can give the user the feeling of “wilderness”. There should be transitional places between

the city and the park, designed by a landscape architect, as well as incorporating new design

aspects of the park for added ecological services. In designing a park with different visions, a

broad range of recreational activities can be enjoyed.

Boundary Parks and Green Magnets

Solecki and Welch hypothesize that parks that lay between two adjacent communities and

47

differ in socioeconomic status can act as a barrier in which case the park may not be used by

either side and may fall into disrepair (Solecki and Welch, 1995). This type of park is considered

a boundary park. The Whitaker Bayou Greenway Park, which is planned to be along Whitaker

Bayou on the Newtown side just north of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Park, could be

considered a boundary park. If a boundary park does become a barrier between neighborhoods,

Solecki and Welch call this a “green wall”. Gobster states that there are examples of boundary

parks which run counter to this. These boundary parks act as “green magnets” because they

incorporate opportunities for ethnically and socially diverse groups to interact within the park

(Gobster, 1998). Activities which draw residents from both sides of Whitaker Bayou would

allow the new greenway park to act as a green magnet. This type of management starts with

design. When designing the park it is important to include residents from both sides in the design

process to share their visions and ideas.

The Sarasota Comprehensive Plan states that the natural systems restoration has the

intention to restore the natural systems water budget to “predevelopment” (Sarasota County

Comprehensive Plan, 2006). In order to achieve a longer residence time, and thus restore the

water budget to predevelopment, constructed wetlands can be made as part of the greenway park

design whereby stormwater would enter the constructed wetland prior to entering a waterway

such as Whitaker Bayou. Plants planted in the constructed wetlands would be of varieties which

can take out harmful pollutants and nutrients before entering the waterway. In addition to taking

out pollutants, the constructed wetland also has the benefit of being a sediment basin, lowering

the amounts of sediments which are deposited into the bayou. Infiltration is the first step in

stopping pollutants from reaching the waterway, and is the first process which takes out harmful

metals. Devices which allow water to infiltrate quicker, called infiltration strips, can be

48

incorporated in the greenway park design either before or after the constructed wetland. The

design of a constructed wetland can be changed as the needs change, and the infiltration strips

can be removed and replaced when they become impacted. This is much more economical than

removing the same pollutants once dispersed in the waterway.

Through smart design, both in the greenway park, as well as cooperation in private parks

(such as Ringling), and other public parks along the bayou to build like designed parks,

improvements can be made to adhere to the objectives of the CWA, the SBNEP, and SWFWMD.

Partnerships

Government regulation has been mainly command and control and has worked well for

specific point sources of pollution, but that same regulation can be expensive, laborious, and

inefficient when dealing with non-point sources of pollution. This is where partnerships can

emerge to deal with problems beyond local regulations using local knowledge, innovation, and

problem solving solutions which are mutually beneficial to a wide range of stakeholders (Lubell

et al, 2002).

Partnerships offer solutions which are outside of regulation. They allow environmental,

social, and economic interests to be addressed by all parties affected. Partnerships emerge when

the benefits of a project exceed its transaction costs (Lubell et al, 2002). Benefits of a greenway

park along Whitaker Bayou, which also has restored wetlands and an intermediary system for the

collection and remediation of stormwater, include social and economic benefits as well as the

environmental benefits.

In the design of such projects as a Whitaker Bayou Greenway Park, local residents of

Newtown should be involved as well as residents downstream and Ringling College. In some

49

cases, it has been discovered, local residents are more aware of environmental concerns within

their neighborhood than urban planners (Smith, 1976).

Conclusion

Watershed partnerships are an important part of ecosystem management. Through these

partnerships, many voices can be heard, and many goals can be achieved. Collaborative

management allows citizens, government, and private companies to work together on projects

which are mutually beneficial to all parties.

In the case of the proposed Whitaker Bayou Greenway Park there are social, economic,

and environmental benefits which affect a wide range of stakeholders. Smart planning on the part

of the SBNEP and a watershed partnership can ensure that the park is built in a way in which all

of these benefits are served. A park without ecological service benefits is just a park. A properly

planned greenway park can accomplish goals which have been set forth by the SBNEP,

SWFWMD, and the EPA as well as to serve as a mitigation bank for future development in

Sarasota County. A properly managed park must first start with a properly managed design. It

must be a design which incorporates the neighborhoods who the designers hope to attract. This

starts with listening to the visions of the citizens and allowing them to be a part of the overall

design process. Science can show the health of Whitaker Bayou is in decline due to excessive

nutrient and pollution loading. Observation shows that storm sewers and poor surface water

retention practices have lead to these problems. However, it is people who are going to decide

whether to take the data and observations described in this paper to make a difference in this

community.

50

Works Cited

Ahern, Jack (1995). Greenways as a Planning Strategy. Landscape and Urban Planning, 33 pp. 131-155

Conway, H., 2000. Parks and people: the social functions. In: Woudstra, J., Fieldhouse, K.

(Eds.), The Regeneration of Public Parks.

Chiesur, Anna A., (2004). The Role of Urban Parks for the Sustainable City. Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 68, Issue 1 pp. 129-138

Environmental Protection Agency (2007). http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/nepccr/index.html

Site accessed September 20, 2010

Gobster, Paul H. (1998). Urban Parks as Green Walls of Green Magnets? Interracial relations in neighborhood boundary parks. Landscape and Urban Planning, 41 pp. 43-55

Gobster, Paul H. (2001). Visions of Nature: Conflict and Compatibility in Urban Park Restoration. Landscape and Urban Planning, 56 pp. 35-51 Gobster, Paul H. (2002). Managing Urban Parks for a Racially and Ethnically Diverse Clientele. Leisure Sciences, Volume 24 pp. 143–159 Gobster, Paul H., & Westphal, Lynne M. (2004). The Human Dimensions of Urban Greenways: Planning for Recreation and Related Experiences. Landscape and Urban Planning, 68 147-165

Hartig, T., Mang, M. and Evans, G., 1991. Restorative effects of natural environments experiences. Environ. Behav. 23, pp. 3–26. Full Text via CrossRef

Lubell, Mark, Schneider Mark, Scholz John T., & Mihriye, Mete (2002). Watershed Partnerships and the Emergence of Collective Action Institutions. American Journal of Political Science, Volume 46, No. 1, pp. 148-163 McGuckin, Christopher P., & Brown, Robert D. (1995). A Landscape Ecological Model for Wildlife Enhancement of Stormwater Management Practices in Urban Greenways. Landscape and Urban Planning, 33 pp. 227-246

Meax, Katherine . Powerpoint presentation. www.chnep.org/Events/Summit08/presentations/Meaux.ppt. Site accessed October 15, 2010

51

Mitch, William J., Gosselink, James G. Wetlands (3rd e.d.) 2000

Platt, Rutherford H. (2006). Urban Watershed Management: Sustainability, One Stream at a Time. Environment, Volume 48 No. 4 pp. 26-42

Riley, Ann L. (1998) What is Restoration? Restoring Streams in Cities

Rosenbaum, Walter A. (2005). Environmental Politics and Policy (6th ed). Washington, D.C., CQ Press Searns, Robert M. (1995). The Evolution of Greenways as an Adaptive Urban Landscape Form. Landscape and Urban Planning, 33 pp. 65-80 Smith, Geoffrey C. (1976). Responses of Residents and Policy-Makers to Urban Environmental Hazards. Area, Volume 8, No. 4, pp. 279-283

Solecki, W.D., Welch, J.M., 1995. Urban parks: green spaces or green walls?. Landscape and Urban Planning 32, 93±106.

SWFWMD. 2002. Sarasota Bay Surface Water Improvement Management (SWIM) Plan.

Southwest Florida Water Management District. SWIM Section, Resource Management Department. Tampa, FL. http://www.swfwmd.state.fl.us/documents/plans/sarasota_bay_2002.pdf. Site accessed October 2, 2010

Switzer , Jacqueline Vaughn. (2004). Environmental Politics: Domestic and Global Dimensions (4th ed). Belmont, CA, Thompson/Wadsworth Tourbier, J. Toby. (1994). Open Space through Stormwater Management: Helping to structure growth on the urban fringe. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 49(1) pp. 14-21

52

A Green Infrastructure Network to Sustainably Redevelop Newtown, Sarasota

Alana Brasier

Introduction

For over a century, planners, doctors, scientists, and other academics and government

officials have understood the importance of green, open spaces in urban areas for the health of

people, the environment, and the economy. Famed landscape architects and planners, such as

Ebenezer Howard and Frederick Law Olmstead, promoted the inclusion of natural areas within

cities for the health of the environment and its inhabitants (Spirn, 1984). In the past several

decades, there has been a growing awareness of the need to live in harmony with nature instead

of attempting to control and shape it how we see fit. In doing so, we will receive countless

benefits in return. Incorporating green, open spaces and trails within urban areas encompasses

the three “E’s” of sustainability: environment, economics, and social equity (Campbell, 1996).

Integrated networks of parks and greenway trails provide even greater results than parks in

isolation and greenways that lead to nowhere.

Creating an interconnected green infrastructure (GI) network of greenways and park

space within the community of Newtown in Sarasota could help redevelop, reinvigorate, and

reconnect the community. A GI network is defined as “an interconnected network of green space

that conserves natural ecosystem values and functions and provides associated benefits to human

populations” (Benedict and McMahon, 2002, 5). A GI network is comprised of “hubs” and

“links.” Hubs serve as the anchors of the network and are destination points for people and

wildlife, while links connect the hubs and tie together the whole GI network. In the case of

Newtown, community park areas will serve as the hubs. The links are the linear areas that join

53

together the hubs and allow the GI network to function (Benedict and McMahon, 2002). These

typically come in the form of greenways. Greenways are defined as “networks of land that are

planned, designed, and managed for multiple purposes including ecological, recreational,

cultural, aesthetic, or other purposes compatible with the concept of sustainable land use,”

(Ahern, 2003, p. 35). Newtown has several opportunities to create greenways that link its parks,

or “hubs.”

A green infrastructure network in Newtown could promote economic development,

environmental sustainability, and community engagement. Newtown would reap numerous

benefits from a green infrastructure network. A GI network will preserve green, open spaces,

provide additional recreation areas, draw new businesses, increase property values, give residents

alternative transportation options, and involve residents in the planning process to foster a sense

of pride and ownership of the parks and greenways system within their community (Benedict and

McMahon, 2003).

Newtown, Sarasota

The community of Newtown is a 1.5 square mile neighborhood located within Sarasota,

Florida. It is in the midst of redeveloping from an economically struggling community to a

thriving, integrated, and desirable place to live. Newtown is designated as both an Enterprise

Zone and a Community Redevelopment Area. An Enterprise Zone is a state designated area that

receives certain incentives to promote economic development, such as returning tax money

generated with the area back to this area instead of elsewhere (City of Sarasota, Enterprise

Zone). A Community Redevelopment Area (CRA) is designated as such because it meets criteria

to be considered “blighted.” The purpose of a CRA is similar to that of an Enterprise Zone in

54

that it creates and promotes incentives to draw private investors to the area to facilitate economic

development (City of Sarasota, Newtown Redevelopment Area).

The community of Newtown is working diligently towards redeveloping their

community. The Newtown Redevelopment Office was created in 2002 with a focus on

administration, economic development, housing, infrastructure, community health, safety and

welfare, urban design and parks, transportation, and land use (Newtown Redevelopment Office,

2009). In a series of community meetings, Newtown residents agreed upon five key areas as

necessary for bringing positive change to the community: economic development, law

enforcement, neighborhoods, community health action team (CHAT), and youth services (City

of Sarasota – Newtown, New Beginnings). In a section of the Newtown CRA Volume III

Redevelopment Plan, it is stated that, “it is the City’s goal to provide a high quality,

environmentally sensitive system of parks and open spaces for its residents” (City of Sarasota –

Newtown, 2002, p. 27). The needs and desires of community residents and leaders can be

addressed by the creation of a green infrastructure network and would support the environmental,

economic, and social issues occurring in Newtown.

Green Infrastructure Networks

Green infrastructure networks take a different approach to open space conservation and

planning than typical methods, in that they work with development instead of in isolation from or

opposed to development (Benedict and McMahon, 2002). Designating green, open spaces and

trails as green infrastructure gives them the important connotation that they deserve. Referring to

these areas as green spaces represents them as nice to have, but not essential, while the term

green infrastructure represents these areas as vital to the efficient functioning of our

55

communities, just like the importance of grey infrastructure such as roads, utilities, and sewers.

Using this terminology also implies that these features need to be maintained and protected

instead of viewing them as self-sustaining, as the term green spaces may imply (Benedict and

McMahon, 2003).

In the 1990’s, Florida created the Florida Greenways Program, with the help of the

Conservation Fund of Washington, D.C. and 1000 Friends of Florida. The program was created

to conserve critical components of Florida’s ecosystems, restore and maintain connectivity

among diverse ecosystems, facilitate these diverse ecosystems to function as an integrated

system, and to maintain the evolutionary potential of these ecosystems to adapt to future

environmental change (Hoctor et al., 2003). While at the statewide level, a green infrastructure

network has been identified; it is up to the communities of Florida that municipal and

community-level green infrastructure networks are implemented.

Proposed Green Infrastructure Project

This paper proposes that Newtown consider developing a green infrastructure network

that creates an integrated system of parks and greenways within their community. Implementing

more parks, recreational, and open space connected through greenways will bring numerous

benefits to the community. Newtown already has a great base of park space with eleven parks or

recreational areas within or near Newtown. A network of greenways and additional park space

would link these areas together and further enhance the natural areas within the community.

56

A greenway project is currently under development that would occur along Whitaker

Bayou. The greenway will be an eight-acre linear park stretching from Martin Luther King, Jr.

Park north to 49th Street. Sarasota Bay Estuary Program, a program created in June of 1989 to

protect the health of Sarasota Bay, is leading the greenway project (Sarasota Bay Estuary

Program, online). The greenway project seeks to improve the water quality of Whitaker Bayou,

wildlife habitats, stormwater management, recreation opportunities, and community appreciation

and engagement with the Bayou (Sarasota Bay Estuary Program, online). Whitaker Bayou was

added to the Florida Department of Environmental Protection’s list of contaminated waters for

exceeding allowable amounts of fecal matter, too low dissolved oxygen, and mercury in fish

(Sword, February 10, 2010). The greenway will be created in conjunction with a blueway, which

is a boating and kayaking trail along the bayou. The greenway will connect with the Dr. Martin

Luther King Jr. Park, creating one linkage of a park and greenway within the community.

57

Two rail lines run through the community and represent additional opportunities for

greenways. The rail lines stretch from the north to the south and pass on or near several

community assets, such as existing park space, Booker High School, and the R.L. Taylor

Community Center. Each of these potential or developing greenways run north and south,

creating a need for greenway trails running in the east to west directions. Already existing bike

lanes within the community could act as supportive or feeder routes to the parks and greenways.

Many communities have converted rail lines into multi-use trails or greenways as part of

a nationwide trend called Rails-to-Trails. The utilization of rails-to-trails programs is not a new

concept to Sarasota. The Legacy Trail south of Newtown refurbished unused rail lines to create a

multi-use trail. Opened in March of 2008, the trail connects with several trailheads and parks,

offers rest areas, and recreational space (Sarasota County, The Legacy Trail). The City of

Sarasota Parks and Connectivity Master Plan discusses the inclusion of greenways and trails

within the city, and specifically recommends purchasing former railroad corridors to create a

rails-to-trails network within the city. It describes two types of greenways and trails to be used in

Sarasota: multi-use recreational trails (MURTs) that parallel a road, and rails-to-trails greenways

(City of Sarasota, Parks and Connectivity Master Plan, 2002).

Additional parks and open spaces could be placed on vacant land parcels within the

community. One opportunity for creating a new park area is the Marion Anderson Brownfield

located to the east of one of the rail lines. This area has been discussed as a site for many varying

uses, such as a Super Wal-Mart. However, the community should also consider using part of the

Brownfield for a beautiful park connected to the green infrastructure network. The park could be

created in conjunction with other economic development endeavors. Turning an area that was

once contaminated and an eye sore to the community into a beautiful area to be cherished could

58

bring a sense of justification to the residents of Newtown and further connect them with nature.

It is important for the community to choose the placement of new park areas, because they know

better than anyone where these areas would be most beneficial to the community.

Benefits of a Green Infrastructure Network

There is ample evidence of the numerous benefits that can occur in a community from

incorporating green space and greenways. The many benefits span the categories of

environmental sustainability, economic development, and community engagement. Developing

this system of parks and greenways could help to address a number of the current challenges

listed on the redevelopment agency’s website.

Environmental Sustainability

Green infrastructure networks provide many opportunities for improved environmental

sustainability. A GI network will preserve and promote the environmental character and health of

Newtown. The GI network will preserve open space and recreational areas within Newtown as

well as create new nature spaces by converting vacant and unused property into green areas.

GI networks preserve and create natural areas, which is considered an important aspect of

Smart Growth management. Additionally, greenways can define growth boundaries and protect

communities from encroaching development, which is one of the current challenges listed by the

Newtown Redevelopment Office (Randolph, 2004; City of Sarasota – Newtown, Newtown

Community Redevelopment Area Plan Volume 1).

Converting vacant land into green spaces will also help to provide cleaner air and water,

while greenways will connect fragmented ecosystems for better flow of resources and species

59

(Benedict and McMahon, 2003; Thorne, 1993). More greenery and trees help to reduce pollution

in the air and water (Spirn, 1984). These areas also help to reduce flooding and facilitate

stormwater management by absorbing a large amount of the water, which on impervious surfaces

would flow into the community’s water system. This can help to reduce costs to the community

(Schilling and Logan, 2008).

Greenways will provide the community alternative modes of transportation, besides

vehicles and public transportation. “The Rails-to-Trails Conservancy estimates that one-third of

weekday trail users are commuting in major urban areas with trail systems, such as Washington,

D.C., Seattle, and Tampa” (Benedict & McMahon, 2003, p.3). By making other forms of

transportation more visible to the community and removing more vehicles from the streets, it is

possible that drivers will reduce their speeds and be more aware of pedestrians and bicyclists,

which is one of the current challenges listed in the Newtown CRA Plan (City of Sarasota –

Newtown, Newtown Community Redevelopment Area Plan Volume 1).

Economic Development

The creation of parks and greenways aids in the economic development of the

communities in which they are implemented. These areas attract people for their intrinsic

aesthetic and natural qualities. Because people are naturally drawn to these areas, it is more

desirable to live in close proximity. A 2001 study done by the National Association of Realtors

(NAR) found that 57 percent of voters would prefer a home closer to parks and open space than a

home that was not (Lewis, 2003, p.4). Linked to this is the trend of homes nearer parks and

greenways retaining more value than those further away. Many studies have shown that

properties closer to park space and greenways are more valuable than those further away. One

60

study of Pennypack Park in Philadelphia showed that property values increased from $1,000 per

acre at 2,500 feet from the park to $11,500 per acre at 40 feet from the park (Walker, 2004, 1).

Parks and greenways also can attract new or relocating businesses to take advantage of the

popularity of these areas (Hellmund and Smith, 2006). These new businesses within the

community can help generate municipal revenue from taxes that can be put back into the

community (Lewis, 2003).

These benefits can help to address the goals of the Newtown Redevelopment Office and

community residents and several of the current challenges as listed in the Newtown CRA Plan

(City of Sarasota – Newtown, Newtown Community Redevelopment Area Plan Volume 1).

However, it is important to ensure that these economic benefits do not begin to exclude members

of the community because increased property values mean they can no longer afford to live near

these green spaces.

Community Engagement

A green infrastructure network will bring a number of social benefits to the community of

Newtown. Increased parks and greenway areas in the community will provide more

opportunities for gathering places where Newtown residents can form stronger social bonds and

a stronger neighborhood (University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign, 2003). Involving the

community in the planning, development, and implementation of parks and greenways will

ensure that these spaces reflect the needs and desires of the community, which will allow for a

greater chance of acceptance by Newtown residents. Also, through the participation process, the

community can learn of the benefits of a network of open, green spaces and how this network

reflects community goals (Randolph, 2004). Additionally, participation in the creation of the GI

61

network will instill a sense of pride and ownership of these facilities in residents. Bringing

people together through the creation of a GI network can bring “more effective and responsive

management, stronger social ties and collaboration, and the cultivation of civic interaction and

democratic participation” (Hellmund and Smith, 2006, 19).

A GI network will also facilitate greater contact with nature for Newtown residents.

Connecting with nature provides a range of health benefits including lower blood pressure and

cholesterol levels, enhanced survival after a heart attack, faster recovery from surgery, reduced

minor-medical disorders, and lower self-reported stress levels (Frumkin and Eysenbach, 2003).

Increasing opportunities for recreation in Newtown can also lead to improved fitness and

reduced obesity. Study after study shows that physical activity reduces a number of physical

ailments including diabetes, heart disease, and obesity (Frumkin and Eysenbach, 2003). More

recreational areas in the community will additionally benefit youth in Newtown and give them a

wider array of activities, which is one of the current challenges listed by the Newtown

Redevelopment Office (City of Sarasota – Newtown, Newtown Community Redevelopment

Area Plan Volume 1).

A green infrastructure network in Newtown can also lead to a safer neighborhood and

reduced crime. As stated earlier, open spaces and greenways can help a community form strong

social ties. When the community is connected with one another, they feel more empowered to

protect and help each other. Turning vacant or unused land into landscaped parks or greenways

can help prevent crime, if planned and designed properly, with appropriate lighting and visibility

to the surrounding neighbors. Studies have shown that urban residents living near green spaces

endure fewer quality-of-life crimes and feel safer (University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign,

2003).

62

Implementing a Green Infrastructure Network

Implementing a green infrastructure network will require the commitment of the

community and its leaders in seeing this project through. Luckily for Newtown, it has a wide

base of support from the Newtown Redevelopment Office and the City of Sarasota. The City of

Sarasota Parks and Connectivity Master Plan demonstrates that green infrastructure is supported

and already a work in progress.

A green infrastructure network plan could include the following steps. Preparation is the

first of three steps to a green infrastructure network. This is done by assessing and evaluating

existing conditions within the community. This includes identifying possible sources of funding,

identifying any legal barriers, evaluate current demographic and economic trends, and inventory

and map parks, trails, and vacant land and note underserved areas.

One source of funding to consider is the Recreational Trails Program, a federally funded

competitive grant program. The grant provides a maximum of $250,000 for the creation,

renovation, or maintenance of recreational trails, trailheads, and trailside facilities. It requires

awards to be matched with local funds. Applications are sent through the Florida Department of

Environmental Protection, who then provides a recommended priority list to the Federal

Highway Administration (Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2010).

The second step is the plan and design phase. In this phase, planners should involve all

members of the community for a collaborative process. Steps include developing design

solutions to social, economic, and environmental factors in the community, and identify

greenway routes and areas for parks (Schilling and Logan, 2008). What can also be done during

this step is to gather information on the community’s opinion of existing parks. Questions to be

asked should include: who uses the park, how do people use the park, why residents do or do not

63

use a park, and what features residents wish to have in a park (Walker, 2004). This should be

done to ensure that parks and greenways are designed and built to the needs of the residents who

will be using the facilities, not the planners and urban designers who will only be creating the

facilities.

The third step in the green infrastructure implementation process is action, which is the

final stage in which creation of the green infrastructure network. This final phase includes

acquiring necessary land and identifying potential partners, whether from the local government,

federal government, private sector, civic associations, or universities (Schilling and Logan,

2008).

As outlined in the previous section, it is important to involve the community throughout

the entire planning, design, implementation, and management process. Doing so will instill a

sense of ownership and pride in the final product of the green infrastructure network.

Educational or artistic elements displaying the rich culture of Newtown should be included along

the greenway trails and in the parks to further connect Newtown residents to nature and their

community. The planning of the GI network will need to be flexible in order to address the

varying needs of diverse stakeholders involved in the project (Schilling and Logan, 2008). The

GI network does not need to be created all at once, but can be created in stages that will

eventually lead to a completely connected green infrastructure network. However, green

infrastructure networks must be created for the long term in order for them to bring the most

benefits. Because of this, GI networks need to be included in long-range planning and

management documents (Benedict and McMahon, 2003).

64

Implementation Steps

Step 1: Preparation Assess and evaluate current conditions in community

Identify sources of funding Identify legal barriers Evaluate current demographic and

economic trends in community Inventory and map existing parks and

trails, and vacant land Note underserved areas

Step 2: Plan and Design Involve community Develop design solutions to social,

economic and environmental factors Identify greenway routes and park

areas Gather community opinion on

existing park system Step 3: Action Acquire necessary land

Identify possible partners Implement GI network

Conclusion

This paper has defined green infrastructure, described the multiple benefits it can

produce, and the methods to implement these networks. Newtown would greatly benefit from

creating an interconnected system of parks and greenways. A GI network fits with the goals of

the Newtown Redevelopment Office and the needs and desires of Newtown residents,

particularly the economic development, community health, safety and welfare, urban design and

parks, and transportation goals. Including the residents of Newtown in the planning and

implementation of the GI network will aid in its acceptance by the community. Providing the

residents a sense of ownership of these spaces will help to preserve the GI network and instill a

sense of pride in their community. The health of the local environment, economy, and

community will all be improved with the creation of a green infrastructure network in Newtown.

65

References

Ahern, Jack. (2003). “Greenways in the USA: theory, trends and prospects.” In Rob Jongman and Gloria Pungetti (Eds.), Ecological Networks and Greenways: Concept, Design, and Implementation (pp. 34-53). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Baker, Chris, Mahe, Richard, and Wiseman, Kaeley. (2009). “New Ways to Look at Old

Spaces: A vision for green infrastructure networks.” Department of City Planning, University of Manitoba. Proposal for the 2009 TD Friends of the Environment Foundation Go Green Challenge.

Benedict, Mark and McMahon, Edward. (2003). “How to use parks for Green

Infrastructure.” American Planning Association, City Parks Forum Briefing Papers. Accessed on October 15, 2010 from: http://www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/greeninfrastructure.htm

Benedict, Mark and McMahon, Edward. (2002). “Green Infrastructure: Smart Conservation

for the 21st Century. The Conservation Fund: Sprawl Watch Clearinghouse Monograph Series.

Campbell, Scott. (1996). “Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities?: Urban Planning and

the Contradictions of Sustainable Development.” Journal of the American Planning Association, 62: 3, 296 — 312

City of Sarasota – Newtown. Newtown Community Redevelopment Area Plan: Volume 1.

Accessed on November 8, 2010 from: http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/Newtown%20CRA%20Plan%20Volume%20I.pdf

City of Sarasota – Newtown. (2002) Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan Through 2020:

Volume 3 Background Data. Accessed on November 8, 2010 from: http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/Newtown%20Vol%20III.pdf

City of Sarasota. (2002). Parks and Connectivity Master Plan. Accessed on October 12,

2010 from: http://www.sarasotagov.com/nds/Neighborhoods%20Redev%20Spec%20Projects_files/Parks%20%2B%20Connectivity%20Master%20Plan.pdf

City of Sarasota – Newtown (online). Enterprise Zone. Accessed on November 8, 2010

from: http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/ez.html City of Sarasota – Newtown (online). Newtown Redevelopment Area. Accessed on

November 8, 2010 from: http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/CRA.html City of Sarasota – Newtown (online). New Beginnings for Newtown. Accessed on

November 8, 2010 from: http://www.sarasotagov.com/Newtown/newbeginnings.html

66

Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Office of Greenways and Trails. (2010). The Recreational Trails Program. Accessed on November 16, 2010 from: Http://www.dep.state.fl.us/gwt/grants/

Frumkin, Howard and Eysenbach, Mary E. (2003). “How cities use parks to improve public

health.” American Planning Association, City Parks Forum Briefing Papers. Accessed on October 15, 2010 from: http://www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/pdf/physicalactivity.pdf

Hellmund, Paul and Smith, Daniel Somers. (2006). Designing Greenways: Sustainable

Landscapes for Nature and People. Island Press: Washington, D.C. Hoctor, Thomas S., Margaret H. Carr, Paul D. Zwick, and David S. Maehr. (2003). “The

Florida Statewide Greenways Project: its realization and political context.” In Rob Jongman and Gloria Pungetti (Eds.), Ecological Networks and Greenways: Concept, Design, Implementation (pp. 222-250). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Lewis, Megan (2003). How to use city parks for economic development.” American

Planning Association, City Parks Forum Briefing Papers. Accessed on October 15, 2010 from: http://www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/pdf/economicdevelopment.pdf

Newtown Redevelopment Office (September 2009). Quarterly Newsletter, volume 1: issue 1 Randolph, John. (2004). Environmental Land Use Planning and Management. Island Press:

Washington, D.C. Sarasota Bay Estuary Program. Accessed on November 7 from:

http://www.sarasotabay.org/aboutsbep.html Sarasota County (online). The Legacy Trail. Accessed on October 29, 2010 from:

http://www.scgov.net/LegacyTrail/default.asp Schilling, Joseph and Logan, Jonathan. (2008). “Greening the Rust Belt: A green

infrastructure model for right sizing America’s shrinking cities.” Journal of the American Planning Association, 74: 4, 451-466.

Spirn, Anne Whiston. (1984). The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design.

BasicBooks. Sword, Doug. “Waterway blacklist updated.” Herald-Tribune, February 10, 2010.

http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20100210/ARTICLE/2101040/2066/NEWS?Title=Waterway-blacklist-updated

Thorne, James F. (1993). “Landscape ecology: a foundation for greenway design.” In

Daniel S. Smith and Paul Cawood Hellmund (Eds.), Ecology of Greenways (pp. 23-42). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

67

University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign. (2003). “How cities use parks to create safer

neighborhoods.” American Planning Association, City Parks Forum Briefing Papers. Accessed on October 15, 2010 from: http://www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/pdf/saferneighborhoods.pdf

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (online). Sustainable Housing and

Communities. Accessed on November 9, 2010 from: http://portal.hud.gov/portal/page/portal/HUD/program_offices/sustainable_housing_communities

Walker, Chris. (2004). “The public value of urban parks.” Beyond Recreation: A Broader

View of Parks. The Urban Institute and The Wallace Foundation.

68

Minority Business Creation in Newtown: Equalizing the Reach of Green By Rebekah G. Brightbill

Introduction

This project will look at ways for the Newtown community to grow income and wealth

through opportunities that are available in green construction industries. This is appropriate in

the context of current trends in the environmental and microenterprise industries, and the

construction microenterprise development possibilities that exist in Newtown. Newtown has a

history of creative entrepreneurial thinking. The growth and development of a sustainable

economy in Newtown has been identified in the master plan goals of the Newtown Community

Redevelopment Agency, and the CRA has done a great deal of work to establish entrepreneurial

development programming. With the growth of green jobs and green industry nationally and

locally, an absence of training in green industry can exclude the residents of Newtown from

these high growth industries that have demonstrated great potential for both employment and

business growth.

Sustainable, green thinking was integrated into virtually every facet of American

consciousness as authors such as Leopold, 1949; McKibben, 1989; and WCED, 1987 elevated

the importance of taking care of the earth in order to sustain it for continuing generations. Over

time, the term urban sustainability has grown to encompass environmental, economic, and social

dimensions of the concept (Campbell, 1996; Curwell and Cooper, 1998; Cummings, 2002;

While, Jonas, and Gibbs, 2004; Hopwood, Mellor, and O’Brien, 2005; and Roseland and Soots,

2007). Beginning in the 1990s, academics and practitioners began to extend this earth care ethic

to low income communities, as they explored the relationship of sustainability to economic and

social equity—the earth must be preserved for future generations, but the current generations

69

must have an economic livelihood to maintain as well (United Nations, 1992a). True sustainable

development achieves the three goals of environmental protection, economic justice, and social

equity (Campbell, 1996). A pure market-based approach to community revitalization has failed

to develop the economic infrastructure and resources of low-income urban communities. More

appropriate strategies connect low-income community members to business and job

opportunities in local markets. Rather than relying on market forces to bring economic benefits

to low income communities, these resources should actively be brought to these neighborhoods

(Cummings, 2002).

The growth of green industry also brought a growth of economic profit potential and

innovative ways to do business while sustaining the environment (Roarty, 1997; Schaper, 2002;

Walley and Taylor, 2002; Beveridge and Guy, 2005). Sarasota has not been exempt from the

growth of green industry or the growth of green consciousness. Sarasota identifies itself as a

green city through the measures it has taken to comply with the U.S. Mayors Climate Protection

Agreement signed by Mayor LouAnn Palmer in 2007. The Green Business Partnership

(GBP), in conjunction with Sarasota County Government, maintains comprehensive information

on green businesses in the county, and established benchmarks for businesses to help make their

behavior “green.” As the first local Florida government to obtain LEED certification, Sarasota

County established “Sustainability and Energy Independence and Community Building” as one

of its four legislative priorities in 2009 (Sarasota County, 2009). Sarasota County was selected

by the Florida State Legislature as one of two communities in the state to create an Energy

Economic Zone, which will create special economic incentives for businesses in green energy

industries (White, 2010).

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), green jobs are positions in

70

“businesses that produce goods and provide services that benefit the environment or conserve

natural resources. These goods and services are sold to customers, and include research and

development, installation, and maintenance services (BLS, 2010). Thus, any job or business that

reduces the use of natural resources, and promotes long-term sustainability of these resources, is

considered a green job or industry.

Microenterprise development has been a standard tool in the economic developer’s

toolkit for U.S. low-income urban neighborhoods since the mid-1980s. The target for

microenterprise development is not large-scale corporations, but rather individuals who operate

very small scale businesses and seek to expand them in order to increase their income and

wealth. A microenterprise is defined as a business with five or fewer employees (Servon, 2006).

Minority microenterprise development is also a tool for job creation because minority firms are

more likely to employ other minorities and develop other minority firms (Grown and Bates,

1991; Bates, 2002). Thus, business growth can also be seen as an engine for both business and

job generation for other minority and low income individuals.

Green entrepreneurship provides a vast niche market potential for entrepreneurs. Green

entrepreneurs can serve as trendsetters for the business community by providing examples of

economically profitable, sustainable business to others in the community (Schaper, 2002).

Research has shown green building practices are demonstrated to have positive environmental,

economic, and social impact on both businesses and individuals (United States Green Building

Council, 2006).

Green industry and low income microentreprise have seldom been packaged together,

however. Blending a proven strategy for poverty alleviation and wealth creation with an

innovative, niche market development strategy provides low income entrepreneurs with

71

opportunities to become economically sustainable and distinguish themselves in the market,

while providing an ecologically sustainable future for Newtown. The following sections will

provide detailed discussion about sound microentreprise practice for low income and minority

populations, small business development programs in the construction industry, the green trends

in Sarasota that Newtown contractors can benefit from, and an implementation plan for these

suggestions.

Microenterprise Development

Economic development researchers often identify small business development as an

important means of income generation and wealth-building in low-income communities. Small

business development programs nation-wide have made significant progress in building the

economic capacity of low income neighborhoods through microenterprise development. With

the specific economic development goals identified in the Newtown plan, the growth of green

industry in Sarasota, and community interest in the growth of construction businesses, green

contractor development is a good microenterprise niche to pursue. Low income and minority

entrepreneurs are most successful when they participate in business development programming

that covers a wide range of topics. The success of construction entrepreneurs is dependent upon

construction industry specific trainings that build upon trainings in business basics.

Microenterprise Development for Low Income Entrepreneurs

In low income, urban communities where there has not always been investment in

economic assets by outside capital, microenterprise development is a good way to affirm the

business contributions of low-income individuals in their communities. It views new and

existing entrepreneurs as having skills, interests, and experience, by valuing and supporting their

business ideas by providing them with credit and training that will make their business

72

successful. Microenterprise programs can choose to either be credit led, training led, or, group-

lending oriented (a more common model in international contexts) (Edgcomb, Klein, and Clark,

1996). This is crucial for communities like Newtown that need economic and social capital

development to facilitate economic growth.

Microenterprise development can be a good poverty alleviation strategy when low-

income entrepreneurs are equipped with sufficient resources. Low-income entrepreneurs are

more likely to succeed when they have the skills, resources, support networks, and sufficient

capitalization (both human and financial) in the first two years of business. Low income

entrepreneurs are also more successful when they provide services for the mainstream economy,

and do not provide personal services or small-scale retailing (Servon and Bates, 1998). Nelson

(2004) noted that networking should be a crucial element of entrepreneurial training. If

businesses are pursuing opportunities to integrate into mainstream markets, the social capital

built through networking reduces their isolation from these markets. It is important to note that

the absence of any of these success factors does not mean that a business will fail. Rather, it

points to the need for good training and technical assistance programs that equip entrepreneurs

for the full range of skills necessary for successful business ownership. This also points to the

importance of developing the construction trades so that entrepreneurs have good, consistent

opportunities to serve mainstream markets that will have a greater capacity to increase their

incomes over time.

Microentreprenurs generally identify capital as their primary felt need, and identify

training and technical assistance as secondary felt needs. Low-income entrepreneurs lack access

to all of these things: knowledge, networks, support, and capital. Thus, core microentreprise

curriculum should provide training in the areas of business skills, economic literacy, and

73

personal effectiveness. Training is defined as assistance to groups of entrepreneurs, whereas

technical assistance is defined as one-on-one assistance tailored to an individual. A well-

rounded program will deliver information to entrepreneurs through both mechanisms. Training

and technical assistance should be provided during the initial start-up or expansion phase, but

microenterprise programs should make these services available beyond the initial trainings.

Successful microenterprise support requires ongoing technical assistance to the entrepreneur

beyond the completion of trainings (Association for Enterprise Opportunity, 2000). In fact,

Edgecomb and Malm (2002) identify business consulting, coaching, and mentoring as critical to

assisting low income entrepreneurs achieve success. The custom, personal approach of a

program with strong coaching and mentoring can help new microentrepreneurs navigate the

challenging first phases of their business start-up or expansion.

Microenterprise Development for Minority Entrepreneurs

Although each individual business owner has the autonomy and freedom to determine

which business is appropriate for their individual skills, interests, and talents, it is important to

promote a wide variety of small businesses in order to promote the maximum economic growth

of the community. According to Suggs (1995), for meaningful economic growth to take place in

African-American communities, business growth should move beyond professional services,

which do not generate income on the scale that other business sectors do. The development of

businesses in the construction trades is a good mechanism to overcome this barrier to income and

wealth generation described by Suggs.

All small scale construction firms have challenges being competitive with larger, more

experienced firms, but these issues are even more acute for minority construction firms. Barriers

to market entry for minority firms include lack of firm experience, lack of relationships with

74

prime contractors, lack of scale, and capitalization (Suggs, 1990). Overall, larger, older firms are

more likely to receive government contracts than small firms, and the race of the firm was found

to be irrelevant when firm size was compared in the analysis. The declining barriers to minority

firm development and procurement have facilitated their capacity to procure government

contracts, which has spurred the attainment of additional contracts, as well as the growth and

development of additional minority firms (Bates, 2002).

One significant barrier, however, is lack of access to capital that can aid company

growth. Black-owned firms are less likely to receive loans than White-owned firms.

Furthermore, Black-owned construction firms receive smaller start-up loan amounts than White-

owned construction firms when they do receive loans. This study associates the smaller start-up

capital rates of Black-owned firms with the higher failure rates of Black-owned firms. This is

important because Black-owned firms employ largely minority employees from an employment-

challenged segment, and they demonstrate reach into markets untapped by Black-owned

businesses. The study recommends that the barriers to Black-owned business start-up and

expansion be addressed by the development of strategies to provide capital to these businesses

(Grown and Bates, 1991).

Research indicates indicate that the supportive services provided by small business

training and technical assistance, construction specific training, mentoring, access to capital, and

access to government markets are all crucial to the development of businesses and the increase of

wealth in African-American communities. A program that provides these services to

construction businesses could be a key part of Newtown’s economic development strategy.

Green Construction

The national economic downturn has hurt the construction industry, but it has not hurt

75

green builders. The National Association of Minority Contractors, in fact, cited a 20 percent

increase in the green building sector, where the construction industry overall saw a 40 percent

downturn in 2009 (NAMC, 2010). The Bureau of Labor Statistics research shows that of all

green industry sectors, construction is the strongest sector of the national market, with the largest

number of establishments and a 38.1 percent market share (BLS, 2009).

There is no comprehensive data on the status of green construction in Florida—the

Agency for Workforce Innovation (AWI) recently began a survey of Florida green businesses in

2010 to assess the reach of green industries in the state (AWI, 2009). A 2008 AWI fact sheet

identified 17 different subfields of the construction industry that have opportunities for

involvement in green, or energy efficient, building and retrofitting. Ten of these industries—

electrician, plumber, HVAC systems, insulation installation, hazardous materials removal, to

name a few—have been identified by the Department of Labor as high growth industries (White

and Walsh, 2008). Furthermore, they identify the need for apprenticeship programs and

governmental participation in training skilled workers to prevent shortages in these industries.

These subfields of green industry show great growth potential for Newtown businesses in the

construction trades.

The U.S. Green Building Council has developed a rating system of green building

techniques in residential, commercial, and neighborhood development. The LEED building

system sets ratings and benchmarks in the areas of energy savings, water efficiency, CO2

emissions reductions, improved indoor environmental quality, and reduced environmental

footprint, through green building design, construction, and operations management solutions

(USGBC, 2010). LEED certification can either be given to a project for its use of green

technology, or to an individual for their understanding of green technologies. The requirements

76

to become LEED certified as an individual are extensive, and require either project experience

on LEED certified projects, work experience in sustainable industry, or completion of 30 hours

of education in the chosen LEED specialty area (GBCI, 2010; USGBC, 2010a).

Another alternative to LEED certification is the Green Advantage ® certification.

Available for both commercial and residential projects, the Green Advantage® certification is

geared towards project managers, superintendents, field workers, and foremen. The certification

provides proof that recipients have knowledge of current green building principles, materials,

and techniques (Green Advantage, 2010). Because of the complexity involved in achieving

LEED certification, NAMC recommends that small-scale, start-up minority contractors pursue

the Green Advantage® certification, rather than LEED certification, which NAMC identifies as

more appropriate for architects, engineers, planners, and executive level builders because of the

collegiate level of difficulty of the preparation and exams (NAMC, 2010). The Green

Advantage® certification is also nationally recognized, and it can bring additional LEED credits

to a project when members of the project team have the certification (Green Advantage, 2010).

Because most of the construction firms in Newtown are small scale firms, this Green

Advantage® certification would be a good for these entrepreneurs to consider.

Examples of Low Income, Minority, and Construction Enterprise Training Programs

Across the board, successful microenterprise and minority construction training programs

contain similar modules which have been proven to result in the development of thriving

businesses. The Newtown CRA already provides a number of useful entrepreneurial supports.

From the 12-week CEO Business Training, technical assistance and referral system; to the

planned expansion of the one-on-one technical assistance, workshops, and mentoring; to the

planned development of the business incubator in 2011, a good foundation is in place to assist

77

construction entrepreneurs in achieving success. There are several programs that provide good

examples of construction specific training that include all the elements of sound entrepreneurial

training programs, which Newtown can look to as a model to expand on existing programming.

Turner Construction

Since 1969, Turner Construction has been providing an 8-week construction training

course to minority and woman owned construction firms in thirty cities. The course covers risk

management, construction estimating, safety, and effective management. Firms who complete

the trainings have a strong record of success either working with Turner or on other major

contracts, or creating partnerships with each other. Turner also created a K-12 youth mentoring

and exposure program designed to introduce K-12 students to the construction trades. They also

have a four year internship and scholarship program to provide experience and funding to high

school seniors majoring in civil, electrical, occupational, or mechanical engineering; construction

management; and architecture fields (Turner Construction Company, 2010). Although the

Turner construction training program does not have a component that addresses green building,

the elements of the training program have been very successful in preparing entrepreneurs for

large scale construction jobs. A total of 40,000 contracts valued at $14 billion have been

awarded to woman and minority owned construction businesses working with Turner, who have

been trained through the program (Turner Construction Company, 2010). This is significant

because the success of this program indicates that linking minority contractors to training

opportunities and real bid opportunities results in business growth and contract procurement, as

other research also indicates.

St. Petersburg Business Assistance Center (BAC)

The St. Petersburg Business Assistance Center (BAC) has a partnership based model of

78

entrepreneur training that delivers training and support services through workshops and one-on-

one technical assistance. BAC workshops address the needs of a variety of entrepreneurs, and

topics include marketing and advertising, business plan development, pricing, bonding, legal

structure, and doing business within the city, just to name a few. The BAC also provides

entrepreneurs with the necessary link to capital through a revolving loan fund that serves the

Tampa Bay are exclusively. Specifically targeted to businesses under 25 employees with sales

volumes under $3 and $5 million per year (depending on the industry), their Small Business

Enterprise (SBE) Program certifies businesses for contracting and procurement opportunities in

construction, good and services, and professional services and supplies. Benefits to SBE’s

include project specific assistance, sheltered market benefits (such as set-asides for participants

in the program), discounts such as bond waivers, payment assistance, expedited payments for

city projects, training and financial assistance, workshops, and reduced plan fees (St. Petersburg

Business Assistance Center, 2010).

National Association of Minority Contractors – South Florida Chapter

The South Florida Chapter of the National Association for Minority Contractors

(NAMCSFC) is a business network of minority contractors that serves as a training and

advocacy organization, both facilitating training and business development opportunities, and

lobbying for opportunities for minority contractors to bid. Trainings include classes on worker’s

comp insurance and bonding, workshops on the development of construction contracts by local

lawyers, and workshops on construction management. The chapter also facilitates access to

construction specific CPA’s to prepare the financials for construction firms. The chapter has

also facilitated access financing through local partnerships (K. Crockett, Personal

Communication. November 3, 2010).

79

NYC School Construction Authority

The New York City Department of Education School Construction Authority (SCA)

established a Business Development Division with a comprehensive minority construction

business development program. This program assists minority and woman construction

entrepreneurs with the practical aspects of the construction trades, contracting with the New

York School Construction Authority, and the practical matters of business ownership and

operations, while connecting them to real construction bid opportunities. Support areas include

Contract Compliance; Minority Business Certification / Recertification; Minority Business

Outreach; Minority Business Development & Training; and High School and College Internship

Programs. These business development divisions help interested contractors meet the

requirements of the SCA (who is required to hire certain percentages of minority contractors).

They also play an active role in recruiting potential candidates for business development, provide

technical assistance, facilitate loans through a partner bank, provide assistance with procuring

bonding from a partner bonding company upon completion of requirements, and provide

construction specific business training. The Mentor Program of the NY SCA is designed to

assist contractors who are small scale and need assistance increasing their capacity for

participation in large scale government contracts. Participants in the mentoring program receive

experience on SCA projects; technical assistance and training; general business, marketing and

business development assistance; fast track payments for projects; and access to working capital

and bonding (as participants in other programs do as well). The SCA also provides high school

and college internships in construction, engineering and architecture (NYC DOE, 2010).

Newtown Green Construction Entrepreneur Development Plan

The proposed program model for Newtown/North Sarasota green construction

80

entrepreneur training is multi-phased. Not all entrepreneurs will need to participate in every

phase of the training, but mastery of each of these elements will contribute to their success as a

green entrepreneur. If an entrepreneur does not already show a core competency or mastery of

one of the areas, it would be valuable for them to receive training or technical assistance in that

area. The use of business coaches is vital in assessing the needs of each entrepreneur and

assisting them with the development of each business area. To provide easy accessibility to

information, an ideal location for this training and technical assistance would be the Robert L.

Taylor Community Complex, the SCTI Newtown location, the Newtown Redevelopment Office,

or the proposed business incubator.

Newtown Green Construction Entrepreneur Development Plan

Training Purpose

Provider

Credit Education Poor or non-existent credit leaves entrepreneurs unprepared for mainstream capital markets. The goal of microenterprise development programming is to integrate business owners into traditional credit markets, and this is an important first step.

- First Bank employees are trained in FDIC Money smart curriculum and provide financial and credit education free of charge. Barbara Kreuser (941) 345-1435 barbara.kreuser@fbol.com - CredAbility is a local affiliate of a national organization, providing financial and credit education. Sandee Rains (941) 256-8132 sandra.rains@cccsinc.org

Small Business Development

The construction industry is as much about business acumen as it is about knowing the trade.

-Continued use of the CEO Program. -Manasota SCORE provides mentoring and workshops. www.score-suncoast.org (941) 955-1029 -State College of Florida SBDC provides business workshops on many topics. Carolyn Griffin (941) 408-1413 griffic2@scf.edu

Construction Specific Training and/or

The approach for construction training will vary depending on the skill and business

-Sarasota County Technical Institute (SCTI) has a construction

81

Certification Construction Business Development Training

stage of the entrepreneur. Some contractors may know their field, but not have the appropriate licenses necessary to expand their business. Other contractors may have a trade specific training (such as masonry), but they may be well served by the acquisition of a general contractor’s license. Or, they may know their trade but not know the nuances of it as prime contractor, experienced subcontractor, or project manager would. There are specific business practices related to the construction trades that could be taught in a class format. Many contractors desiring to increase their scale need assistance with pricing large jobs, negotiating contracts.

apprenticeship program. www.scti.edu -Manatee County Technical Institute (SCTI) has a number of programs in the architecture and construction fields. www.manateetechnicalinstitute.org -State College of Florida has a B.A. in Energy Technology Management. www.scf.edu - Seminar on working with local government by City and County purchasing departments. -Seminar on City and County code requirements by the City and County building departments. -Pursue relationships with local construction firms and industry trade associations who can can provide trainings. The Sarasota Chamber of Commerce may be a good resource for this. www.sarasotachamber.com

Contractor Mentoring Program

Small scale contractors seeking to navigate the new arena of government and large scale projects could be paired with an experienced contractor can help them to understand nuances of the industry.

-Pursue relationships with large local construction firms or industry trade associations that can provide mentors and/or project experience to small firms. The Sarasota Chamber of Commerce may be a good resource for this. www.sarasotachamber.com

Minority Contractor Certification

If a contract has racial set-asides, this certification can facilitate selection, and show that the business owner has been proactive in branding and operations by pursuing designations that make the business distinctive.

-State College of Florida SBDC provides workshops on women and minority contractor certification and has staff available to assist with it on a one-on-one basis. Carolyn Griffin (941) 408-1413 griffic2@scf.edu

Bonding and Insurance In order to submit a bid on the large projects that most small contractors seek to procure, they need to have adequate bonding and insurance.

- The bonding and insurance amounts required by large projects can be cost prohibitive. Facilitating a matched savings program, a contract mobilization loan, or promoting relationships with bonding companies could help contractors secure these important items.

Green Building Training and Certification

Contractors seeking to gain a competitive edge on a niche market can pursue a number of opportunities for training and certification in this growing industry.

- LEED certification is offered through the Green Building Certification Institute (GBCI). Local USGBC chapters, such as the Florida

82

Gulf Coast USGBC and their local branch, the Myakka River Green Building Council could provide general information and workshops. www.sustainabletampabay.org (727) 372-3814 -LEED certification courses are also offered through State College of Florida. www.scf.edu/ccd -Green Advantage® Certification www.greenadvantage.org - State College of Florida – B.A. in Energy Technology Management or non-credit green building continuing education courses through the Corporate and Community Development Department. www.scf.edu www.scf.edu/ccd

Introduction to Capital The capital needed to acquire additional equipment for expansion to facilitate contract expansion often serves as a barrier to small firms.

- Develop relationships with banks who will accept referrals of credit ready clients. -Participate in a revolving loan fund.

Youth Environmental and Entrepreneurship Programs

It is also recommended to create youth exposure programs for green industries; the

science, technology, math, and engineering (STEM) fields; and entrepreneurship. There are

multiple levels of involvement in sustainability through green technology. It is important to

provide youth with a general awareness of environmental issues as part of their career planning,

in order to keep them ahead of their peers by exposing them to advanced careers in the STEM

fields, as well as entrepreneur training at an early age.

Potential Green Industry Youth Exposure Program Partners

Provider Training Provided Contact

State College of Florida -Workshops on green innovations

and jobs of the future. -Flexible and customized training available. Requires external

Dr. Idelia Phillips Director of Career & Technical Education 7131 Professional Pkwy East Sarasota, FL 34240

83

funding to implement. (941) 363-7230 phillii@scf.edu

Newtown Front Porch Revitalization Council

-Use the framework of the existing YELDA program to introduce youth to green technology/industries. -Use the framework of the YELDA program to develop a youth entrepreneurship exposure program.

1782 Dr. M.L. King, Jr. Way Sarasota, FL 34234 (941) 954-4137 x3223

The economic and environmental benefits to the community from investments in youth

programming will accrue over a longer time period because educational development is a long-

term commitment, particularly in career pathways associated with high-level green industry and

green technology. The benefits this brings to the community, however, will promote long-term

economic and environmental sustainability. Furthermore, the youth of the community are likely

to invest the knowledge, products, and skills of their entrepreneurial and environmental

innovations back into the Newtown community.

Conclusion

Although microenterprise development and construction trades training have both been

used to promote economic growth in Newtown, green industry has not been used yet as an

economic development tool. Through the expansion of existing microenterprise development

programming targeted to Newtown construction businesses, green industry has great potential to

increase the income and wealth of Newtown residents in this expanding niche market. Green

will reach both Newtown industries, and Newtown pockets, helping the community to achieve

the triple bottom line of environmental, economic, and social sustainability.

84

References

Agency for Workforce Innovation. (2008). Want to Go Green? A Sample of Jobs in a Green Economy. Tallahassee, FL: Agency for Workforce Innovation

Agency for Workforce Innovation (AWI). (2009). Florida Begins Green Jobs Survey.

Tallahassee, FL: Agency for Workforce Innovation Association for Enterprise Opportunity. (2000). Fostering Entrepreneurship Through Training

and Technical Assistance. Arlington, VA: Association for Enterprise Opportunity Bates, T. (2002). Minority Business Access to Mainstream Markets. Journal of Urban Affairs,

23:1, 41-56 Beveridge, R. and Guy, S. (2005). The rise of the eco-preneur and the messy world of

environmental innovation. Local Environment, 10: 6, 665-676 Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (2009). Overview of the BLS Green Jobs Initiative. Retrieved

from www.bls.gov/green Campbell, S. (1996). Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the

Contradictions of Sustainable Development. Journal of the American Planning Association, 62:3, 296-312

Cummings, S. (2002). Community Economic Development as Progressive Politics: Towards a

Grassroots Movement for Economic Justice. Stanford Law Review, 54:3, 399-493 Curwell, W. and Cooper, I. (1998). The implications of urban sustainability. Building Research

& Information, 26: 1, 17-28 Edgcomb, E., Klein, J. and Clark, P. (1996). The Practice of Microenterprise in the U.S:

Strategies, Costs, and Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The Aspen Institute Edgecomb, E., and Malm, E. (2002). Keeping It Personalized: Consulting, Coaching and

Mentoring for Microentrepreneurs. FIELD Best Practice Guide Volume 4. Washington, DC: The Aspen Institute

Green Building Certification Institute. (2010). LEED Professional Credentials. Washington, DC:

Retrieved from http://www.gbci.org/main-nav/professional-credentials/credentials.aspx# Grown, C. and Bates, T. (1991). Commercial Bank Lending Practices and the Development of

Black-Owned Construction Companies. Center for Economic Studies, CES 91-9

85

Hopwood, B., Mellor, M., and O’Brien, G. (2005). Sustainable Development: Mapping Different Approaches. Sustainable Development, Vol. 13:1, 38-52

Leopold, A. (1949). The Land Ethic” from A Sand County Almanac. In S. Wheeler & T. Beatley

(Eds.), (pp. 24-32), The Sustainable Urban Development Reader, New York: Routledge McKibben, B. (1989). The End of Nature. In S. Wheeler & T. Beatley (Eds.), (pp. 64-71), The

Sustainable Urban Development Reader, New York: Routledge National Association of Minority Contractors. (2010). Green Initiatives Topics of Interest.

Washington, DC: National Association of Minority Contractors Nelson, C. (2004). Staying Connected: Building Entrepreneurial Networks. FIELD Best

Practice Guide Volume 6. Washington, DC: The Aspen Institute New York City Department of Education (NYC DOE). 2010. Mentor Programs. Retrieved from

http://schools.nyc.gov/Offices/SCA/Programs/MentorProgram/default.htm New York City Department of Education (NYC DOE). 2010. Business Development Division.

Retrieved from http://schools.nyc.gov/Offices/SCA/Programs/BDU/default.htm Roarty, M. (1997). Greening business in a market economy. European Business Review, 97:5,

244-254 Roseland, M. and Soots, M. (2007). Strengthening Local Economies. From State of the World

2007: Our Urban Future. In S. Wheeler & T. Beatley (Eds.), (pp. 241-251), The Sustainable Urban Development Reader, New York: Routledge

Sarasota County, (2009). 2009 Sarasota County Legislative Priorities. Sarasota, FL: Sarasota

County Schaper, M. (2002). The Essence of Ecopreneurship.[Special Issue on Environmental

Entrepreneurship]. Greener Management Institute, 38, 26-30 Servon, L., and Bates, T. (1998). Microenterprise as an Exit Route from Poverty:

Recommendations for Programs and Policy Makers. Center for Economic Studies, CES 98-17

Servon, L. (2006). Microenterprise Development in the United States: Current Challenges and

New Directions. Economic Development Quarterly, 20: 4, 351-367 St. Petersburg Business Assistance Center. (2010). Small Business Enterprise Program.

Retrieved from www.stpete.org/bac St. Petersburg Business Assistance Center. (2010). It’s Your Business. St. Petersburg, FL: St.

Petersburg Business Assistance Center

86

Suggs, R. (1990). Rethinking Minority Business Development Strategies. Harvard Civil Rights

Liberties Law Review, 25, 101-145 Suggs, R. (1995). Bringing Small Business Development to Urban Neighborhoods. Harvard

Civil Rights Civil Liberties Law Review, 30, 487-506 Turner Construction Company. (2010). In The Community. Retrieved from

www.turnerconstruction.com United States Green Building Council. (2006). The LEED ® Green Building System from New

Construction and Major Renovation, Version 2.2. In S. Wheeler & T. Beatley (Eds.), (pp. 273-278), The Sustainable Urban Development Reader, New York: Routledge

United States Green Building Council. (2010). What LEED Is. Retrieved from

http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1988 United States Green Building Council. (2010a). Prescriptive Path for LEED APs Without

Specialty. Retrieved from http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=2209 Walley, E., and Taylor, D. (2002). Opportunists, Champions, Mavericks…? [Special Issue on

Environmental Entrepreneurship]. Greener Management Institute, 38, 31-43 While, A., Jonas, A, and Gibbs, D. (2004). The Environment and the Entrepreneurial City:

Searching for the Urban Sustainability Fix’ in Manchester and Leeds. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 28: 3, 549-69

White, D. (2010). Board hitting brakes on green development zone. Herald Tribune. Retrieved

from www.heraldtribune.com White, S. and Walsh, J. (2008). Greener Pathways: Jobs and Workforce Development in the

Clean Energy Economy. Madison, WI: Center on Wisconsin Strategy World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). (1987). Our Common Future.

In S. Wheeler & T. Beatley (Eds.), (pp. 59-63), The Sustainable Urban Development Reader, New York: Routledge

United Nations. (1992a). The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. In S. Wheeler

& T. Beatley (Eds.), (pp. 72-76), The Sustainable Urban Development Reader, New York: Routledge

87

Waste Reduction, Litter Prevention, and Litter Control In Newtown Melissa R Brogle 

Introduction

Sustainable development (SD) is a term often used in the field of environmental science,

and now more frequently in everyday lives, but what does it really mean? The Brundtland

Report, published in 1987, defines SD as “development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (United

Nations, 1987, Sect 3). When worded this way the concept of SD becomes much more

approachable and easier to understand. But how do we meet the needs of our generation and still

ensure that our children and grandchildren can have enough resources without harming the

global environment? One possible path is adopting the land ethic outlined by Aldo Leopold; to

step back from our position of land conqueror and embrace land and humans as part of a larger

community. Treat the land with respect, and “preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the

biotic community.” (Leopold, 2009, p. 23). If the global population began to live by this land

ethic, sustainability may very well be a positive side effect of sorts. Instead of adopting the land

ethic, humankind could simply strive to live by the classic phrase reduce, reuse, recycle (the

three R’s). Reduce our consumption, reuse what we can, and recycle what we can’t reuse. In

reality, both the land ethic and the three R’s should be employed in tandem by the global

community to help achieve global SD.

Global sustainability can start with local sustainability, but how can a large goal like

global SD be achieved at the local level? Moving from the industrial revolution era, where

consumption and waste was rampant, to a sustainable society, requires changes at the global,

country, state, county, regional, and city and town levels. By reducing, reusing, and recycling, a

community can begin to work towards global and local urban sustainable development. First,

reducing consumption by changing buying habits, and simply buying less would help to reduce

raw material usage. Second, reducing packaging of consumer goods can have a direct impact on

raw material usage and waste management costs (Dewees, 1998, p. 457). Third, implementing

educational sources to promote reusing and recycling at global and local levels to achieve

sustainability (Miller, 1991).

Sustainable waste management at the local level is a crucial part of global and local urban

88

sustainable development. Effective waste management can not only reduce raw material usage,

but also reduce litter. Litter, which is essentially misplaced solid waste, can have detrimental

effects on the surrounding social, economic, and natural environment, including creating

unsightly streets and neighborhoods, promoting crime, and harming wildlife and ecosystems.

Litter can create the illusion that the community does not care about their neighborhoods,

and that can indirectly encourage crime (Hope, 1995, p. 37). In addition, litter is simply

unattractive, and can lead to a lack of pride in the community, which can have a negative effect

on other community features such as the appearance of commercial and residential properties

(Chavis, 1990, p. 61). Litter can also effect the natural environment by clogging waterways,

releasing potentially harmful chemicals into the environment, being ingested by wildlife, and

many more negative effects (Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, 1995).

To combat the effects of litter, a community, such as Newtown, needs to have access to recycling

programs, public (covered) trash cans, public ashtrays, educational programs, effective

enforcement of littering laws, and most importantly, the citizens must take pride in their

community and the surrounding natural environment in order to foster community stewardship.

Implementing, and maintaining, proper solid waste management, litter control, and litter

prevention in an urban community can be difficult and time consuming. It requires the

cooperation of city and state officials, and most importantly community residents. However,

proper solid waste management, and litter control and prevention can be done, with the positive

outcome of local, and ultimately global, sustainability, a healthier natural environment, and a

more cohesive local community.

Background on Waste and the Effects of Litter and Other Waste:

A Brief History of Waste and Litter Excessive waste and litter are two very impactful side effects of our throw away society.

According to the EPA, in 2008 the average American produced four and a half pounds of trash

per day (that’s over 16,000 pounds per person per year), with about one and a half pounds of that

being diverted for recycling and composting. The amount of waste produced per person has

increased almost 70% since 1960, from 2.68 pounds per person to the current 4.5 pounds per

person per day. Over 30 percent of discarded waste is containers and packaging, a waste type

89

that could be easily reduced and/or recycled. Recycling has also increased, from 10 percent to

33 percent from 1980 to 2008. (Environmental Protection Agency, 2009) While this increase in

recycling is very important, it is equally important to realize how the increase in waste generated

per person can effect the natural and social environments and the economy.

Waste, or trash, does not just disappear with the garbage collection truck. Waste needs to

be hauled away to an incinerator or landfill where it is either burned to create energy (releasing

some toxic chemicals and green house gases in the process), or buried in a landfill. This process

of hauling and disposing of solid waste is a costly activity that state and local governments, and

individuals, pay for as part of a solid waste management plan. Some estimates show that the

average American household spends over $100/ton of disposed waste, which equates to almost

$100 per person per year. The cost of disposal comes in the form of taxes and fees, such as local

sewage and waste fees charged to residents, fees to bring waste to the dump or landfill directly,

and other local and state fees. However, this cost that is paid by each household is not the true

cost of waste disposal. There is a gap between what residents pay and what it actually costs to

dispose of waste. This gap between what is charged to residents and what it actually costs to

manage solid waste is therefore paid, sometimes, by the state, but more often by local

governments. (Zero Waste)

Two ways to reduce the costs and effects of waste at the source is to reduce packaging of

products and reduce consumption in general. While these activities may seem too large for even

governments to tackle, each individual can make a difference in contributing to the reduction in

consumption. Buying products that are made from recycled materials, and have recycled and

recyclable packaging is one way to reduce waste. In addition, buying products that have

minimal packaging also helps to reduce waste. These steps help create and maintain a market for

recycled and recyclable products and packaging, and for products that have minimal packaging

(Dewees, 1998, 465-469). In addition, using reusable to-go containers and reusable shopping

bags are great ways to reduce package-type waste. Aside from packaging reduction and

recycling, consumers can directly effect waste and litter amounts by refraining from purchasing

excess or frivolous products. The purchasing of unneeded products produces a large amount of

unnecessary waste. Reducing consumption is the most direct route to reducing waste, but it also

saves money and time (Spindler, 1989). Saving money and time is something that every

individual can appreciate, Newtown residents included.

90

 

Effects of Litter and Excessive Waste Litter is a direct effect of the consumption of products and goods and the production of

waste from those products and goods. Litter is generated by motorists, pedestrians, and

uncovered trucks. Litter prevention and control is a crucial part of an effective solid waste

management plan because litter has environmental, economic, and social effects on global, state,

and local communities like Newtown. Visible litter gives the illusion that it’s okay to litter, and

will therefore lead to more littering, creating an endless cycle of increasing visible litter.

Environmental effects of litter include dangers to wildlife, ecosystem disruption, water

pollution and waterway obstruction/blockage, and soil pollution. Litter poses dangers to wildlife

through injury and ingestion. Small litter items such as plastic pieces, cigarette butts, and plastic

bags can be ingested by many animals from small birds to sea turtles, causing airway

obstruction, difficulty feeding, intestinal blockage, poisoning, and even death. Large litter items

such as tires, pizza boxes, and coolers can disrupt natural animal behaviors such as burrowing,

and increase the potential for physical injury to animals. Large and small items can also disrupt

the natural ecosystem processes by interrupting plant growth or becoming breeding grounds for

bacteria and parasites, which negatively impact the ecosystem, and could also pose a public

health hazard for humans. Litter can also lead to water pollution and clogged waterways and

storm drains. Moreover, chemicals from plastics, cigarettes, or cleaning product packages can

leach into the waterways and soils. Furthermore, the solid waste can get caught in storm drains

and narrow parts of rivers and streams, causing a disruption of the natural water flow, disrupting

the ecosystem, and sometimes causing flooding. Overall, litter has the potential to greatly

impact the natural environment, which will ultimately lead to impacts on wildlife and humans.

(Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, 1995)

In addition to environmental effects, litter also has social and economic effects on

communities of all sizes. Litter is unsightly, and as a result can decrease community pride and

community cohesiveness, raise concern about crime and public safety, negatively impact

business, and cost local economies money to clean up litter. If a neighborhood has an abundance

of visible litter, residents are less likely to take pride in their community, and as a result are less

likely to participate in community based activities. This lack of pride and participation can lead

91

to a decline in the general cohesiveness and strength of the neighborhood (Clarke, 1995).

Community and neighborhood cohesiveness is something Newtown residents have expressed

concern about and would like to improve upon. It has been shown that neighborhood

cohesiveness and strength directly impacts residents’ feeling of belongings and safety

(Shonholtz, 1987). Additionally, decreased community pride and cohesiveness can breed an

environment that tolerates crime. If residents are unlikely to work toward a cohesive

neighborhood, there becomes more opportunity for crime, and not just the obvious crime of litter

begets more litter. Crimes such as car theft, muggings, breaking and entering, drug dealing, and

in some cases more violent crimes such as rape and murder, tend to increase with a decrease in

neighborhood cohesiveness (Shonholtz, 1987).

Litter also impacts social dynamics of neighborhoods, which has indirect and direct

effects on the community economy. Visible litter can indirectly influence the community’s

economy by discouraging residents to shop within their own community (Clarke, 1995). Litter

directly impacts Florida’s economy by decreasing tourism. In Florida, tourism is a substantial

portion of the state’s economy, with approximately 600 million visitors traveling to Florida each

year. According to the Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management (1998),

tourists find litter to be the “least acceptable form of interference with individuals’ recreation

experience.” (Pg 18) Tourists that travel to Florida for wilderness focused vacations were even

less tolerant of litter, and many that were interviewed by the Center said they might choose to go

somewhere else on their next vacation because of litter in Florida. While Newtown may not be a

tourist destination in and of itself, Sarasota does benefit from tourism, and as a result Newtown

indirectly benefits from tourism. Thus, litter can directly impact tourism, indirectly impacting

the Florida economy, which could potentially lead to job loss, even in Newtown.

What about the direct cost of cleaning up litter? In 1993, roadside litter maintenance cost

the United States over $131 million, and that number has likely increased over time (Florida

Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, 1998). The collection and disposal of litter

necessitates the use of road maintenance employees, diverting them from other important road

maintenance activities. State transportation agencies spend approximately 3% of their road

maintenance budgets on roadside litter (Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste

Management, 1998). This is money and manpower that could be used for other road

maintenance and transportation activities, such as filling potholes, fixing street signs and lights,

92

and other crucial transportation related repairs. In Newtown, effective litter control and

prevention could free up road crews to actually maintain the roads in the community.

Maintaining roads can lead to an increase in the overall appearance of Newtown, which may also

lead to increased community pride and likelihood of residents to shop within the community.

Best Practices for Newtown to Implement Litter Prevention and Control, and Waste

Reduction:

Newtown is an urban community with a large number of children and teenagers, but also

some residents that have been in the community for most of their lives. The community consists

of largely residential buildings, but also has a number of businesses, an elementary school, high

school, college, and public library; and while there are neighborhood streets, the community is

bordered by the very busy state road 301. Because the community is so diverse with regards to

age groups, development types, and lengths of residence, the approach to litter prevention and

control, and waste reduction, needs to also be diverse. To approach the problem of litter and

waste, and to improve the community of Newtown, there needs to be involvement from the city

of Sarasota, local law enforcement and environmental organizations, and most importantly,

Newtown residents themselves.

Help from the City of Sarasota  The city of Sarasota can help Newtown with litter prevention and control and waste

reduction by installing more public covered trash cans, increasing access to public recycling

bins, installing public ashtrays, and increasing participation in curbside recycling. According to

The Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management (2002), increased access to

public trashcans, recycling bins, and ashtrays, decreases visible litter, particularly in residential

areas. The city of Sarasota, which is a green city, should include Newtown in their green

practices, and a great way to start is to provide Newtown with more trashcans, recycling bins,

and ashtrays. The most economical way to start would be to install more of these three

receptacles (or if existing receptacles are in place, installing covers on all receptacles) in very

public locations. Public locations include the library, schools, parks, the community center, bus

stops, and areas with a high concentration of businesses. If and when the installation of these

93

receptacles in public locations is seen to have a positive impact on litter amounts, the city could

move forward with more receptacles in other areas of Newtown such as parking lots, apartment

complexes, neighborhood streets, etc.

In addition to public receptacles for waste, the city can also help to increase participation

in curbside recycling. Newtown, as part of the City of Sarasota, has garbage and recycling

curbside pickup once per week, on either Monday or Thursday. There are blue and green bins

for recycling, and detailed instructions on the city website as to what items are recyclable, as

well as a detailed map so residents and businesses can see what day they have pickup. In

addition, the city website also has information on how a resident can request recycling bins and

begin recycling at home. The recycling goal of Sarasota is 75% by 2020 (the same as Florida’s

state wide goal), and as of January 2010, Floridians only recycled 28% of their waste (City of

Sarasota, 2010). The city of Sarasota, as part of Newtown’s redevelopment, should ensure that

each household in Newtown has both recycling bins and is aware of the recycling schedule and

rules, and the environmental and economic benefits of recycling. By increasing curbside

recycling participation, Newtown can help reduce their overall waste, reduce energy

consumption, help control litter by ensuring recyclables get recycled, and become a more

sustainable community. Participating in curbside recycling also has the benefit of educating the

children of the community, which ensures Newtown will continue on a path to sustainability.

Help from Local Law Enforcement and Environmental Organizations  Local law enforcement can help prevent and control litter by enforcing Florida’s litter

law. If law enforcement officers witness littering (including cigarette butts thrown by

pedestrians and/or motorists) they have the authority to give out citations starting at $50. In

addition to the fine, the court may require the litterer to perform community service, and may

also add three points to the offender’s license if the litter is thrown from a vehicle (Department

of Environmental Protection, 2002). The involvement of local law enforcement is important for

two main reasons. One, Newtown is bordered by state road 301, which means that many

vehicles drive through Newtown, and most of those motorists are not residents. Therefore,

increasing community pride and local participation in waste and litter reduction will not prevent

transient individuals from throwing litter from their car (especially cigarette butts)-that is where

94

law enforcement comes in. Two, when local law enforcement enforces litter laws, it will

increase the presence of law enforcement in the community and therefore has the potential to

decrease other crimes, such as theft that was discussed earlier, that take place in Newtown.

Local environmental organizations, such as Keep Sarasota County Beautiful (KSCB), can

also help Newtown prevent and control litter in two ways. One is to help the community

organize cleanups, which will be discussed in the next section. The second way that

organizations like KSCB can help, is to facilitate the adopt-a-highway program, and help to

install road signs warning motorists about litter penalties. If there is a presence of volunteers on

roads such as 301, then motorists may be less likely to throw litter from their car in the Newtown

community. Also, road signs with litter penalties, even though it may be minimal, do have an

impact on the amount of roadside litter found in communities (Miller, 1991). The community,

working with local environmental organizations and local law enforcement, can have these sign

installed on 301 and surrounding roads to help create awareness about litter penalties, and show

motorists that there is a law enforcement presence in the community.

Residents of Newtown Helping Themselves  Perhaps the most crucial group, the group that can have the most impact, involved in

litter prevention and control is Newtown residents themselves. The city of Sarasota, law

enforcement officers, and environmental organizations cannot reduce waste, or prevent and

control litter without the participation of Newtown residents. The three greatest ways that

residents can reduce litter and waste are reducing consumption and buying reusable items,

volunteer community cleanups, and public education.

Reducing consumption and buying reusable items will help to reduce the waste generated

in Newtown, reduce litter, and help residents save money. Buying non-essential items directly

contributes to unnecessary waste, which will harm the environment in a myriad of ways, even

aside from litter. Moreover, buying non-essential items means less money available to

individuals and families to use on essential items and activities. This is perhaps the most

important aspect of reduced consumption to the residents of Newtown. Residents have

expressed a concern about unemployment. With proper planning, and reduced buying, residents

can be better prepared for unexpected events such as sudden job loss. In addition to reducing

95

consumption, individuals can make the decision to buy reusable items such as grocery bags, food

containers, to-go type coffee/beverage cups, etc. These items help to reduce packaging, which

will reduce waste and litter. In addition, personal choices such as carrying portable ashtrays and

signing up for paperless bills/statements (meaning getting bills and statements electronically) can

add up to make a substantial impact on waste reduction.

Volunteer community cleanups help to remove existing litter from the community, as is

evident by the amount of litter that has been removed in past cleanups. From March to May of

2010, the Great American Cleanup mobilized almost 4 million volunteers nationwide that helped

to remove 76 million pounds of litter from the environment (Keep America Beautiful, 2010).

Volunteer cleanups also help to increase community involvement, something that Newtown

residents are interested in improving. Community involvement increases community

cohesiveness and community pride as discussed previously, which also has the benefit of

fostering a safer and stronger community (socially, economically, and environmentally). The

community strength that builds with community involvement is something that can be shared

within and between generations. The lack of concern of the younger generations is also

something Newtown residents have expressed concern about, and improving the strength and

cohesiveness of the community across all generations can be done through community activities

such as cleanups. This will ensure that Newtown becomes, and continues to be, a strong,

sustainable community, in all aspects of community life (social, economic, and environmental).

Public education is also an important step that Newtown residents can take to help

prevent and control litter. Litter education can be done, in part, by cleanup leaders giving a short

information session about the impacts of litter prior to cleanups. In addition, schoolteachers can

create lesson plans that educate students about the impacts of litter, and how best to prevent and

control litter. Children often bring home what they have learned, which will pass the knowledge

onto the parents and caregivers, increasing the community awareness and knowledge of litter. In

addition, schoolteachers and community leaders can establish an educational campaign on the

benefits of product reuse and community donations. This would reduce overall waste and save

residents money, as discussed previously. Additionally, donations would help other residents in

need and foster community strength. Finally, community leaders can educate business owners

and residents on the impacts litter has on the economy. By educating the workers and the

business owners about litter’s negative impacts on their business, the business owners and

96

employees may take it upon themselves to keep their business area clean (by sweeping parking

lots, sidewalks, and entry ways, and by requesting receptacles from the city for outside of their

business). According to the Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management (1998),

public education is the single most effective way to reduce litter, and should be a major part of

any litter reduction campaign.

Costs and Benefits of Implementation:

Best practices for Newtown to prevent and control litter, and reduce waste, have costs

related to implementation. The city of Sarasota will be the main bearer of the monetary costs,

and Newtown residents will be the main bearer of the time costs. Installing trash, recyclable, and

cigarette receptacles, as well as increasing curbside recycling participation will all have a

monetary cost to the city. Installing street signs and enforcing litter laws will also have a

monetary cost to the city and a time cost to law enforcement officers. However, the benefits of

receptacles, increased recycling, street signs, and enforced litter laws may out-weigh the costs.

Having access to public receptacles decreases litter. Decreased litter will decrease

environmental degradation, and make for stronger natural ecosystems. In addition, reducing

litter can increase community cohesiveness, decrease negative impacts on the economy, and

decrease the cost of collecting roadside litter for local and state governments. Moreover,

increasing curbside recycling participation decreases the overall waste of the community, which

saves energy and landfill space, and decreases overall costs of extracting raw materials for

products and packaging (such as making plastics from raw materials). Additionally, enforcing

litter laws has the benefit of, over time, preventing litter through the additional police presence

and potentially preventing other crimes because of a noticeable law enforcement presence.

Connecting with local organizations will have an indirect cost to the city and state

because many non-profit organizations such as KSCB receive government grants to help with

their costs. However, the primary cost associated with Newtown residents connecting with local

environmental organizations, is time spent during public education and cleanup events. This is

time donated by community volunteers, which has no monetary costs, but is the simple act of

individuals taking the time to lend a hand. Public education can be done as part of cleanup

projects, and part of lesson plans in schools. Therefore, cleanups and education are done mainly

through community volunteers donating time, and the cost of time spent during education and

97

cleanups is much less than the benefits to the community. These benefits include a healthier

environment, stronger economy, stronger and safer community, and an overall increase in

community pride that can be shared between and among generations. In addition, because

Sarasota and Newtown are working together for redevelopment in Newtown, there is the

possibility of Sarasota providing grants for Newtown community beautification. Beautification

includes such things as planting trees, painting buildings, renovating old structures, installing

benches and paths in parks, and more. However, this beautification money may also be spent on

cleaning up litter before any other beautification activities like planting trees can take place. But,

if the community takes litter control seriously and tackles the problem on their own, they would

have more money for beautification, making their community an even better place to live.

An easy to read table has been provided in Appendix A to quickly reference suggested

activities, primary responsible parties, their costs and benefits, and in some cases, possible

timelines for implementation.

Important Contacts:

For community redevelopment to be successful, there needs to be a concerted effort from

many different groups of people. The city, law enforcement, department of transportation,

Department of Parks and Recreation, local organizations, community educators, and most

importantly community residents, need to work together toward a stronger, more sustainable

community. Therefore, it is important for the community to have contact information of key

government offices, organizations, and individuals that can help with redevelopment. Appendix

B contains a table of important contact information for the community of Newtown to help them

with their redevelopment.

Conclusion:

The impacts of litter and solid waste are far-reaching and can be detrimental to residents,

businesses, and the environment. However, litter and solid waste can be managed by bringing

together residents, business owners, environmental organizations, law enforcement, and local

and state governments. While this management has costs, it also has far-reaching benefits that

generally out way the costs of litter prevention and control and waste reduction. Litter

prevention and control, and waste reduction, will benefit residents and business owners, in the

98

form of environmental and social benefits, and economic growth and health. Moreover, if litter

control is maintained, and ultimately litter is prevented, the benefits will also be seen by future

Newtown generations, making the community stronger, prouder, and more sustainable.

References:

Chavis, D.M., Wandersman, A. (1990). Sense of Community in the Urban Environment:

A Catalyst for Participation and Community Development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18 (1): 55-81.

City of Sarasota. Solid waste and recycling. Updated November 7th, 2010. Retrieved

November 7th 2010 from http://www.sarasotagov.com/SGC/YGC/SolidWaste-Recycling.htm.

Clarke, Ronald. (1995). Situational crime prevention. Crime and Justice, 19: 91-150.

Retrieved September 21st, 2010 from JSTOR database from USF Libraries. Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Law Enforcement. Environmental

Crimes: A Handbook to State Environmental Crime for Patrol Officers, Investigators, and Regulatory Specialist. Florida: Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2002.

Dewees, Donald, & Hare, Michael. (1998). Economic analysis of packaging waste

reduction. Canadian Public Policy, 24 (4): 453-470. Retrieved September 21st, 2010 from JSTOR database from USF Libraries website.

Environmental Protection Agency. Municipal solid waste generation, recycling, and

disposal in the United States: Facts and figures for 2008 (Fact Sheet). Updated November 23rd, 2009. Retrieved November 7th, 2010 from: http://www.epa.gov/wastes/nonhaz/municipal/msw99.htm

Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management. (1995). The Florida litter

study: 1994. Gainesville, FL. Produced for the Florida Dept of Environmental Protection.

Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management. (1998). The Florida litter

study: 1998. Gainesville, FL. Produced for the Florida Dept of Environmental Protection.

Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management. (2002). The Florida litter

study: 2002. Gainesville, FL. Produced for the Florida Dept of Environmental Protection.

Hope, Tim. (1995). Community crime prevention. Crime and Justice, 19: 21-89.

99

Retrieved September 19th, 2010 from JSTOR database from USF Libraries website.

Keep America Beautiful. Great American Cleanup Results. Updated 2010. Retrieved

November 1st, 2010 from http://www.kab.org/site/PageServer?pagename=GAC_2010Results.

Leopold, Aldo. (2009). Land Ethic. In Wheeler, S.M., & Beatley, T (Editors), The

sustainable urban development reader (pp 24-32). New York: Routledge. Miller, W.L., Townsend, T.G. Creating Public Education and Information Programs for

Recycling: A Manual and Guide. Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, State University System of Florida, 1991.

Shonholtz, Raymond. (1987). The Citizens Role in Justice: Building a Primary Justice

and Prevention System at the Neighborhood Level. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 94, 42-53. Retrieved September 16th, 2010 from JSTOR database on USF Libraries website.

Spindler, Charles J. The Effects of Commercial Products Packaging on the Management of Solid Waste in Florida. Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, 1989.

United Nations. (1987). Report of the world commission on environment and

development: Our common future. Part I, Section 3. http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-ov.htm#I.3

Zero Waste. Economics of Waste. Retrieved November 7th, 2010 from http://www.zerowasteamerica.org/EconomicsOfWaste.htm

100

Newtown Residential Bus Stop Inventory Christopher Cochran

Introduction

The “broken window theory” was first introduced in 1982 by Dr. James Q. Wilson and

George Keiling. This theory suggests that “…signs of disorderly and petty criminal behavior

trigger more disorderly and petty criminal behavior, thus causing the behavior to spread.

(Keizer, et al. 2008). The broken window theory has been widely debated since its inception and

social scientists have conflicting views on the validity of the theory. Despite this conflicting

view, the resounding success of New York City’s “Quality of Life” campaign has given a

significant boost to the legitimacy of the theory.

The Quality of Life campaign took an extremely aggressive approach to cleaning up

crime throughout New York City. The campaign focused on addressing all signs of disorder. If

graffiti was present, it was identified and painted over, no matter if it needed to be done every

day. If litter was present, it was constantly picked up. Homeless people were forced to take

advantage of shelter amenities and taken off the streets at night. If a building had a broken

window, that window was fixed. No matter what the case, disorder was aggressively addressed

and the result was a resounding decrease in crime in one of the world’s most crime prone cities.

Recent studies have shown that violent crime, while on the decline in the United States,

remains a major fear in the eyes of the public. “It holds the elderly hostage in their own homes,

prevents people from using public transportation, forces merchants to close their shops early,

discourages investment, thereby increasing the cost of living, working, or operating a business”

(Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999). The following study takes this above concept and addresses the

concerns of safety and accessibility in regards to public transit in the immediate vicinity of the

101

Newtown neighborhood.

In taking a broken window approach to addressing bus stop safety and accessibility, the

following study aims to present the Administrators of the Newtown Redevelopment Plan with a

comprehensive overview of the conditions of bus stop amenities and their surroundings within

the residential neighborhood of Newtown. The study aims to identify attributes that may be

associated with increased crime activity, decreased safety, and poor accessibility.

Transit Crime

The role of environmental attributes in transit related crime has been a relatively well-

studied topic. It can be argued that the broken window theory fits well with the idea that the

built environmental lends itself to contributing factors associated with accessibility and transit

crime. Loukaitou-Sideris’s 1999 study analyzed 10 high-crime bus stops within the Los Angeles

public transit system and identified distinguishing factor that contributed to the associated

criminal activity. It was found that 70% of the “high-crime” bus stops were not visible from the

surrounding stops, lacked adequate lighting, were adjacent to empty lots and vacant buildings,

near alleyways, and were not near any police substations (Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).

In comparing these contributing factors with the “broken window theory,” empty lots,

dilapidated buildings, poor lighting, and lack of authority are consistent with factors that would

contribute to ongoing crime. Identifying and addressing these issues in turn can be a

contributing factor to decreasing or preventing both safety and accessibility concerns of

neighborhood riders.

Newtown Redevelopment Plan

The neighborhood of Newtown, located in Sarasota, Florida consists of a historically

low-income minority neighborhood. Low-income levels and devastating unemployment have

102

contributed to the need for the $11.4 million redevelopment plan. The Newtown Redevelopment

Plan has eight primary categories:

• Administration • Economic Development • Housing • Land Use • Transportation • Community Health, Safety & Welfare • Infrastructure • Urban Design/Parks

The goals and objectives within each category are challenging, yet reasonable. One of

the biggest challenges of the redevelopment plan revolves around the allocation of funds in

meeting the expectations of the planners and residents of the neighborhood.

The following study is focused on developing a practical approach for administrators to

allocate transportation dollars designated for the Newtown Redevelopment Plan. The overall

goal of the Transportation effort is to, “Create a safe, efficient traffic circulation system, one in

which provides sufficient access by all modes of transportation between activity centers within

the redevelopment area and the balance of the community” (Newtown Comprehensive

Redevelopment). In meeting the expectations of the transportation goals and objectives, the goal

is to develop a comprehensive bus stop inventory within the residential areas of the Newtown

Redevelopment Plan boundary.

In developing the bus stop inventory for Newtown, an existing hybrid of the Easter Seals

Project Action Bus Stop Checklist was used to collect the Bus Stop Inventory data. At the

Center for Transportation Research (CUTR) at the University of South Florida (USF), the Citrus

Connection of Polk County used a similar hybrid that was successful in providing an economic,

demographic and GIS analysis of their bus stop inventory. Two visits were made over a three-

week period to collect data on-site.

103

A Microsoft Access database was developed to collect, maintain, and analyze the 32

residential area bus stops. Attributes of five different categories were collected and analyzed:

• Location • Amenities • Land Use • Infrastructure • Safety and Security Features

Within each of these categories, domain attributes were collected that primarily focused

on safety and accessibility of each bus stop. Factors such as street lighting, the presence of

shelters and benches, sidewalk conditions, landing area conditions, wheelchair accessibility (curb

cuts, etc.), and in-road features were considered.

GPS Data was collected in conjunction with site inventory data. Having GPS locations

allows the data to have a linked geographic component that can be easily mapped to assist in

visualizing problem areas. The maps show areas with poor sidewalk conditions, far side bus

stops, wheelchair inaccessibility, lack of street lighting, poor conditioned benches, recommended

shelter locations, and recommended route locations.

The above attributes mapped were chosen as primary problem issues best addressed by

available funding sources. In all, the access database, accompanying spreadsheets and maps can

be valuable in identifying problem stops and addressing how to best allocate funds in improving

ridership, accessibility, and safety within the Newtown area.

Findings

Overview Map

(figure 1)

104

Wheelchair Accessibility:

• 26 of the 32 bus stops inventoried had uneven/grass landings that pose potential hazards to wheelchair bound riders.

• 6 of the 32 bus stops inventoried has concrete landing areas, however, 4 of the 6 concrete landings were uneven and/or had cracked sidewalks that pose potential hazards to wheelchair bound riders.

• 13 of the 32 bus stop inventoried had obstacles located in the landing area that have the potential to limit the mobility of a wheelchair:

o Heavy un-mowed grass and deep sand (StopID 3)

o Residential mailbox in the landing area (StopID 7 and StopID 25)

o Stop sign in the immediate vicinity of the landing area (StopID 10)

o Broken underground utility cover at the immediate landing pad area (StopID 12)

o Stop sign potentially in the way (StopID 15)

o Bench placed on sidewalk (StopID 30)

Reduces the width of the sidewalk from 4’ across to 2’ across.

This has the potential to force a wheelchair bound rider to the uneven grass surface to get to the other side of the bench.

o Sidewalk edge is exposed in a 6” drop off between the grass right of way and the sidewalk edge. This is right at the bus stop and runs parallel to the sidewalk for roughly 10’. (StopID 24)

o Tree(StopID 26)

o Utility Pole (StopID 28)

o Fire hydrant (StopID 29)

o Residential mailbox bank that is no longer used with exposed rusted nails at the bus stop site. (StopID 32)

o 5 of the 32 bus stops inventoried did not have any accessible ramp to the landing pad StopID 10 StopID 11

105

StopID 13 StopID 14 StopID 16

(figure 2)

• 6 of the 32 bus stops inventoried had “Poor” or “Hazardous” sidewalk conditions at or approaching the bus stop site that have the potential to limit wheelchair mobility to and from the bus stop area:

o Score of 2: In poor shape though not hazardous – very, some root uplifting, cracks, breaks.

o Score of 1: Hazardous – large breaks, cracks, root uplifting, someone could get hurt from the normal use or use of a wheelchair would be difficult.

StopID 18 (Score of 2) StopID 8 (Score of 2) StopID 12 (Score of 1) StopID 22 (Score of 2) StopID 24 (Score of 2) StopID 25 (Score of 2)

(figure 3)

• Sidewalk widths at all bus stops are adequate for wheelchair accessibility

Lighting

• 9 of the 32 bus stops inventoried had adequate street lighting within 10 feet of the bus stop

o StopID 5 o StopID 18 o StopID 9 o StopID 10 o StopID 11 o StopID 16 o StopID 23 o StopID 28 o StopID 32

106

• 1 of the 32 bus stops inventoried had street lighting within 15 feet of the bus stop

o StopID 19

• 22 of the 32 bus stops inventoried did not have any lighting at the bus stop site

(figure 4) Shelter

• 1 of the 32 stops had a shelter at the bus stop site

o StopID 21

Benches

• 5 of the 32 bus stops inventoried had benches at the bus stop site

o StopID 19 o StopID 21 o StopID 23 o StopID 29 o StopID 30

• 4 of the 5 benches had potentially hazardous conditions associated with them

o StopID 19

Broken pieces, bolts exposed

o StopID 23

Loose slats

o StopID 29

Broken pieces, loose bolts, loose slats

o StopID 30

Missing slats, broken pieces, loose bolts

• 2 of the 5 benches had “poor” or “hazardous” conditions associated with them:

107

o Score of 2: In poor shape though not hazardous

o Score of 1: Hazardous – broken, someone could get hurt from normal use.

StopID 19 (Score of 2) StopID 30 (Score of 1)

(figure 5)

Miscellaneous Observations and Recommendations

• All bus stops inventoried had adequate signage with no visibility issues.

• Only 10 of the 32 bus stops inventoried had additional route/schedule information posted along with the bus stop signage.

• At the Whittaker Bayou Park (Cocoanut/MLK intersection) it is recommended that the board considering petitioning for a full shelter with trash receptacles and benches to attract more riders to the area.

o Appropriate lighting is needed

• Observed a lack of any bus stops along the Central Avenue corridor around the existing and new low-cost housing lots.

o This area should have a high accessibility to public transit as low-income areas trend higher ridership.

(figure 6)

Safety Considerations

• 26 of the 32 bus stops inventoried do not have crosswalk access to the bus stop site

o StopID 9 is at a school and there is no crosswalk at that site

Should consider allocating resources to put one in place at all school and high ridership intersections.

• 2 of the 32 bus stops inventoried have “far side” intersection stop sites

108

o There are disadvantages and advantages to both

Safety concern issue

Stopping on the far side of the intersections increases the possibility of a rear-end accident

Exposes the exiting rider to danger if they cross in front of the bus

o Limited site to oncoming traffic

o Drops passenger passed the intersection crosswalk

Most advantages are associated with traffic flow

o In these residential areas, high traffic volume would not out weight any immediate rider safety benefit

(figure 7)

109

Figure 1.

110

Figure 2.

111

Figure 3.

112

Figure4.

113

Figure5.

114

Figure6.

115

Figure7.

116

References

Keizer, Kees, Lindenberg, Siegwart, and Steg, Linda. (2008). “The Spreading of Disorder.” Science, Accessed on November 19, 2010 from: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/322/5908/1681.full.

Loukaitou-sideris, Anastasia. (1999). “Hot Spots of Bus Stop Crime: The Importance of

Environmental Attributes.” Journal of American Planning Association, 65: 4, 395 – 411. Easter Seals Project Action. 2010. “Quick Bus Stop Checklist.” Accessed October, 5, 2010 from

http://projectaction.easterseals.com/site/PageServer?pagename=ESPA_BusStopToolkit. Paul, Brian. (2010). “How ‘Transit-Oriented Development’ Will Put More New Yorkers in

Cars.” Transportation, Accessed November 15, 2010 from: http://www.gothamgazette.com/article/transportation/20100421/16/3247

Newtown Community Redevelopment Website. (2008). Accessed from:

http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/CRA.html Preston, J., & Raje, F. (2007). Accessibility, mobility and transport-related social exclusion☆.

Journal of Transport Geography, 15(3), 151-160. European Conference of Ministers of Transport, (1991). TRANSPORT FOR PEOPLE WITH Holzer, H. J., Quigley, J. M., & Raphael, S. (2003). Public transit and the spatial distribution of

minority employment: Evidence from a natural experiment. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 22(3), 415-441.

Pfeiffer, D. (1990). Public Transit Access for Disabled Persons in the United States. Disability &

Society, 5(2), 153-166.

117

A Citizen’s Initiative for Sustainable Urban Living through Expanded Recycling and Conservation in the Home and Community Melanie M. DeCesare Sustainability can be described as social equity, economy, and environment. At the

international and national level, it can be observed that access to all three components of

sustainability may be contingent on socio-economic status and political influence. Since social

equity is often limited in low-income housing and with the working poor, the impacts of

economy and environment can be seen at their greatest in these areas. Such groups are often

silently suffering from not having their voices heard by the local government. In return, this

subjects them to the further depletion of living conditions.

From this depletion of living conditions, a sense of community must arise. A group that

comes together may have greater influence on their surroundings. The voice of many can hold

tremendous power and with this magnitude, the community has the ability to improve their

opportunities for equality. However, this must start at the community level. Only at this scale,

will economy improve in a given area. Such an example is the Newtown area of Sarasota.

The community of Newtown recognizes that there is a need to improve the quality of life of its

citizens. Community improvements may be possible through the use of community programs.

When looking at housing, pride of ownership exists; this is a good indictor that the people of

Newtown also have a sense of community pride and will want to improve their neighborhood

accordingly. Community programs may be able to assist areas like in Newtown in implementing

a way to improve and clean up local neighborhoods. It is proposed that Newtown can expand its

recycling programs to implement water recycling, education and the use of home -growing

programs. Furthermore, a community composting project may also reduce the strain on local

landfills and feed local community gardens. Newtown will have the ability to further reduce

118

waste, engage in conservation measures and become self subsidized in growing the best local

produce available to them. The implementation of the expanded recycling program shall provide

a foundation for a community initiative to reduce each family’s carbon footprint by reducing

rates of consumption. The proposed plan of implementation will improve the well being of the

environment, while producing long, happy, meaningful lives. Innovative solutions can challenge

mainstream thinking but its ending result forms partnerships with people and puts the planet first

(The Happy Planet Index, May, 2010).

Recycling programs are both beneficial for the environment and may develop educational

opportunities that could lead to economically sustainable behaviors. Through expansion efforts

of current municipal recycling programs to include community specific initiatives, residents can

assist in improving environmental conditions and develop behaviors that will contribute to

implementing cost saving behaviors. The expansion of current recycling programs to include

water conservation measures, deepening home growing programs, and establishing a municipal

composting program will provide a three pronged approach to sustainability, providing

environmentally based benefits which are rewarded with financial incentives. Present grant

money will be utilized to establish infrastructure for new recycling initiatives and for a citizen

educational campaign that can assist residents in understanding the economic rewards and

supporting such community programming.

Water conservation measures include a multi-faceted approach. Flushing toilets accounts for

twenty six percent of all indoor water use (Pasco County Utility Board, 2010.) Pasco County

currently administers a toilet rebate program, which is administered though an outside contractor.

Applicants are reimbursed one hundred dollars for the first high flow toilet and eighty for a

second high flow toilet which is replaced with proof of purchase of 1.6 gallon ultra low flow

119

toilets. The toilets are inspected and removed by the contractor where they are moved to a

facility in Spring Hill, Florida for ceramic recycling. Pinellas County also once administered a

high flow toilet replacement program on a county wide basis, which has ended. The program

provided a rebate of up to $100 for replacement of a high flow toilet with an ultra low flow toilet.

The program was cooperatively funded by Pinellas County and the Pinellas-Anclote River Basin

Board of the Southwest Florida Water Management District. Sarasota County also discontinued

its low flow toilet rebate program. Newtown Community Development initiatives could re-

implement this program specifically for its residents within Sarasota. With the installation of low

flow toilets, thirteen percent of a resident’s bill could be reduced. For a family that utilizes 8,000

gallons of water each month at a rate of $8.62 for water and sewer, this represents a water bill

savings of $8.97 per month (scgov.net, 2010).

Approximately forty percent of water used in summer is used outdoors which is when most

areas face water shortages and endure water restrictions (Garden Rainwater Saver, November, 2,

2010). This water shortage period is when plants and trees require water the most. As

populations grow, water shortages occur. Saving rain water saves money and helps the

environment. The more rainwater is used, the less the need to use chlorinated or other chemically

treated tap water, making healthier vegetation as well. Using more rainwater also means that less

that will go into storm water drains, where it is mixed with oil and other toxic residues from

streets and parking lots. Rain barrels are covered barrels that have a whole or screen top to

collect rainwater from gutter downspouts and other run off areas and from precipitation directly.

Although commercial rain barrels are available at most home supply retailers, they are easy to

make and can be fashioned to be very presentable in a residential landscape. At the bottom they

have a spigot to release the water for use in lawn maintenance and for other non-potable water

120

usage. Some states currently offer incentives for water collecting. Detailed instructions are

included in Appendix A. If interested in implementing this project, the Southwest Florida Water

Management District recommends checking the Yellow Pages under listings for drums, barrels

and containers (http://www.swfwmd.state.fl.us, 2010). Plastic food- grade containers are most

adequate for local rain barrel builders and readily available. The city of Sarasota does not require

permits for rain barrels (http://www.scgov.net, 2010).

Drywell systems are another source of relieving strain on the sewer system. They enable

water to be returned naturally to the environment without being processed through municipal

septic systems. In rainy seasons, drywell systems are capable of collecting runoff water from

impervious surfaces such as patios and roofs and returning them to sub surface ground layers for

natural distribution back into the environment. Florida’s sand grained subsurface provides ample

absorption for dry well systems, where soil percolation takes place. Drywells expedite the

process of transferring water back to the subsurface terrain. Most buildings are engineered so

that water naturally drains away from the contour of our homes. Having a plan in place to

naturally avert the excess water away from the public storm drain systems remedies the need for

large scale water processing in the wet season which bypasses processing standards and results in

elevated toxins in the Tampa Bay watershed. Installation of dry well systems is relatively easy

and inexpensive. The system consists of a buried pipe and a filtration unit, such as a trash barrels

with holes in it. It is never emptied as it drains itself. The trash barrel is filled with rocks, gravel

or crushed stone so that is does not rise from the ground, nor does it crush under the pressure of

the earthen overlay.

A trench must be dug from the location where water will be moved from to the location of the

well itself. This trench must be about eighteen inches deep so that it can accommodate a

121

perforated pipeline. The drain pipe should slope downward as it leaves the starting location until

it reaches the containing unit. This creates a steady flowing drain which uses gravity as its

conductor. By surrounding the containing unit with landscape fabric, one will avoid soil from

filling the containers drains and clogging it. The drain pipe should be inserted into one of the

holes in the trash barrel. Appendix B demonstrates a diagram of all components and processes.

For Newtown residents that would like to integrate the use of rain barrels and dry well drains,

integration is possible. To utilize both programs, locations which have rain barrels that surpass

the usage patterns of the rain collected in the barrel, the barrel can be placed on a drainage pan.

The pan collects the overflow from the rain barrel and contains a drain, which is connected into

the drain pipe. When this happens the overflow from the rain barrel is added to the excess water

being re-deposited into the ground, also bypassing the public storm water drainage system. This

system becomes a multi-faceted approach to optimization of water reclamation and the direct

ground deposit of water which is not needed (Onthehouse.com/wp20000508. November, 6,

2010).

In unison, these three innovations can significantly decrease dependence on Florida’s aquifer,

especially draw down in the dry season and in growing seasons in Florida. Grass roots efforts on

the part of citizens become a measurable and noteworthy savings on water usage, while

providing measurable differences to water and septic bills.

In addition to water conservation, composting is another way in which citizens can reduce

their impact on the environment. Composting has occurred since vegetation first existed on the

earth. As leaves and fruit fall from trees and die, they enrich the soil through the process of

natural decomposition. Humans have been composting for decades, as well. Agricultural

communities have used composting as a way to enrich their gardens for years. Now, a much

122

larger movement for composting in urban areas has begun. Composting has taken on its own

popularity as a new way to go “green”. City dwellers are becoming more aware of the benefits of

compost in their gardens and they are realizing that it is best to recycle natural products back to

the earth.

Municipalities have had a major influence in this movement with programs to dispose of

recyclable waste. Until recent years, this generally has included only yard wastes. These

programs vary in operational format but all the same goal of recycling natural material for the

earth's benefit. In many cases, after the material has been composted, the city sells the compost

back to citizens who wish to purchase it for their yards or gardens. In this way, city composting

programs provide two services: they allow city dwellers to compost their organic waste, and they

also make compost material available for sale at reasonable prices.

A municipal composting program may seem simple or complex. The inclusion of food

products can be a large project to manage, but has proven successful in several cities,

administered in a variety of ways. First, the citizens of the municipality must be educated about

what types of products can be collected and how they are to be contained. Citizen outreach

campaigns are necessary to broaden the understanding of the benefits of participating. Second,

the city must decide how they wish collect the waste. Some municipalities use bulk collection,

where leaves and waste are piled in the street or yard and trucks come collect the debris.

Another way to collect the waste is through drop off sites where citizens can take their waste to a

central collection area (Sullivan and Goldstein, July 2009). After trucks have picked up the

organic waste, the material must be transported to a central composting site to be processed and

composted. Several months later, the waste thrown out will be available again for resale to

123

citizens as premium compost. Compost can be used in many ways, enriching crop yield.

Twenty four percent of the United States' solid waste is made up of yard trimmings and food

scraps (US Environmental Protection Agency, November 08, 2010). With the ability to convert

all this waste into premium compost and return it to the earth, these programs are hugely

beneficial. Several options for the implementation of composting efforts can be explored for

Newtown. The complexity and level of involvement from the citizen, community, and

municipality vary greatly.

Backyard composting programs are the most basic and involve the least amount of municipal

involvement. These programs are implemented by using citizens who participate on a voluntary

basis. These programs however, are greatly beneficially to the municipality and costs associated

with trash collection. For this reason, it is in the best interest of local government to provide

subsidies to local composters. The national average for governments which cost share with

citizens is $12 per ton for backyard composting. The trash collection savings is $23 per ton and

$32 for disposal. The net gain for governments which have backyard composting programs is

about $43-$44 per ton (Sherman-Huntoon, 2005). For citizens, they are able to have more fertile

yards. Yards which use compost are known to withstand droughts and freezes more readily, as

the root system is stronger and it assists in maintaining soil from erosion.

Sherman-Huntoon, 2005, states in most communities which implement compost programs,

there is generally one paid person who is responsible for the program efforts. This person

implements its inception and maintains the program. This person, however, can provide other

functions in his/her municipal employment. In order to establish such a program, the most

productive efforts were to subsidize bin distribution or provide them at cost, establish variable

124

refuse fees for those that decided to participate (in communities who charge for trash collection),

train volunteers and establish outreach programs, implement school composting programs, host

workshops and demonstration days, distribute booklets and literature, print inserts for utility bills

and purchase newspaper advertisements.

A second approach to establishing a composting program is from a community administered

approach. In New York City, for example, The Ecology Center’s community composting

program has been in effect since 1990 where it originally existed at the community garden.

Overtime, the demand grew and an additional location at Union Square Green Market was added

for kitchen scrap drop off, accommodating drops offs five days per week, including both

weekend days. The materials are collected and transported to the East River Park in-vessel

composting system, where it is processed and returned to the marketplace to be sold in about

three months time.

An in-vessel system is comprised of 16 one cubic yard containers. For this reason, brownfield

sites become a viable location for in-vessel facilities as it freestanding of the natural earth. “The

first step of this process begins by layering nitrogen rich food waste with a carbon source in the

form of high-grade sawdust, another waste-product, collected from various local wood shops,

into the ‘in-vessel’ composting system. Once a container is filled the lid is sealed, and the

decomposition process begins. The containers are designed to facilitate an 'aerobic'

decomposition process, by allowing air to pass through vents on the bottom and the top of the

bins. During a retention time of 10 -15 days, the materials in the bins are reduced by one fifth of

their original volume and reach temperatures of 150 degrees Fahrenheit, to ensure pathogen

destruction.” (NYC Compost Project in Manhattan, 2010). At that time, the compost is moved to

125

windrows for curing where red wriggler worms are able to digest microorganism during the

cooling process. When complete, the compost is screened to remove any large rocks and sticks

(NYC Compost Project in Manhattan, 2010).

Municipal compost programs have been implemented in some areas as an extension of the

recycling program. Citizens are provided with a durable compost container. Organic household

scraps and yard waste can be combined in this container and intermittently it is picked up. In

areas such as Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, composted soil is even returned to the citizens

at a later time (community composting.ca, 2010).

Twenty miles south of Philadelphia, Wilmington, Delaware is home to Wilmington Organics

Recycling Center. This is perhaps the most successful composting programs in the United States

and is not municipally owned. Ideally located, the composting facility is adjacent to the Port of

Wilmington which receives shiploads of fresh produce on a daily basis. It opened in May of

2009, after the local landfill ban yard trimmings at the facility. At its inception in December

2009, the facility was accepting 300 tons of waste each day. By Earth Day 2010, the facility was

fully operational. As of June, the amount had grown to 550 tons per day but maximum capacity

is 700 tons per day (Sullivan and Goldstein, 2010).

Southbridge is a neighborhood which borders the facility. Southbridge is a predominantly

minority neighborhood that has been prone to living near the local landfill, traffic and noise for

126

many years. The municipal composting complex was built with extreme community support

including the surrounding neighbors, which include Southbridge, as the result of educating the

neighbours about its need, use, and benefits. With the support of the community, the 27 acre

former brownfield site was designated as the future home of the composting facility. A

community benefits agreement which provided jobs for the surrounding residents also assisted

the facility in obtaining expedited permitting to move forward. The initial pledge was that at

least twenty percent of all jobs would be given to the local community. As of June 2010, the

figure was sixty percent (Sullivan and Goldstein, 2010).

The composting facility is set up to quickly move the intake process forward. The trucks

come into the facility for a weighing in process. Then the materials move to the tipping area,

windrowing area, screening area and to the outtake yard. The weigh-in process takes place in a

18,000 square foot building which is kept under negative pressure to mitigate odor. Trained

workers determine the loads need for carbon and nitrogen exposure depending on the load’s

moisture content. Materials are also fed into a slow speed shredder where it moves to a picking

station where workers remove non-organic contaminates. Any leachate and excess waters are

sent to a sanitary sewer which feeds an aerated retention pond (Sullivan and Goldstein, 2010).

Wilmington Organic Recycling Center contains sixty-four 200 foot long windrows. Each

windrow is large enough to contain one days recycling from the municipality as the waste starts

its eight week windrowing process. Fifty-six are covered and the remaining eight are open for the

final stage of the composting process. After windrowing has taken place, the compost is

screened. Retail sales only accounts for one percent of the compost sold. Most compost is

trucked out for bulk usage.

Because composting facilities are able to operate on previous brownfields, Newtown has the

127

space and location to house a composting facility. The Marion Anderson Brownfield, located at

the edge of town with natural isolation barriers from housing, could meet this composting need.

Citizens should be informed and outreach programs exist to rally local citizens to support such

measures in an effort to decrease waste and restore jobs.

Local composting programs also provide the tools needed for local citizens to engage in

growing programs at the residential, community and commercial levels. In addition to the

benefits of growing, a longitudinal St. Louis study of impacts of community gardens indicated

that evidence supported the presence of positive economic indicators. In areas where community

gardens existed, home values increased, as did owner occupancy rates (Broadway, 2009). Cities

including Milwaukee, Detroit and Seattle actively promote the process of rebuilding links

between local food production and consumption by promoting urban agriculture and farmers

markets (Broadway, 2009). Farmers markets are a great resource to educate consumers and to

allow citizens who want locally grown food but can not grow their own to acquire local

vegetation. By using local resources, as a community, we eliminate natural resource imports

from other areas which cause pollution acquired during transit. Additionally, the freshest produce

is highest in nutrients as some nutrients diminish with age in the transit process.

Even in places where soils are less poor, gardens are possible. In Syracuse, New York, a

group of Somali immigrants had wanted to grow some community gardens. The soil was poor

from years of industrial use that had rendered the soils useless from lead and arsenic problems in

much of the area. With the assistance of Filtrexx Gardens Sacks, compost from the Onengada

County Resource Recovery Agency, and the seedlings fm local nurseries a surface garden was

established. Local university experts were sceptical of the gardens ability to survive. In

subsequent visits, they were amazed at the success. The garden also acted as a community

128

builder. Speculation by university experts about the community’s low interest level was also

unfounded (Sullivan 2010). Opportunities to broaden the scope of community gardens and

residential gardens should further be explored. Use of current technologies enables Newtown

residents the ability to reduce their carbon footprint by growing locally instead of buying

imported vegetation. As the result, each resident can expect to subsidize their grocery bill

accordingly.

With creativity and vision, options are available to the residents of Newtown to protect the

urban environment, restore nature and prosper economically as the result of self supportive

measures which save money and the potential job creation of some of the programs suggested to

become involved in working as a community for a sustainable Newtown community.

Appendix A

- : Automatic Rainwater Collection System : - Courtesy of http://www.gardenwatersaver.com/9.html

How to Make Rainbarrels

There are three methods described here for MAKING RAINBARRELS. These instructions are all designed for totally enclosed rainbarrel systems thus avoiding mosquito problems.

1. OPEN TOP CONTAINERS WITH LIDS

This is the most simple type for those who have access to open top barrels. Trash cans can be used; however, for the back pressure to occur completely, the top should be sealed with duct tape.

Instructions:

1. Drill a 1” hole near the bottom of the container 2. Attach “Spigot for open top container" 3. Drill a 3/4" hole in the top for the diverter hose to fit in

129

2. PLASTIC BARREL PLACED HORIZONTALLY

This is just as easy and takes only 10 minutes to make.

Instructions:

1. Drill a 1/2 to max 3/4” hole in the center of the bung that is threaded. This will leave a small collar which will act as a washer.

2. Attach "Spigot for Barrels (Horizontal)" 3. Drill a 3/4” hole on the side of the barrel that is opposite to the drilled bung. Have a look at menu item

'How to make Rain Barrels' to get a better understanding plus ideas for horizontal barrels

3. PLASTIC BARRELS USED VERTICALLY

The third way while a bit more complicated is probably the most favorable in that recycled closed top barrels which are the most common and readily available are used in the vertical position. Here are the steps in Picture form:

STEP 1

Drill a 15/16” hole near the bottom or file about 1/64th " of a 1 inch drill bit

STEP 2

Heat the area (To soften the plastic)

STEP 3

STEP 4

130

Spigot for Barrel (vertical)

Tighten hard (if no washer used)

STEP 5

Drill 3/4” hole (in Threaded Bung)

STEP 6

Attach hose to Garden Watersaver Diverter unit

HINTS

1. For drilling for the spigot - file 1/64" off the blade drill bit ( a little off each side ) and do not use a washer and tighten the Spigot hard. If it will not tighten hard then use the washer ( and if necessry teflon tape )

2. If the plan is to link barrels then do not file the 1” blade bit until you drill the holes for the Connector kit. as it needs a full 1 “ hole

3. Do not use barrels that contained chemicals and do not drink the rainwater without purifying. Barrels that contained food products or soap type products are available in most cities. Go to http://www.google.com and write in plastic barrels and your city

131

Appendix B

132

Bibliography

Agyeman, Julian. Sustainable Communities and the Challenge of Environmental Justice. New York, NY: New York University Press, 2005. Ageyman, J., Bullard, R., Evans, B. Just Sustainabilities: Development in and Unequal World. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003. Boschmann, Eric. “Metropolitan Area Job Accessibility and the Working Poor: Exploring Local Spatial Variations of Geographic Context.” Urban Geography May 16-June 30 2010. 498-522 Broadway, Michael. “Growing Urban Agriculture in North American Towns: The example of Milwaukee.” Focus on Geography. Winter 2009. 23-30. “Building Your Own Dry Well System.” Onthehouse.com/wp20000508. November, 6, 2010. Web. www.onethhouse.com/wp20000508 Bullard, Robert. Growing Smarter: Achieving Livable Communities, Environmental Justice. And Regional Equity. Cambridge, Ma: MIT Press, 2007. Bullard, Robert. “People-of-Color Environmentalism.” Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality. Boulder, CO: Westview. 1990. Bullard, Robert. The Black Metropolis in the Twenty-first Century: Race, Power and Politics of Place. Lanham, Md: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007. Bullard, R., Johnson, S., Torres, A. Sprawl City: Race, Politics and Planning in Atlanta. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2000. Camacho, David. Environmental Injustices, Political Struggles: Race, Class and the

133

Environment. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993. Curley, Alexander. “Relocating the Poor: Social Capital and Neighborhood Resources.” Journal of Urban Affairs 1/2010. 79-103. Daly, Herman. “The Happy Planet Index 2.0.” The New Economics Foundation. Report. May 2009. Eisenberg, D. and Yost, P. “Sustainability in Building Codes.” Environmental Building News. 10.9.2001, 8-15. Frail, T.A, “Farms Will go to Town.” Smithsonian Magazine, July/August 2010. 56. Fraser, Rebekah. “Composting for Urbanite.” Vegetarian Times July/August 2010, 20-21. “Garden Rainwater Saver.” http://www.gardenwatersaver.com/1.html, November, 2, 2010. Web. Giuliani, F., and Wiesenfeld, E. “Promoting Sustainable Communities: Theory, Research and Action.” Community, Work & Family, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2003. 159-180. Hayden, Dolores. “ Domesticating Urban Space.” Redesigning the America Dream: The Future of Housing. Work and Family Life. New York, NY: Norton, 1984. Hoffman, Melody K. “The Urban Farmer: Revitalizing Lives, Communities.” Jet April 19-26 2010. 34-6. Ilieva, P. and Pao Lian, K. “Learning from Informal Cities, Building for Communities.” The Futurist. September/October 2010. 24-26. “Improvement in Toto: Commemorating Achievement in Community Revitalization.” Journal of Housing and Community Development. July/August 2007. 34-38 Learner, Michael. “A Progressive Politics of Meaning.” The Politics of Meaning: Restoring Hope and Possibility in an Age of Cynicism. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Press, 1993. Maclaren, Virginia. “Urban Sustainability Reporting. “ Journal of the American Planning Association. 1996. McDonald, William. “Design, Ecology, Ethics and the Making of Things.” New York: 1993. “NYC East Side Composting Program.” http://www.lesecologycenter.org/#. October, 28, 2009. Web. Ohmer, M., Meadowcroft, P., Freed, K., and Lewis, E. “Community Gardening and Community Development: Individual, Social and Community Benefits.” Journal of Community Practice Oct-Dec 2009, 377-399. “Pasco County Utilities-Toilet Rebate.” Portal.pascocountyfl.net, November 8, 2010. Web.

134

Perlman, J. and O’meara Sheehan, M. “Fighting Poverty and Environmental Injustice in Cities.” State of the World 2007: Our Urban Future. Worldwatch Institute, 2007. Phillips, I., Opatrny, M,. Bennett, S. and Ordner D. “Homeownership Impact on Habitat for Humanity Partner Families.” Social Development. March 2009, 48-65. Price, Tom. “Corporate Social Responsibility: Is Good Citizenship Good For Bottom Line?” CQ Researcher. August 3, 2007. 649-672. Roseland, M. and Soots, L. “Stregnthening Our Local Economy.” State of the World 2007: Our Urban Future. Worldwatch Institute, 2007. Rypkema, Donovan. “The Rest of the Sustainability Story.” Planning May/June 2010, 56. Sherman-Huntoon. Community Backyard Composting Programs . North Carolina Extension Service. Raleigh: North Carolina. 2005. Small, M., Harding, D., and Lamont, M. “Reconsidering Culture and Poverty.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science May 2010. 6-27 Sullivan, Dan. “Compost-Based Growing System Sprouts Innovation.” BioCycle July 2010. Sullivan, D. and Goldstein, N. “Urban Facility Delivers Food Waste Composting Capacity.” Biocycle. June 2010. 16-20. Vale, B. and R. “Principles of Green Architecture.” Green Architecture. Boston, MA: Little Brown, 1991. Wenz, Philip S. “How Green Is Their Valley?” Planning. February 2009. 32-35

135

Brownfields to Created Wetlands: A Project Initiative for Newtown, Sarasota

Sara Giunta

Introduction

As the world’s population continues to expand, researchers, governmental leaders and

communities are looking for solutions to help sustain growing populations. Within the past few

decades urban sprawl has been directly responsible for the increase in cost-of-living expenses,

traffic congestion, as well as a decrease in quality of life (Fan et al., 2005). Zovanyi (2004)

suggests that controlling urban growth within specified boundaries may lower the cost of

providing public amenities, while at the same time conserving rural lands and protecting

environmentally-fragile areas, such as wetlands, from urban sprawl. More and more greenspace

is being converted to feed and house the growing population. As a result, fragile environments,

including wetlands, are being destroyed in the process. In addition, contaminated areas such as

brownfields are being used to house lower-income families. These residents are being evicted

out of their current communities so that developers may revitalize these areas to be more

appealing to middle-class families. Fan et al. (2005) lists several factors which may be of

concern to communities if urban sprawl continues to increase; these include: environmental

impacts, loss of farmland, loss of open space, traffic problems, urban decline, loss of

communities and loss of historic site.

Recently, researchers have identified a phenomenon called sustainable development,

which can be used to alleviate some of these environmental problems and community concerns.

Dorsey (2003) identifies sustainable development as the symbiotic relationship among people,

the environment and natural resources. As society desperately seeks to find resolutions for a

more sustainable future, such solutions will need to address the demands of the present without

136

compromising the needs of the future (Dorsey, 2003). For example, solutions to the growing

problem of environmental degradation need to be sustainable for all future generations.

Sustainable development provides guidance on how a growing society will be able to efficiently

utilize and manage their natural resources (Dorsey, 2003). In the late 1960s and early 1970s,

when the sustainability movement began to take off, little emphasis was placed on growth

management (Zovanyi, 2004). Scholars of the sustainable development movement hypothesize

that a sustainable community needs to balance social equity, economic prosperity and

environmental integrity (Zovanyi, 2004) so that future generations can be less dependent on the

environment. Finally, Dorsey (2003) suggests that the current interest and investment in

brownfields that have occurred during the past few decades may be strongly correlated to the

idea of sustainable development.

Wetlands

The Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP), one of the leading state

agencies responsible for protecting Florida’s wetlands, defines wetlands as “those areas that are

inundated or saturated by surface water or ground water at a frequency and a duration sufficient

to support, and under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically

adapted for life in saturated soils” (Gilbert et al., 1995, pgs 1-2). The wetland boundary line

often lies within an ecotone, which is an area where two or more communities overlap one

another (Gilbert et al., 1995). Kivaisi et al. (2001) further defines wetlands as transitional areas

between land and water that can be distinguished by wet soils, plants that are adapted to wet soils

and a water table depth that maintains these characteristics. Wetlands support a rich diversity of

wildlife and fisheries by serving as nesting areas for migratory birds and spawning grounds for

fish and shellfish (Kivaisi et al., 2001). Wetland ecosystems make up only 6% of the global land

137

area and are considered the most threatened of all environmental resources (Turner et al, 1991).

According to Mitsch and Gosselink (2000), wetlands are considered the “kidneys of a

landscape”, in that they function as downstream receivers of both water and waste from natural

and anthropogenic sources. Wetlands are beneficial in that they serve as sources, sinks, and

transformers of a great number of chemical, biological and genetic materials (Mitsch and

Gosselink, 2000). Wetlands have been known to provide the following functions: flood

protection, wildlife habitats, nutrient recycling, and storage (Turner et al., 1991), as well as

cleansing polluted waters, protecting shorelines and helping to recharge groundwater aquifers

(Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000).

Wetlands are categorized into three groups: salt/freshwater swamps, marshes and bogs;

each group is based on the dominance of particular vegetative plant species (Kivaisi et al., 2001).

Wetland classification aids environmental scientists in understanding the relationship between

the different types of wetlands, including their soil characteristics, which are dependent on the

accumulation of organic matter (Richardson and Vepraskas, 2001). The dominant plants types

found in wetlands include woody plants and trees found in swamps, soft-stemmed plants found

in marshes and mosses and acid-loving plants found in bogs (Kivaisi, et al., 2001). A fourth type

of wetland class not usually included with the other three groups, are the estuarine wetlands.

Mangroves are the dominant plant species found in these systems, which are located along

tropical and subtropical shorelines and occupy areas dominated by salt, brackish and freshwater

tidal marshes (Richardson and Vepraskas, 2001).

Wetland Regulations

Wetlands began to suffer from degradation and pollution as a result from population expansion

and industry growth. Urban sprawl and development is suspected as one of the leading causes of

138

habitat degradation and species endangerment in the United States (Fan et al., 2005). Turner et

al. (1991) noted that wetlands became exploited due to their open accessibility and lack of

regulatory enforcement. Prior to the mid-1970s, destruction and drainage of wetlands was an

acceptable practice and was often encouraged by governmental policies (Mitsch and Gosselink,

2000). Until the middle of the 20th century, governmental programs enticed landowners to drain

wetlands in order to create more land suitable for farming and agriculture (Mitsch and Gosselink,

2000). As a result certain methodologies such as dredging and filling, used to develop suitable

land, severely degraded many of the fragile ecosystems (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000). The lack

of appreciation and knowledge of the value and sustainability of these ecosystems has

significantly contributed to permanent wetland loss (Turner, 1991).

As communities and neighborhoods began to express interest in the environment around

them, people started to realize the importance that wetlands have on the environment. As a

result, environmental laws were enacted in order to eliminate harmful activities that destroy

natural resources and wetlands (Tiner, 1999). Wetlands are regulated by three levels of

government, including local, state, and federal and various environmental professionals. These

agencies and organizations strive to preserve the production of natural resources and improve the

aesthetics of the fragile ecosystem (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000). The U.S. federal government

protects wetlands under two laws: the Rivers and Harbors Act and the Clean Water Act (Tiner,

1999). The Rivers and Harbor Act focuses on protecting navigable waters and involves the

disposal of dredged material and removal of potential hazards to navigations, while the Clean

Water Act regulates the deposition of fill in waters of the state (Tiner, 1999). Environmental

agencies, including the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP), Southwest

Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD) and the Environmental Protection Commission

139

(EPC), use the Clean Water Act as guidelines to regulate and enforce activities occurring in

wetlands areas.

Created Wetlands

The creation and/or restoration of wetlands are usually part of the mitigation process

required as a result of wetland loss by land development (shopping centers, highways, suburban

development, etc) (Mitsch et al., 1998). Mitigation is the process in which a wetland is created

in order to offset the impacts caused to the original wetland. The success of a created wetland is

often determined when the newly created wetland fully replaces the function of the destroyed

wetland (Mitsch et al., 1996). However, not all wetland creation or restoration projects are

considered successful. Natural environmental impacts, such as fluctuating hydrology, wash-outs,

scouring, planting failure and the infiltration of other animal and plant species, can decrease

biodiversity and exhaust water quality function (Mitsch et al., 1996). Mitsch et al. (1998) offers

several suggestions for the successful creation of a wetland. These include (1) multiple-seeding

to increase the chance of vegetative growth, (2) multiple-transplanting to create an even

distribution of plant germination, (3) establishing open systems to allow the natural environment

to influence wetland design and (4) initiate proper training of wetland restorationists to create

functional wetland systems. In addition, wetland mitigation projects should be given at least 15

years to determine if the new ecosystem is successful (Mitsch et al., 1996). Because these

systems are fragile, a sufficient amount of time is needed to achieve full wetland characteristics

(wetland plant dominance, soil characteristics, etc) in order to classify the project as a success.

Brownfields

Siikamaki et al. (2008) defines brownfields as properties that at one time housed

abandoned or used industrial facilities, where current expansion and redevelopment efforts have

140

been hampered by fear of potential contamination. Furthermore, the Virginia Natural Resource

Institute defines brownfield sites as underused or abandoned industrial/commercial property

where future development is complicated by real or perceived environmental contamination

(Virginia Natural Resource Institute website). Brownfield sites are often situated within urban

residential communities or other areas of high ecological value, such as rivers and streams

(Loures and Panagopoulos, 2007). Some of these abandoned facilities may be over 100 years

old and therefore, years of harmful chemicals, materials, and debris may have penetrated the

brownfield site (Siikamaki et al., 2008). Examples of existing brownfield sites may include old

and/or closed factories, railyards, landfills, dry cleaners and housing projects (Virginia Natural

Resource Institute website).

Strategies to redevelop brownfield sites have been devised in recent years and focuses on

the sustainability, quality and functionality of the site, with respect towards the historic,

socioeconomic and cultural features (Loures and Panagopoulos, 2007). In 1993, the Clinton-

Gore administration established the Brownfield Initiative which strived to clean up abandoned

lightly contaminated sites and restore them to community use standards (Dorsey, 2003). In

2002, the Bush administration passed the Small Business Liability Act, which authorized up to

$250 million per year to support brownfield redevelopment efforts and clarified the process by

which new purchasers and users of brownfield properties can reduce their liability (Siikamaki et

al., 2008). In addition, the law provided liability protection for prospective buyers, neighboring

property owners and innocent landowners (Dorsey, 2003). Brownfield sites are attractive to

people interested in the economic viability of older urban areas. Once brownfields are made

productive again, they can create jobs, create tax revenues and attract economic activity back

into these developed areas (Dorsey, 2003). Appendix B, from the Florida Department of

141

Environmental Protection’s website, illustrates some of the incentives that may be available

when a community cleans up a brownfield site. The Virginia Natural Resource Institute lists a

variety of future uses for redeveloped brownfield sites including public parks, hospitals, new

businesses, and even wetland creation (Virginia Natural Resource Institute website).

Brownfield Redevelopment

Brownfield redevelopment projects can drastically improve urban neighborhoods. In the

1990s, interest in brownfield redevelopment dramatically increased as many older urban areas

continued to deteriorate and suburban sprawl consumed more and more land (O’Reilly and

Brink, 2006). Hopfensperger et al. (2006) suggests that gathering historical and current

information about a brownfield site may be important in determining appropriate restoration

goals and in identifying what information could still be needed. In addition, knowing the hazard

and exposure potential of a brownfield may also be important in planning redevelopment efforts.

The hazard potential indicates the toxicity and the amount of contaminant present, while the

exposure potential calculates the contaminant’s location, physical property and duration of

exposure (O’Reilly and Brink, 2006). This information is especially important if a particular

brownfield site is being developed into new housing projects or other community facilities.

Brownfield redevelopment can have many benefits including, revitalization of

contaminated areas, promotion of “smart growth” development, reduction of development

pressure on greenfields, reduction of risk to public health and economic growth (Wedding and

Crawford-Brown, 2007). However, Siikamaki et al. (2008) identifies four obstacles in

converting brownfields into urban development projects; these include high costs and lack of

funding for conversions, remediation issues, land acquisition problems and redevelopment and

long-term maintenance issues. Overall, brownfield redevelopment projects improve public

142

health and the natural environment. Site cleanups can reduce exposure to hazardous substances

and can heighten economic activity by creating jobs, increasing incomes, and improving sales of

off-site properties (Siikamaki et al., 2008). Brownfield redevelopment involves large-scale

efforts to revitalize new business and continued community development (Dorsey, 2003).

Efforts must be directed at clearly defining the types of redevelopments that can occur at a

particular site, which may include housing, community centers or other facilities (Wedding and

Crawford-Brown, 2007). Choosing an appropriate redevelopment project will vary with each

brownfield site. As opposed to treating brownfield sites as problematic areas, some cities 

and communities have recognized that there are advantages to redeveloping these 

abandoned sites (Loures and Panagopoulos, 2007).

Restoration

The desire for successful habitat restoration is rapidly growing. Environmental scientists and

urban planners need to figure how to successfully restore an ecosystem, rather than rely on maps,

surveys or other computer technology, which predict vegetative growth or other indicators of

ecosystem development (Miller, 2007). Every restoration project will be different and not

necessarily follow the “textbook” criteria of how to restore a wetland ecosystem. Restoration

projects often focus on cleaning up contaminated lands, replanting native vegetation and

restoring streams, wetlands or other surface waters (Riley, 1998). The goal of ecological

restoration, for example, is to model the structure, function and diversity of the original

ecosystem (Riley, 1998). Unfortunately, restoration projects may face many problems. In the

United States, urban development is the leading cause of species endangerment, followed by the

dissemination of invasive species, such as Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius) (Czech,

2005). As a result of urbanization, habitats are often agitated, allowing invasive species to take

143

over and shade out native vegetation (Czech, 2005). Therefore, biodiversity is often at a loss as

focus is usually emphasized on economic growth, resulting in urbanization (Czech, 2005).

In order to address these issues ecologists need to address what is historical and

indigenous to the site being restored (Riley, 1998). In addition developing effective monitoring

tools for evaluating the restoration project is important in achieving success (Hopfensperger,

2006). Hopfensperger et al. (2006) further points out that establishing public support for

restoration projects, as well as building strong relationships between government and non-

government agencies, is important for a successful collaboration effort.

Proposed project solution

As part of Newtown’s revitalization/redevelopment initiative this project proposes to

create a wetland ecosystem from the community’s existing brownfield sites. Newtown has at

least two brownfield sites, one being located in the heart of city called the Marion Anderson

Place brownfield site, consisting of approximately 18 acres. The proposed project foresees an

aesthetic landscape where Newtown can enjoy the sights and sounds of a natural ecosystem

rather than the pollution and hustle of a busy city. If one could draw a comparison that the site

would potentially be similar to Central Park in New York City or Golden Gate Park in San

Francisco.

The Marion Anderson Place Urbaculture site was designated as a brownfield on April 19,

2004. The site is located at 2046 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Way in Sarasota. The Florida

Department of Environmental Protection currently oversees the remediation and cleanup of the

site as a result of Phase I and II Environmental Contamination Testing results. Although

information regarding the contaminants and pollutants located on the site could not be obtained,

additional information regarding current regulations and future rehabilitation of the site can be

144

found in Appendix A.

Understanding the historical and cultural significance of a project site will be important

in successfully restoring the Marion Anderson brownfield site. Loures and Panagopoulos (2007)

point out that appreciating the landscape ecology as well as the relationships between people and

places is important. They also explain that developers and urban planners must realize that such

restoration projects are about landscape creation and not a quick fix to an existing problem.

The wetland creation project should incorporate several factors, which include: Performance: the created ecosystem should function well Adaptability: the ecosystem should be long-lasting and be able to adapt to a new

environment Surrounding: the ecosystem should be able to successfully function with the

surrounding environment Aesthetics: the ecosystem should be a place for communities to enjoy and Sustainability: the ecosystem should have minimal environmental impacts and be

economically efficient (Loures and Panagopoulos, 2007). Mitsch and Gosselink (2000) offer several tips on how to successfully create and restore

wetlands. These include designing the system for minimal maintenance, utilizing natural

energies (e.g. potential energy of streams) to “feed” the system, designing the system with the

ideal hydrologic conditions and ecological landscape needed to support vegetative life, and

designing the system to fulfill multiple goals. These goals do not necessarily have to be

environmental goals, but may also include community redevelopment goals as well. When

designing a wetland creation project, developers need to pay close attention to the hydrology and

elevation of a system (Hopfensperger, 2006). These two factors are important in wetland

creation success as both control surface water flow in a ecosystem. Frequent data collection and

monitoring is important in comparing pre-restoration to post-restoration vegetation growth and

soil characteristics; this information can help environmental scientists access the function of the

newly created ecosystem (Hopfensperger, 2006). Newtown may be able to initiate a middle or

high school program where students can actively monitor the ecosystem. The benefits could be

145

twofold: educating and encouraging students to take care of the environment around them and

ensuring the continued success of the created wetland.

Case Studies

A former gas station in Kansas City was redeveloped into an open space area, which paid tribute

to the history of the neighborhood and a local professional baseball player (Northeast Midwest

Institute website). City, state and federal grants as well as community involvement were able to

transform the brownfield site into an enjoyable area. Discussions began in 1999 to begin the

redevelopment process. Initially, a new gas station was to be built, but the community did not

feel comfortable with this idea and voiced their concerns at a community meeting (Northeast

Midwest Institute website). The City negotiated with the property owner and was able to acquire

the site. The community pleaded with the City to use the site that would greatly reflect the

history of the neighborhood. After obtaining approval, work began to clean up the former

brownfield site. Today, the site has landscaping designed like a baseball diamond to honor their

hometown baseball hero, as well as beautiful planters, murals and a children’s play area

(Northeast Midwest Institute).

Chevy Place, located in downtown Rochester, was a former 2.2 acre Chevrolet

automobile dealership and service garage. The site was one of the largest dealerships in

Rochester from 1930 until 1990 (Northeast Midwest Institute website). The dealership served as

a service and repair garage, as well as a gas station. Approximately $10.6 million was invested

to redevelop the site for residential housing, including 77 townhomes and apartments (Northeast

Midwest Institute website). The redevelopment project took five years to complete, as the

project had to overcome many challenges, including fluctuating development plans, historic

146

preservation restrictions, street reconstruction and funding issues (Northeast Midwest Institute

website). Today, in addition to the housing, Chevy Place features an Art Deco showroom and

24-hr coffee shop. The location of Chevy Place is ideal in that it is located in the city’s theatre

district. Additional private development has been initiated due to the Chevy Place

redevelopment project (Northeast Midwest Research Institute).

In a research study by Siikamaki et al (2008), results showed that even when projected

cleanup costs are accounted for in a prospective conversion project, local officials, particularly

those less familiar with redeveloping contaminated land, appear leery of taking on higher risks

associated with a contaminated property. As a lower-income community, Newtown may be able

to apply for funding or other means of financial assistance to help pay for clean up costs

associated in creating wetlands. Furthermore, the study also showed that greenspace conversion

projects (ex. recreational facilities) are more likely to be developed and gain community support

than nature parks without developed facilities for recreation (Siikamaki et al., 2008). In the

future, Newtown may be able to construct a visitor center that will be able to educate people

about the importance of wetlands and how they can help protect them. O’Reilly et al. (2006)

points out that the redevelopment of brownfields decreases further environmental degradation

since contamination already exists. It is also derived that ignoring these sites ensures the

contaminants will exist for decades to come and cause more problems down the road.

Westphal et al (2005) illustrates a brownfield redevelopment project plan in the Calumet

region located between Northwest Indiana and Northeast Illinois. The plan highlights the

importance of ecological and economic growth by redeveloping abandoned brownfield sites

(Westphal et al., 2005). This particular brownfield site in the Calumet region was redesigned

using input from over 160 organizations and individuals with experience in plant vegetation,

147

sediment testing, toxin exposure and community development (Westphal et al., 2005).

Developers and planners outlined what was known about the site as well as what was not known

and tried to fill the gap in between (Westphal et al., 2005). In redeveloping a brownfield site, it

is important to include people with specialties in wetland hydrology, ornithology, planning and

recreation (Westphal et al., 2005) as all of these specialty areas are important in designing a

wetland.

Community Involvement

The citizens of Newtown can be very active in creating their wetland ecosystem. With

educational assistance from environmental scientists and arborists, Newtown can help prepare

the land, plant wetland vegetation and maintain and monitor the system to ensure its

successfulness. Once the wetland develops into a fully functional ecosystem, Newtown may be

able to provide recreational and educational activities within the wetland. For example, a

walking tour through parts of the wetland which features wetland plants would be interesting and

educational for people of all ages. Furthermore, conducting eco-tours through the use of kayaks,

canoes, etc would also be fun as well as educational. The following case studies are examples of

community involvement and can show the people of Newtown the importance of being involved

in their neighborhood.

Research studies in Atlanta and Philadelphia by Elmendorf et al. (2005) explored the

inter-ethnic differences in the use of, preference for, and attitudes about metropolitan parks. The

study used several factors such as differences between whites and blacks in their frequency of

park visitation, the extent to which they viewed parks as beneficial to their communities, the

types of activities (solitary or group), their preference in park landscapes and facilities and their

expressed willingness to participate in park maintenance (Elmendorf et al., 2005). Research

148

showed that the black population in both Atlanta and Philadelphia were more likely to plant

trees, clean up trash, help prevent crime and work with others to improve the quality of their

parks than their white counterparts (Elmendorf, 2005). Volunteerism is a critical element in

community development and stability in many black neighborhoods (Elmendorf, 2005).

Furthermore, results of study by Sugiyama et al. (2008) indicate the quality of and access to,

open, green spaces in a neighborhood promoted outdoor activities, such as walking, hiking,

biking, etc. Findings suggest that improvements in the quality of and access to neighborhood

natural spaces could contribute to the increase in the amount of outdoor activity for all people in

a given population, regardless of race, age or gender (Sugiyama, 2008). This may suggest that

the citizens of Newtown may greatly benefit from wetland creation as it could encourage

community social interaction.

Conclusion

Newtown holds great promise in developing a wetland from a brownfield site to

increase community development. Collaboration with local, state and federal agencies will

enable Newtown to utilize existing brownfield sites and create a sustainable and productive

wetland. One can envision that this restoration project will open the doors for many future

community projects to help revitalize the neighborhood. Brownfield redevelopment can help

revitalize communities such as Newtown by preserving greenspace (or in this case, creating it)

and preventing urban sprawl. In addition, the potential for job growth and better housing

conditions can be enormous. Success starts first with gaining the interest of neighborhoods to

welcome a restoration project and be involved in implementing it. The citizens of Newtown will

also need to be active in helping to participate in the creation project(s). Although one realizes

that not every person living in Newtown may be a wetland ecologist, citizens may be able to

149

assist in designing, planting, monitoring, and maintenance of the wetland ecosystem. Involving

the residents of Newtown in cleaning up brownfields can inform them about the hazardous

chemicals that may be in their community and can provide them with the opportunity of being

actively involved in making important decisions in their own community.

References

Czech, B. (2005). Urbanization as a Threat to Biodiversity: Trophic Theory, Economic Geography and implications for conservation land acquisition. In: Bengston, David N., tech. ed. Policies for managing urban growth and landscape change: a key to conservation in the 21st century. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-265. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 8-13

Dorsey, J. W. (2003). Brownfields and Greenfields: The Intersection of Sustainable Development and Environmental Stewardship. Environmental Practice, 5(1), 69- 76. Elmendorf, W. F., Willits, F. K., Sasidharan, V., and Godbey, G. (2005). Urban Park and Forest

Participation and Landscape Preference: A Comparison Between Blacks and Whites in Philadelphia and Atlanta, U.S. Journal of Arboriculture, 31(6), 318-326.

Fan, D. P.; Bengston, D. N.; Potts, R. S.; Goetz, E. G. 2005. The rise and fall of concern about

urban sprawl in the United States: an updated analysis. In: Bengston, David N., tech. ed. Policies for managing urban growth and landscape change: a key to conservation in the 21st century. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-265. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 1-7.

Florida Department of Environmental Protection. (2004). Brownfield Designation for Marion

Anderson Place Urbaculture Site-2046 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Way. Tampa, FL. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. (2008). Florida Brownfields Redevelopment

Program-Transferring Communities. Accessed on November 10, 2010 from http://www.dep.state.fl.us/waste/quick_topics/publications/wc/brownfields/bp/one_page_handout2008.pdf

Gibert, K. M., Tobe, J. D., Cantrell, R. W., Sweeley, M. E., Cooper, J. R. (1995). The Florida

Wetlands Delineation Manual: Tallahassee: Florida Department of Environmental Protection.

Hopfensperger, K. N., Engelhardt, K. A. and Seagle, S. W. (2006). The Use of Case Studies in

Establishing Feasibility for Wetland Restoration. Restoration Ecology, 14(4), 578-586. Loures L., Panagopoulos T. Sustainable reclamation of industrial areas in urban landscapes. In:

150

Kungolas, A, Brebbia, C.A. and Beriatos, E. (eds) Sustainable Development and Planning III, WIT Press, 2007, pp. 791-800.

Kivalsi, A. K. (2001). The Potential for Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment and

Reuse in Developing Countries: A Review. Ecological Engineering, 16(4), 545-560. Miller, J. R. and Hobbs, R. J. (2007). Habitat Restoration—Do We Know What We’re Doing?

Restoration Ecology, 15(3), 382-390. Mitsch, W. J. and Gosselink, J. G. (2000). Wetlands, 3rd edition: New York: John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. Mitsch, W. J. and Wilson, R. F. (1996). Improving the Success of Wetland Creation and

Restoration with Know-how, Time and Self Design. Ecological Applications, 6(1), 77-83.

Mitsch, W. J., Wu, X., Nairn, R. W., Weihe, P. E., Wang, N., Deal, R. and Boucher, C. E.

(1998). Creating and Restoring Wetlands. Bioscience, 48(12), 1019-1027; 1029-1030. Northeast Midwest Institute. From Rags to Riches: Innovations in Petroleum Brownfields.

Accessed on November 28, 2010 from http://www.occ.state.ok.us/divisions/og/newweb/brownfields/rags%20to%20riches%20petroleum%20brownfields.pdf

O’ Reilly, M. and Brink, R. (2006). Initial Risk-Based Screening of Potential Brownfield

Development Sites. Soil and Sediment Contamination : An International Journal, 15(5), 463-470.

Richardson, J.L. and Vepraskas, M. J. (2001). Wetlands Soils: Genesis, Hydrology, Landscapes and Classification. London: Lewis Publishers. Riley, Ann L. (1998). What is Restoration from Restoring Streams in Cities, Wheeler, S. M. and

Beatley, T (ed.). New York: Routledge. Siikamäki, J. and Wernstedt, K. (2008). Turning Brownfields into Greenspaces: Examining Incentives and Barriers to Revitalization. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, 33(3), 559-593. Sugiyama, T. and Thompson, C.W. (2008). Associations Between Characteristics of

Neighborhood Open Space and Older People's Walking. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 7(1), 41-51.

Virginia Natural Resources Institute. Superfund and Brownfield Reclaimation: Revitalizing and

Reusing Contaminated Lands. Accessed on November 10, 2010 from http://www.virginia.edu/ien/new/vnrli/docs/superfund%202006.pdf

151

Turner, K. (1991). Economics and Wetland Management. Environmental Economics, 20(2), 59-63.

Tiner, R.W. (1999). Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Deliniation, Classification and Mapping: London: Lewis Publishers. Wedding, G. C. and Crawford-Brown, D. (2007). Measuring Site- level Success in Brownfield

Redevelopments: A Focus on Sustainability and Green Building. Journal of Environmental Management, 85(2), 483-495.

Westphal, L. M.; Levengood, J. M.; Wali, A.; Soucek, D.; Stotz, D. F. 2005. Brownfield

redevelopment: a hidden opportunity for conservation biology. In: Bengston, David N., tech. ed. Policies for managing urban growth and landscape change: a key to conservation in the 21st century. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-265. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 21-26

Zovanyi, G (2005). Urban Growth in Management and Ecological Sustainability: Confronting

the “Smart Growth” Fallacy. In: Bengston, David N., tech. ed. Policies for managing urban growth and landscape change: a key to conservation in the 21st century. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-265. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 35-44.

152

Benefits of Improved Street Lighting Using Energy Efficient LED Technology

By Justin Heller

Introduction

Worldwide energy consumption is growing exponentially and depleting our natural

resources at an alarming rate. Currently, the majority of our energy needs comes from the

consumption of non-renewable fossil fuels. These are limited resources which have the potential

to run out in the near future. The combination of population growth and increased economic

development will further speed up this process (Dincer and Rosen, 1999).

Environmental impacts are often associated with the utilization of energy resources. The

use of fossil fuels for energy creates air pollution, including the release of greenhouse gases.

Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, released from the burning of fossil fuels for energy,

are the leading cause of global warming (Houghton, 2005). These gases trap infrared radiation

in the earth’s atmosphere, resulting in an increase in global temperatures. This process is known

as the greenhouse effect. Impacts resulting from global warming may include sea level rise from

melting glaciers and climate change. Flooding from sea level rise could have severe impacts on

human populations along coastal areas. Climate change can disrupt ecosystems and negatively

impact those people and animals that rely on them for survival (Houghton, 2005). In order to

mitigate global warming, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) must be

reduced. A push towards cleaner, more sustainable energies is needed (Omer, 2008).

The concept of sustainable energy development means that energy resources can be

maintained long into the future while simultaneously minimizing impacts to the environment.

Sustainable development also requires that energy resources be used as efficiently as possible

(Afgan et al. 1998; Dincer and Rosen, 1999; Dincer, 2000). One way of reducing GHGE is to

switch to clean, renewable and sustainable energy resources. Examples of these include wind,

153

hydroelectric, geothermal, and solar energy. These energy sources contribute little to no GHGE

and can be sustained well into the future (Rubin et al 1992; Lior, 2010). Renewable energies

alone however, are not enough to bring about changes in energy consumption. The higher cost

of renewable energies as compared to fossil fuel resources, make most societies reluctant to

implement them. Renewable energy sources can be restricted to certain geographic locations

where they are abundant, and the construction of new infrastructure may be required to move

that energy to other areas. A more effective way to reduce global energy use and ultimately

reduce GHGE is to increase energy efficiency in current and future technologies (Rubin et al.

1992; Dincer and Rosen, 1999; Lior, 2010). One important area for increased energy efficiency

is in new lighting technologies.

Lighting accounts for a significant portion of energy consumption throughout the world.

Much of the world’s population, particularly in developing nations, is still reliant on fuel based

lighting such as kerosene lamps. Fuel based lighting consumes large amounts of energy and

produces equal amounts of pollution and GHGE. A switch to more energy efficient forms of

lighting in these areas is needed. (Mills, 2002; Adkins et al. 2010).

In the United States, Lighting accounts for approximately 25% of all electricity

consumed. The economic cost associated with this adds up to over 37 billion dollars annually

(DOE, 1995). With new, more efficient lighting technologies entering the market, there is great

potential for significant energy savings. New technologies may also improve lighting quality and

reduce associated environmental impacts (DOE, 1995).

There are many forms of electric lighting systems available in today’s market including

incandescent, fluorescent or high-intensity discharge lamps. A new lighting technology being

considered for many lighting applications is the light-emitting diode or LED. With new

154

improvements in energy efficiency, LEDs have the potential to revolutionize the lighting market.

Though still moderately expensive compared to other lighting technologies, they offer significant

savings in the form of very low energy consumption and little to no maintenance costs. Other

benefits include long operating life, reduced light pollution, adjustable color, optical

controllability, and many others (Shur & Zukauskas, 2005; DOE, 2008; Khan and Abas, 2010).

Street lighting accounts for a significant portion of total energy demand from lighting

(Mills, 2002). Conventional roadway lighting using traditional lamps consumes an average of

200 watts per lamp in order to meet current roadway lighting standards (Wu et al, 2009). The

LED could be an effective way of lowering energy consumption and reducing energy and

maintenance costs of street lighting. Many studies have shown significant energy and cost

savings over the lifetime of the lights (Tetra Tech, 2003; DOE, 2006, 2008; Colon, 2010).

Importance of Street Lighting

The main goal of street lights is to illuminate roadways in order to enhance visibility at

night time for drivers and pedestrians. Improved visibility helps people to navigate safely and

ultimately avoid collisions. Another key benefit of street lighting is a safer nighttime

environment. In many neighborhoods, crime can be a big problem, especially in the cover of

night. Many studies have examined the effects of street lighting on crime (Painter, 1996; Painter

and Farrington, 1999, 2001; Farrington and Welsh, 2007). The majority of these studies showed

a significant decrease in the amount of crime with improved street lighting. Not only did the

number of crimes decrease, but fear of crime was also lowered, resulting in a greater number of

people using lighted streets at night (Painter, 1996). A Study by Painter and Farrington (2001)

examined the effects of improved street lighting on crime and found that crimes decreased by

41% and 43% in the two experimental research areas. A cost-benefit analysis found that

155

financial savings from reduced crimes exceeded the financial costs of street light improvements

by between 2.4 and 10 times after just the first year. The financial savings from prevented

crimes more than paid for the cost of the improved street lighting within one year. They

concluded that improved street lighting can be extremely cost effective (Painter and Farrington,

2001).

Current Street Lighting Technologies

The lighting industry produces about 14,000 different types of lamps, which are classified

into three basic categories: incandescent, florescent and high density discharge. Each distinct

category holds characteristics that make them suited for different types of lighting applications.

High density discharge (HID) lamps are predominantly used in street lighting applications. HID

lamps produce light by discharging an electric arc through a gas filled arc tube thereby exciting

atoms and ions of different gases sealed within the tube. All HID lamps require the use of a

lighting ballast which is a piece of equipment needed to supply sufficient starting voltage to

ionize the gas in the arc tube and to regulate current during operation (DOE, 1995; DPPEA,

2010). Metal Halide (MH) and High Pressure Sodium (HPS) are the two most common HID

lamps currently being used in street lighting applications. Background information on these two

types of HID lighting is provided below followed by a brief summary on some of the

disadvantages of HID lighting.

Metal Halide

Metal halide lamps were created in the 1960s to improve the color rendering capability of

mercury vapor lamps. Different metals were added to improve color and increase efficiency.

They produce a blue-white light by passing an electric current through a mixture of gases that

include halide metals and mercury (DOE, 1995). Because they produce a whiter light they are

156

useful where a more natural color representation is needed. Metal halide street lights have a life

span ranging between 6,000 and 20,000 hours depending on the lamp and use between 32-1500

watts with an efficacy of approximately 80-100 lumens per watt (DPPEA, 2010). Efficacy,

which is measured in lumens per watt, refers to the amount of light produced by a lamp as a ratio

to the power needed to produce that light (Colon, 2010). The lamps provide a non-temperature

sensitive, concentrated, controllable source of light with good color uniformity. There can be

significant lamp to lamp wattage variation of approximately twenty percent in Metal Halide

lamps, and they take up to five minutes to reach full luminosity (DPPEA, 2010).

High Pressure Sodium

High Pressure Sodium (HPS) is the most common street lighting lamp type in current use

and has been around since the 1970’s. They have poor color rendering and produce the

yellowish-orange light that many of us have become familiar with. They are more energy

efficient than metal halide and are preferred when true color rendering is not critical such as in

street or parking lot lighting applications (DPPEA, 2010). The HPS lamps produce light by

passing an electrical current through an arc tube filled with vaporized sodium under pressure at

high temperature. The physical shape, electrical, and photometric characteristics are different

from metal halide lamps to maximize efficiency (DPPEA, 2010). HPS lamps are readily

available and come in a variety of sizes from 35 to 1,000 watts. They have a life span of

approximately 12,000 to 24,000 hours and have an efficacy of 45 to 150 lumens per watt

(DPPEA, 2010; Colon, 2010).

Disadvantages of HID Lights

There are several drawbacks associated with HID lighting including light pollution, high

energy inputs, slow start up times and mercury pollution. One common problem associated with

157

HID lamps is their considerable light pollution. This can come in the form of sky glow or light

trespass. Sky glow is when light is projected upwards into the sky causing the glow of cities that

can be seen at night from afar. Light trespass is when the light is projected into unwelcomed

areas such as someone’s home (NYSERDA, 2002; Colon, 2010). The light coming from HID

lamps is projected 360 degrees out from the lamp and the use of reflectors is required to direct

the light towards the street. The light however, is often scattered in many directions due to their

use of a drop lens. This scattered light is also what produces glare which can be a distraction to

many drivers (Colon, 2010). Most HID lamps have a light efficiency of 40-60% meaning that

only about half of the light produced reaches the street below (Tetra Tech, 2003). Furthermore,

they require the use of a ballast which is required to supply the large amount of energy needed to

start. They can take up to several minutes to warm up to full luminosity and if there is an

interruption in the power supply they must first cool down before they can restart (DOE, 1995;

DPPEA, 2010). All HID lamps also contain some amount of mercury which classifies them as

hazardous waste. This can creates disposal problems and leads to environmental pollution

(Colon, 2010).

Light-Emitting Diodes

The light-emitting diode (LED) was first created back in the 1950’s. LEDs emit light

from a small semiconducting chip when a current is applied to it, whereas traditional light

sources produce light by heating a filament or creating an electrical arc through a gas mixture

(Colon, 2010). They are powered by a low direct-current voltage which is converted from

alternating-current in the power lines. They also do not require the use of a ballast like HID

lamps (Tetra Tech, 2003). The most recent LED lamps can produce over 100 lumens per watt,

and have a life span of 50,000 to 100,000 hours (DOE, 2008). A brief summary on some of the

158

advantages and disadvantages of LED lighting is provided in the sections below.

Advantages of LED Lighting

There are many advantages of LEDs over traditional electric lighting. These include long

lamp lifetimes, low power requirements, good color rendering, optical controllability high

efficiency, durability, and other improved features (Tetra Tech, 2003; DOE, 2008).

LED lamps have a very long operating life and can last up to 5 times longer than HID

lamps and up to 25 times longer than incandescent. Substantial savings can come from reduced

maintenance cost and fewer lamp replacements over time. The lower power requirements of

LEDs allow them to operate on low direct current voltage. They also do not need a ballast in

order to operate. This makes them compatible with solar power and battery backups for off grid

lighting applications (DOE, 2008; Pode, 2009; Wu et al, 2009).

The color rendering ability of LEDs is very accurate. The color rendering index (CRI) is

a measure of a lights ability to depict the natural color of an illuminated object. White LEDs

have a CRI score of around 80-90 out of 100 which is very good compared to most HID lamps.

The yellow-orange light of most HPS lamps have poor color rendering and score on the low end

with a CRI around 20-30 (Tetra Tech, 2003).

The optical controllability of LED lamps allows a more directed light with an 80-90%

efficiency compared to 40-60% for HID lamps. This higher efficiency means that more light

reaches the road surface below thereby allowing a lower output LED lamp to achieve the same

effect as a higher output HID lamp while also minimizing light pollution and glare (Tetra Tech,

2003).

The LED lights are very durable as a result of their solid-state construction, making them

much more resistant to damage. An LED lamp is comprised of many individual LEDs meaning

159

that several LEDs could be damaged without complete failure of the lamp. LED lights do not fail

or cycle on and off like HID lamps at the end of their life, but rather dim and do not cause any

disruption in service (Tetra Tech, 2003).

There are several other characteristics that favor LEDs over HID lamps. LED lights are

mercury free, making them much more environmentally friendly than HID lights. They do not

require a warm-up time and they can instantly turn on or off unlike HID lights. They are also

dimmable which means lighting brightness can be decreased during off peak times for further

energy savings (Tetra Tech, 2003; DOE, 2008).

Disadvantages of LED Lighting

Two main disadvantages of LED lighting are the high initial investment cost and lower

efficacy. The high initial cost of LEDs can be several times greater than traditional HID lamps.

This high initial cost may deter people from switching over to the new technology. The true cost

savings of LED lamps comes from reductions in energy and maintenance cost over the lifetime

of the product (DOE, 2008).

The efficacy of LED lamps is currently lower than some HPS lamps. The best LED

lamps can produce around 100 lumens per watt whereas the best HPS lamps produce around 150

lumens per watt. Fortunately both of these factors are predicted to decrease in upcoming years as

the technology continues to advance and LEDs make up more of the lighting market (Tetra Tech,

2003).

160

Table 1 LED Metal Halide High Pressure

Sodium

Advantages

Good color rendering

Long lamp life

Controllable/Dimmable

No ballast needed

Instant on/off

Mercury free

Low light pollution

High durability

Good color rendering

Lower cost

Readily available

Lowest cost

Readily available

Highest Efficacy

Disadvantages

High initial cost

Lower efficacy

Less available

Contain Mercury

Require a ballast

Shorter lamp life

Slow start-up time

High light pollution

Low durability

Poor color rendering

Contain Mercury

Require a ballast

Shorter lamp life

Slow start-up time

High light pollution

Low durability

Pilot Study Examples

Since LEDs are new to the street lighting market, there have been many pilot studies to

test LED lighting in real world applications. The majority of these have found significant energy

savings with the use of new LED technologies. Below are summaries from three of these pilot

studies and their results.

A study done by Colon (2010) compared LED and induction lighting technologies with

high pressure sodium (HPS) lighting at 56 Air Force installations. He found that LED lighting

showed moderate economic savings and less environmental impact when compared to HPS

lights. An overall economic life-cycle analysis found LED costs were 21% less than HPS

lighting, while an environmental life-cycle assessment showed a 45% reduction for LED

lighting. HPS lights were found to be more costly on average to operate than LED lights. The

161

LED lights consumed 48% less energy and had an estimated payback of seven years (Colon,

2010).

Ann Arbor, Michigan conducted a pilot LED study by replacing 25 of its downtown

pedestrian globe lights. The LED lights used were 48 watts and lasted up to 10 years. These

replaced HPS lamps that used greater than 100 watts and lasted only 2 years. Each LED

replacement lamp was estimated to pay for itself in only 3.3 years and have a savings of $1,111

in energy and maintenance costs over its 10 year lifespan (Relume Tech., 2009). The planned

second phase of the project will use cobra head street light fixtures in a residential neighborhood.

The fixtures have wattages varying from 50 to 80 watts and will be used to replace 250 watt

fixtures. These fixtures have a higher initial cost but based on preliminary testing, should

provide greater savings than the replacement globe lights (Relume Tech., 2009).

Palo Alto California conducted a pilot LED roadway lighting project in which they

replaced 14 HPS fixtures with 9 LED and 5 induction street light fixtures. The LED lighting

systems used the least amount of energy of the three, with a 44% reduction compared to HPS.

Estimated payback was 12 years for a LED luminaire retrofit and 10 years for new installations

(DOE, 2010).

LED Street Lighting in Sarasota, FL

Sarasota is doing their part to help conserve energy. In November 2009, Sarasota County

decided to install LED street lighting along one of its main roadways. A company named

Sunovia Energy Technologies, Inc., a locally based company in Sarasota, won the bid for a

contract with Sarasota County to provide 148 LED street light fixtures which will be placed

along Fruitville Road in Sarasota. The company markets its products under the brand name

EvoLucia. They are providing 120 watt EvoLucia brand LED cobra head-style street lights

162

which are suitable for direct replacement of the current HPS cobra head street lights. This means

that Sarasota can install them on existing poles with no needed adjustments in pole spacing. The

energy efficient lights produce more than 50 lumens per watt and are expected to last more than

10 years without maintenance. The LED lights are expected to save Sarasota County

approximately $14,000 each year in energy and maintenance costs, and will reduce carbon

emissions by approximately 355 tons over the next 10 years. If Sarasota were to complete a city

wide LED street light replacement of 62,000 fixtures, it could save the county over $5.28 million

yearly in energy and maintenance costs and would reduce carbon emissions by 111,500 tons over

10 years (Sunovia Energy Technologies, 2009).

Newtown Assessment

An assessment of current street lighting conditions was conducted for major, secondary,

and local roadways in the Newtown Community Redevelopment Area in order to determine if

sufficient lighting conditions were being met based on recommended street light spacing. Major

roads were defined as primary thoroughfares for traffic flow. Collector roads served traffic

between major and local roadways, and local roadways gave direct access to residential or

commercial properties but did not serve through traffic (City of San Diego, 2002).

The recommended street light spacing is approximately 75 meters, however in high crime

areas 50 meter spacing is preferred (FDOT, 1999; City of San Diego, 2002). Based on these

criteria, a street should have about 21 lights per mile on average, or 32 lights per mile in high

crime areas. For each road type, four miles of randomly selected roadway were surveyed, and all

street lights were counted for each stretch of road. The average number of street lights per mile

was then calculated for each road type. These were then compared to the recommended lighting

conditions.

163

Results

Table 2 Recommended Newtown

Major Roads Newtown

Collector roads Newtown

Local roads Average #

street lights per mile

21 Standard 32 High Crime

Areas 51 18 12

The results of the assessment on Newtown street lighting found that recommended

lighting conditions were only met on major roadways. Major roadways on average exceeded

both standard and high crime area recommendations. Surveyed roads included parts of Martin

Luther King Way, 41 and 301. Collector roadways had acceptable lighting conditions on some of

the roads surveyed but were on average below both standard and high crime area

recommendations. Roads surveyed included parts of Cocoanut Ave, Central Ave, N. Orange

Ave, and Old Bradenton Rd. Local roadways had poor lighting conditions and had well below

the recommended number of street lights for standard and high crime areas. Many sections of

different local roads were examined. Examples of some of the roads surveyed included Winton

Ave, Maple Ave, Church Ave, and 29th - 32nd Street.

Recommendations for Newtown

Improving street lighting conditions in Newtown will help meet several of the goals and

objectives set forth in the Newtown Community Redevelopment Plan (City of Sarasota. 2002).

Improvements in street lighting using LED technology can have many benefits to the

community. These include improved nighttime visibility and safety, reductions in crime,

enhanced aesthetics, and significant energy and costs savings.

One of the criteria that qualified Newtown as a Community Redevelopment Area was its

high incidence of crime compared to other parts of Sarasota. Based on the survey of Newtown

streets, sufficient lighting was lacking on most collector and local roadways. Studies have shown

that improved street lighting can make for safer nighttime conditions and significant reductions

164

in crime (Painter, 1996; Painter and Farrington, 1999, 2001; Farrington and Welsh, 2007).

Adding additional street lighting to these areas is recommended. The cost of these lights could

potentially pay for themselves in only a few years based on reductions in crime alone (Painter

and Farrington, 2001) and further savings could come from lower energy usage and reduced

maintenance if the new fixtures use LED lighting (Tetra Tech, 2003; DOE, 2008). The addition

of new street lights could first focus on areas where crime rates are the highest and at all street

intersections. Using already existing electrical poles will help reduce instillation costs. Current

HID fixtures could be replaced systematically or one at a time as they fail.

LED lights have a whiter more efficient light that directs more light towards the street

below thereby minimizing light trespass into unwanted areas. White LED’s render colors closer

to their natural color and are aesthetically more pleasing than the yellowish glow of an HPS light

and are ideal for lighting historic buildings and storefronts. Smaller LED lamps can be placed in

decorative globe light fixtures such as those recently installed on Martin Luther King Way. The

addition of high quality lighting may increase nighttime use of streets by pedestrians in

Newtown. Providing high levels of lighting is critical for revitalizing downtown urban areas and

is needed to encourage pedestrian shopping and other activities at night (FDOT, 1999).

Led lighting fixtures can be purchased through previously contracted Sunovia Lighting

Technologies Inc. or products from additional companies could be explored. Newtown could

also work with the city of Sarasota to become a pilot study for LED lighting. If street lighting

applications are successful, additional LED lighting in parks, parking lots, and around public

buildings could be considered. The addition of LED street lighting will ultimately have a number

of benefits and a positive impact on the Newtown Community.

165

References Adkins, Edwin, Sandy Eapen, Flora Kaluwile, Gautam Nair, and Vijay Modi. 2010. Off-grid energy services for the poor: Introducing LED lighting in the Millennium Villages Project in Malawi. Energy Policy 38, no. 2: 1087-1097. Afgan, Naim H., Darwish Al Gobaisib, Maurizio Cumo, and Maria G. Carvalho. 1998. Sustainable energy development. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2, no. 3: 235-286. Carlos J. Colon Jr. 2010. Assessing the Economic and Environmental Impacts Associated with Currently Available Street Lighting Technologies. Master’s Thesis, Air Force Institute of Technology. City of San Diego. 2002. The City of San Diego Street Design Manual. Prepared by: City of San Diego Street Design Manual Advisory Committee and the City of San Diego Planning Department. City of Sarasota. 2002. Newtown Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan Through 2020, Volume III Background Data. Prepared by: A. A. Baker and Associates. Dincer, Ibrahim., Marc A. Rosen. 1999. Energy, environment and sustainable development. Applied Energy 64, no. 1-4: 427-440. Dincer, Ibrahim. 2000. Renewable energy and sustainable development: a crucial review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 4, no. 2: 157-175. DOE, 1995. Energy-Efficient Lighting. Prepared by The National Renewable Energy Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy. DOE, 2006. Energy Savings Potential of Solid State Lighting in General Lighting Applications. Final Report, prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., Inc. for U.S. Department of Energy, Washington D.C. DOE, 2008. Energy Savings Potential of Solid State Lighting in Niche Lighting Applications. Final Report, prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., Inc. for U.S. Department of Energy, Washington D.C. DOE, 2010. Demonstration Assessment of Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Roadway Lighting on Residential and Commercial Streets in Palo Alto, California. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. DPPEA, Division of Pollution Prevention and Environmental Assistance. 2010. Fundementals of Energy Efficient Lighting. Accessed Nov. 2010 from: www.p2pays.org/ref/32/31148.pdf Farrington, David P., and Brandon C Welsh. 2007. Improved Street Lighting. In Preventing Crime: What Works for Children, Offenders, Victims, and Places, 209-224.

166

FDOT, Florida Department of Transportation. 1999. Florida Pedestrian Planning and Design Handbook. Prepared by: The University of North Carolina Highway Safety Research Center www.dot.state.fl.us/safety/ped_bike/handbooks_and_research/ped16_e.pdf Houghton, John. 2005. Global warming. Reports on Progress in Physics 68, no. 6: 1343-1403. Khan, N., and N. Abas. 2010. Comparative study of energy saving light sources. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Lior, Noam. 2010. Sustainable energy development: The present (2009) situation and possible paths to the future. Energy 35, no. 10: 3976-3994. Mills, Evan. 2002. The $ 230-billion Global Lighting Energy Bill. In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Energy-Efficient Lighting. NYSERDA. 2002. How-to Guide to Effective Energy-Efficient Street Lighting for Municipal Planners and Engineers. Albany, New York: New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. Omer, Abdeen M. 2008. Green energies and the environment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 12, no. 7: 1789-1821. Painter, K. 1996. The influence of street lighting improvements on crime, fear and pedestrian street use, after dark. Landscape and Urban Planning 35, no. 2-3: 193-201. Painter, K. A. and Farrington, D. P. 1999. Improved street lighting: crime reducing effects and cost-benefit analyses. Security Journal 12: 17-32. Painter, K., and D. P Farrington. 2001. The financial benefits of improved street lighting, based on crime reduction. Lighting Research and Technology 33, no. 1: 3-12. Pode, Ramchandra. 2010. Solution to enhance the acceptability of solar-powered LED lighting technology. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14, no. 3: 1096-1103. Relume Technologies Inc. 2009. Case Study: Ann Arbor, Michigan. Accessed Nov. 1st from: http://www.relume.com/docs/pdf/rt_cs_aa_20090506.pdf Rubin, E. S., R. N. Cooper, R. A. Frosch, T. H. Lee, G. Marland, A. H. Rosenfeld, and D. D. Stine. 1992. Realistic mitigation options for global warming. Science 257: 148-149, 261-266. Shur, M.S., and R. Zukauskas. 2005. Solid-State Lighting: Toward Superior Illumination. Proceedings of the IEEE 93, no. 10: 1691-1703. Sunovia Energy Technologies. 2009. Sunovia Energy Wins LED Street Lighting Contract From Sarasota County. Press Release. Retrieved Oct. 29th 2010 from:

167

http://sunoviaenergy.com/archives/2009/11/18/sunovia-energy-wins-led-street-lighting-contract-from-sarasota-county/ Tetra Tech EM Inc. 2003. Technology Assessment of Light Emitting Diodes (LED) for Street and Parking Lot Lighting Applications. Report for San Diego Regional Energy Office, San Diego, CA. Wu, M.S., H.H. Huang, B.J. Huang, C.W. Tang, and C.W. Cheng. 2009. Economic feasibility of solar-powered led roadway lighting. Renewable Energy 34, no. 8: 1934-1938.

168

Sarasota’s Food Desert:

A Case for Providing Newtown’s Residents Access to Healthy Foods

Garrett Hyzer

Introduction

Obesity and diabetes are two of the most serious epidemics endangering the health of

Americans today. The prevalence of both has been on the rise for the past two decades (Mokdad

et al., 2001). Since 1994, the prevalence of obesity in the U.S. has increased 7% (Flegal et al.,

2002). Diet is one of the most important factors in controlling one’s weight or preventing the

onset of Type II Diabetes and also plays an enormous role in managing Type II Diabetes after it

is onset (Horowitz et al., 2004). Recent research has begun to suggest that in addition to

individual choices, environmental variables can greatly influence the type of diet one practices

(Eisenhauer, 2001).

Studies have been conducted that show that people with low socioeconomic status

typically practice poorer, unhealthier eating habits (Turrell et al., 2002), but some of these

studies have failed to consider environmental factors---those factors outside of an individual’s

control---that contribute to these poor diets. Urban areas with poor, ethnic communities have

faced diminishing food shopping options over the past two decades (Eisenhauer, 2001). Many of

these urban areas face a dearth of larger supermarkets (Morland & Filomena, 2007) and have to

rely on smaller, independent grocers for their shopping needs.

While large supermarkets are lacking in these communities, studies have shown that fast

food restaurant density is higher in poorer, urban areas than it is in wealthier suburban areas

169

(Block et al., 2004). Considering the lack of larger supermarkets and the abundance of fast food

restaurants, it is not surprising that studies suggest that poor, urban communities do not have

many food options that pass USDA recommendations for a healthy diet in the small food

establishments that are common in their communities(Baker et al., 2006). It seems that of all

communities, African American communities have the least access to supermarkets. In one

study, among the most impoverished communities studied, those that had the greatest number of

African Americans were, on average, further from the nearest supermarket than those with a

greater number of White residents (Zenk, Schulz, Israel et al., 2005). A significant number of

African Americans in poorer communities travel less than a mile to their primary grocery store

(Powell et al., 2007), so the absence of large supermarkets in urban environments places a larger

importance on the inventory of smaller food stores especially when it comes to healthy eating

options.

Children’s diets can be especially susceptible to these factors as described by Timperio et

al. and Edmonds et al(2008 & 2001). Timperio et al. shows that there is an inverse relationship

between the proximity of fast food restaurants and convenience stores to children’s homes and

the amount of fruits and vegetables they were likely to eat. Edmonds et al. suggests that

restaurant juice availability in a child’s community, and to a lesser extent vegetable availability,

have a direct relationship with the amount of juice and vegetables that child will consume.

Pregnant women’s health is also in jeopardy when access to fresh foods is limited (Laraia et al.,

2004). Pregnant women living more than four miles from a supermarket have lower diet quality

indexes than pregnant women who live within four miles of a grocery store. In addition to a lack

of healthy foods in poor, urban environments, other studies have shown that as community

wealth decreases, the number of establishments that sell and/or serve alcohol increases (Morland,

170

Wing et al., 2002). Increased alcohol availability is yet another factor contributing to the number

of unhealthy diet options in poor communities.

Not all research conducted on this topic agrees with the above conclusions. A study from

England (Pearson et al., 2005) found that socioeconomic status in communities and distance

between supermarkets and communities did not significantly affect fruit and vegetable

consumption. Another study in Edmonton, Canada did not find that socioeconomic status was a

factor that contributed to the distribution of supermarkets like it is in the U.S. (Smoyer-Tomic et

al., 2008). However, most of the studies that conflict with the assessments above took place

outside of the United States. It seems that most research using study sites in the United States do

find factors such as race and income to be significant factors when it comes to the distribution of

grocery stores and the access of healthy foods.

Even if fresh food options are available in poor, ethnic communities, Chung et al. (1999)

and Cummins et al. (2006) show that it can sometimes be financially out of reach. Their

research suggests that poorer communities may be charged more for goods than residents in

wealthier communities. This could potentially mean that even if healthy food items are available

(which can be expensive to begin with) their prices put them out of reach of poorer consumers.

This price discrepancy may be attributed to the business risk some owners feel they are taking

when operating in poorer areas. When the demand for certain items, such as fresh produce, is

less dependable than it is in other areas, the grocers may feel a need to increase the price on those

items in order to ensure a profit. That so many residents of food scarce areas have to travel great

distances to find access to healthy food choices only compounds the problem of cost. The

additional expenditure of transportation for residents to travel to these grocers becomes added on

to the total cost of the items they purchase.

171

Background on Food Deserts

According to statistics from the Florida Department of Agriculture (FDA, 2010), Florida

is an agricultural powerhouse among states. Florida ranks first in the nation in production of

many varieties of produce, including oranges, grapefruit, sweet corn and tomatoes. In 2008,

Florida accounted for 70% of the United State’s citrus production. In terms of exports, Florida

ranks 3rd for fruit and 5th for vegetables among states, with fruits generating over $771 million a

year and vegetables generating over $214 million a year. Sarasota County alone produces $31

million a year in agricultural products. With all of this agricultural activity, it is perplexing that

any part of Florida could be facing fresh fruit and vegetable shortages.

Food deserts are areas where access to foods needed to maintain a healthy diet is

restricted (Zenk et al., 2005). These areas aren’t necessarily lacking in food----they often have

plenty of fast food restaurants and convenience stores offering unhealthy choices----but they do

tend to lack healthy varieties of food (Cummins, 2006). For years, America’s major supermarket

chains have been criticized for abandoning densely populated, minority communities (Gray,

2009). This abandonment originated with urban white flight; as white, middle-class residents

fled certain parts of cities, many of the larger, chain grocers followed, leaving food deserts in

their wake (Gallagher, 2006). Although food deserts can be located in urban, suburban and rural

areas, urban food deserts and their public health implications, have been studied most. Because

Newtown, the subject of this paper, lies in an urban area, urban food deserts are the variation that

will be referred to in this paper.

The term food desert was popularized in a study by Mari Gallagher on the public health

effects of fresh food scarcity on certain neighborhoods in Chicago (Gallagher, 2006). She

172

created a metric used to measure the food environment in particular communities, which

involves the distance between a residence and the nearest fast food restaurant, as well as the

distance between a residence and the nearest grocer. Gallagher determined that a typical African

American residence block is twice as far from the nearest grocer as they are from the nearest fast

food restaurant. Based on the results of this metric, she discovered a statistically significant

correlation between out of balance food environments and higher rates of residents dying from

diabetes.

Michelle Obama has recently drawn attention to the health risks food deserts pose to

people who reside inside their confines. Shortly after Barack Obama took office, Michelle

Obama created her “Let’s Move” program, which targets the United States growing epidemic of

childhood obesity (White House, 2010). In addition to installing a community garden at the

White House and conducting healthy eating campaigns in schools, Mrs. Obama has also focused

on eliminating food deserts in both urban and rural areas. The Let’s Move program has invested

$400 million in creating healthy eating options in these areas, and they hope that the success of

this initial investment will leverage an even greater effort to eradicate this problem. Financially,

it is in the United States government’s best interest to invest in eliminating these food scarce

areas and bringing in healthy eating options. Food deserts have been shown to contribute to the

health crises America is facing, including obesity, heart disease and diabetes (Powell, 2007).

Many of the costs of these diseases are borne by government agencies such as Medicaid and

Medicare, which treat a significant percentage of the lower-income residents within these food

deserts. Though $400 million may sound like too much government money to fight food deserts,

it could pay dividends in the long term, with reduced treatment costs billed to Medicaid and

Medicare.

173

Food Scarcity in Newtown

Newtown is a poor, largely African American community in Sarasota, FL that is

surrounded by wealthier, whiter neighborhoods. 37.4% of Newtown’s population sits below the

poverty level whereas only 16.7% of Sarasota’s population is below the poverty level (City Data,

2008). Its borders coincide roughly with Myrtle St. to the north, 17th St. to the south, Bradenton

Rd. to the west and N. Washington Blvd to the east.

Mokdad et al. (2001) found that African Americans have the highest rate of obesity

among all races, at 29.3% as well as the highest rates of diabetes at 11.1%. Within Sarasota

County, Newtown included, the number of children and adults with these problems has increased

as well (CHIP, 2008). Sarasota has seen a 4.1% increase in the number of overweight children

and a 3.0% increase in obese adults between 2006 and 2008. Type II diabetes prevalence in

adults has also increased by 0.7% in the same period of time.

It is evident that Newtown is dealing with concerns over fresh food availability due to the

current lack of a grocer within the community. In August of 2010, Anthony Cormier of the

Herald-Tribune wrote an article titled Loss of Winn-Dixie a ‘Slap in the Face’, which notes the

closing of a Winn-Dixie grocery store that had been located in Newtown for forty years. For

three decades of the Winn Dixie’s existence, a Publix grocer was located in the same vicinity as

the Winn-Dixie, providing Newtown residents with two large grocer options. In 1996, the

Publix grocer closed down, leaving Newtown with just the one grocer. Now that the Winn-Dixie

has recently closed down, a Publix grocer two miles outside of Newtown is now the nearest

major grocer available. Winn-Dixie executives cite poor performance as the reason for the

store’s closure. Local officials in Newtown are now looking at the possibility of putting in a

174

smaller grocery store in the spot vacated by Winn-Dixie.

Currently Newtown has no major grocer within its community limits as noted above, and

has only three small grocers/convenience stores with limited or no fresh produce available. Most

of these small grocers lie along Martin Luther King Jr. Rd. which roughly bisects Newtown from

east to west. Newtown does have a number of fast food restaurants near the edges of its

community, especially in its southeast corner at the 17th St. and N. Washington Blvd crossing.

There is also a Walgreens, offering limited shopping options, located on N. Tamiami Trail Rd.,

adjacent to the old Winn-Dixie location. After considering all of the shopping options discussed

above, it appears that Newtown is experiencing a lack of healthy food ----particularly fresh

produce----in its community. This seems to suggest that Newtown is a food desert, putting its

residents at an increased risk for obesity, heart disease and diabetes.

Options for Combating Food Scarcity in Newtown

Needs Assessment

Before any direct actions take place, it is important to collect some data from community

members on what their food needs are. A brief survey could be conducted on a random group of

residents. Important questions to address are:

1) How many fruit and vegetable servings do they consume a day?

2) Would they prefer to consume more, and if so, what is preventing them from doing so

(not sold where they shop, price, don’t know how to cook them)?

3) Where do they shop for groceries?

4) Does anyone in the household suffer from a weight related disease such as type II

diabetes? If so, are they aware of how diet can contribute to its onset?

175

Once a survey has been conducted, a better understanding of the community’s needs could be

determined. If Newtown residents are happy not consuming fruits and vegetables, or if they

would like to but don’t know how to cook them, then different educational programs could be

initiated. Pertinent topics of these educational programs could be the importance of these items

in one’s diet and easy ways to cook with them. This survey could also generate important data

on just where Newtown residents buy their groceries, which would help in determining the best

way to provide healthy food access to Newtown’s residents.

Working with Local Grocers

The most sensible approach to bringing healthy foods to Newtown is to work with the existing

grocers in the community. If they could fill the healthy food void, then they may stand to profit

as well. The first step is to speak with the grocer owners in Newtown and discover why they do

not already carry a wider selection of fresh produce. Perhaps they feel there is no market for it,

which would indicate a greater need for an educational program within the community. It is also

possible they would like to carry a wider array of fresh foods, but it can often be difficult for

small grocers to find suppliers who are willing to work with them and their small inventory. If

this is the case, then efforts to find produce suppliers for these small grocers are necessary.

Finally, it may be possible that local grocers do want to carry a wider variety of produce in their

stores and the suppliers are even in line, but the start-up cost of maintaining this inventory is cost

prohibitive. Fresh foods are not as easy to keep as are non-perishables. Fruits and vegetables

often require refrigeration units which can be expensive to buy and require lots of energy to run.

Perhaps Newtown, or the city of Sarasota, could offer grocers willing to fill this need, credits for

the initial investment in this machinery, or subsidize the cost of energy required to run these

units.

176

Recruiting Outside Grocers

It may be decided that it is not possible to work with local grocers to fill this fresh food

niche. In this case, recruiting other grocers who can survive, financially, in Newtown is an

option. As food deserts are now common in many cities across the United States, many

innovative approaches have been developed to provide residents of these areas with access to

healthy foods. These are approaches, implemented elsewhere, that may work well for Newtown.

Aldi is a supermarket company that has found recent success in penetrating urban

markets (Gray S, 2008). Aldi first launched stores in the United States in 1976, hoping to

replicate the profitability they achieved in certain countries in Europe. Their business model has

certain characteristics that allow them to out-compete larger, American grocers. Aldi’s stores

typically have a smaller footprint than American grocers-----10,000 sq. ft. on average for an Aldi

store vs. an 80,000 sq. ft. average for a typical American grocer like Winn-Dixie or Publix. This

smaller footprint allows them to move into urban markets where real estate is usually more

expensive. Aldi’s stores have eliminated many of the frills found in American grocers, such as

delis and fancy displays. There stores also offer fewer choices between brands of the same item.

All of these things allow Aldi to undercut their competitors and make profits in areas where other

grocers have failed. Aldi may be the kind of grocer with a business model tailored to succeed in

an area such as Newtown. If making healthy eating items available in the existing Newtown

grocers is deemed not possible, then encouraging a company such as Aldi, who has had success

in similar urban environments, to place a store in Newtown may be a good option. Perhaps they

can flourish where others, such as Winn-Dixie, have failed.

In Chicago it is estimated that nearly 600,000 residents---1/6th of the city’s population---

177

live in areas lacking a conventional grocery store (Gray, 2009). Some Walgreens locations there

have decided to expand food selection in their stores, in an effort to combat the food scarcity in

the area in which these stores are located (Byrne, 2010). These stores now offer over 750 food

items, including fresh fruit and vegetables, frozen meats, and fish. Walgreens is the most

accessible retailer in Chicago and due to this accessibility, it can play an important role in the

eradication of food deserts in Chicago. Newtown currently has a Walgreens on its far north-

western corner. It seems possible that if Walgreens could be convinced that there is a profit to be

made, then they could be persuaded to revamp its store in Newtown, providing the same healthy

food options it now has in its Chicago locations.

In addition to their improved food selection, certain Walgreens in Chicago have also

partnered with Northwestern Medicine to pilot a program designed to educate residents of the

food deserts on healthy eating habits (Progressive Grocer, 2010). Food “prescriptions” are

offered to these residents at local health clinics, with a focus on residents dealing with health

issues such as diabetes and heart disease. This seems like an education program that would be

beneficial to Newtown as well. Even if Walgreens could not expand their nearby store to offer

additional food items, it’s conceivable that this food “prescription” program could be initiated

through a local health clinic.

Syracuse, NY has found yet a different method for serving residents in their food scarce

areas. Wegmans Food Markets, a local grocer, is bringing produce to food desert locations via a

truck, dubbed the “farm fresh mobile market” (Garry, 2010). This truck makes multiple stops

each week in urban, food scarce areas, and sells produce to those residents who are interested.

Wegmans also has developed a relationship with local farmers and is able to buy produce

directly from them, which in turn lowers the prices for customers of the farm fresh mobile

178

market. This program could be discussed with outside grocers such as Publix or Whole Foods.

If they saw a potential profit in the program, they may be convinced to implement it.

Bringing Newtown Residents to Outside Grocers

In Madison, WI, Fresh Madison Market, a local grocer, has begun offering free bus rides

to its stores, two days a week (FMM, 2010). Customers are given one hour to shop before the

bus returns the customers to their neighborhood. This is a mutualistic relationship, where the

Fresh Madison Market benefits from the new business and the food desert residents benefit from

the access to greater food choices. This is an interesting option that may work well for residents

of Newtown who don’t shop at grocers outside of the community because it is cost prohibitive.

Perhaps new business many appeal to grocers outside of Newtown, like Winn-Dixie, Publix, or

Whole Foods. If the new business creates enough revenue to offset the bus service cost, these

grocers may be persuaded to initiate a similar program.

Online Grocery Shopping

Baltimore, Maryland has developed an innovative approach to dealing with the food

deserts throughout the city. The Baltimore City Health Department (BCHD) has created a

Virtual Supermarket project which partners local churches and community centers, located in

food deserts, with Santoni’s, a Baltimore grocery chain (BCHD, 2010). Residents of these food

deserts can use computers located in these various churches and community centers to order their

groceries online. Groceries are then shortly delivered to the location they were ordered from,

where customers can pick them up, saving these residents a long, expensive cab fares or a long

ride via public transportation. Purchases by different customers are pooled for a single delivery

to a location, reducing the transportation cost. The BCHD subsidizes the delivery program as

well. Current internet grocery shopping, with a company such as Peapod, is typically used for

179

convenience by financially secure people who value their time more than the cost of having

groceries delivered. However, this internet shopping business model translates effectively as a

way to make healthy foods more accessible in certain areas. If a community center, church, or

even the library could be outfitted to serve as a hub for online grocery shopping, this could be an

effective, cheap way for residents to find access to healthy foods.

Conclusion

The health of food desert residents, like those of Newtown, are in significantly more jeopardy

than those with access to healthy foods (Morland et al., 2002). Given that African American’s

have the highest obesity and diabetes rates in the United States, it should be a priority of

Newtown’s community leaders to look for ways to make healthy foods more available to

residents as well as providing residents with the necessary education on why these foods should

be integrated into their diets. The sounder strategy when combating health afflictions such as

diabetes and obesity is to be proactive rather than reactive. Even if there is a significant cost

involved in introducing healthy eating options to Newtown, it is almost certain that the health

benefits and reduction in health care costs for residents will greatly outweigh the initial

investment of providing these foods. Determining the desire of accessible, healthy foods among

Newtown residents is critical prior to installing vendors. If the desire among Newtown residents

exists, then working with existing, local grocers to provide these foods should be the first

priority. If this kind of relationship cannot be accomplished, then recruiting outside vendors who

can fill this healthy food void is the next step. The case studies discussed previously provide

good starting points as to how healthy foods can be made accessible from sources outside the

community. Working to transform Newtown from a food desert into a community with healthy

eating options is paramount to the overall wellbeing of the residents.

180

Literature Cited Baltimore City Health Department. 2010. Retrieved on October 18, 2010 from: http://www.baltimorehealth.org/virtualsupermarket.html Baker EA, Schootman M, Barnidge E, Kelly C. The Role of Race and Poverty in Access to Foods That Enable Individuals to Adhere to Dietary Guidelines. Preventing Chronic Disease. 2006; 3(3): 1-11. Block JP, Scribner RA, DeSalvo KB. Fast Food, Race/Ethnicity, and Income: A Geographic Analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2004; 27(3): 211-217. Bodor JN, Rose D, Farley TA, Swalm C, Scott SK. Neighbourhood Fruit and Vegetable Availability and Consumption: the Role of Small Food Stores in an Urban Environment. Public Health Nutrition. 2008; 11(4): 413-420. Bolen E, Hecht K. Neighborhood Groceries: New Access to Healthy Food in Low-Income Communities.California Food Policy Advocates. 2003; January. Byrne J. Chicago Partners with Walgreens to Bring Groceries to Food Deserts. Chicago Tribune. August 11, 2010. Retrieved on October 20, 2010 from: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2010-08-11/business/ct-biz-0812-food-deserts-20100811_1_food-deserts-wal-mart-grocery-stores Community Health Improvement Partnership (CHIP). 2010. Retrieved October 17, 2010 from: http://www.chip4health.org/scorecard/index.htm Chung C, Myers S. Do the Poor Pay More for Food? An Analysis of Grocery Sotre Availability and Food Price Disparities. The Journal of Consumer Affairs. 1999; 33(2): 276-296. Cummins S, Macintyre S. Food Environments and Obesity--Neighbourhood or Nation? International Journal of Epidemiology. 2006; 35: 100-104. Edmonds J, Baranowski T, Baranowski J, Cullen K, Myres D. Fruit, Juice, and Vegetable Consumption among African-American Boys. Preventive Medicine. 2001; 32: 476-481. Eisenhauer E. In Poor Health: Supermarket Redlining and Urban Nutrition. GeoJournal. 2001; 53: 125-133. Florida Department of Agriculture (FDA). Retrieved on November 1, 2010 from: www.florida-Agriculture.com/agfacts.htm Flegal K, Carroll M, Ogden C, Johnson C. Prevalence and Trends in Obesity Among US Adults, 1999-2000. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2002; 288(14): 1723-1727.

181

Fresh Madison Market (FMM). Retrieved on October 18, 2010 from: http://www.freshmadisonmarket.com/our-store/in-the-news/fresh-madison-market-offers-free-bus-rides-to-store/ Front Porch Initiative Florida. 2010. Retrieved on October 31, 2010 from: http://www.dca.state.fl.us/fhcd/fpf/index.cfm Garry M. Wegmans Supports Produce Truck Delivering to Underserved. SuperMarket News. June 30, 2010. Retrieved on October 18, 2010 from: http://supermarketnews.com/news/wegmans_truck_0630/ Giang T, Karpyn A, Laurison HB, Hillier A, Perry RD. Closing the Grocery Gap in Underserved Communities: The Creation of the Pennsylvania Fresh Food Financing Initiative. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice. 2008; 14(3): 272-279. Glanz K, Yaroch AL. Strategies for Increasing Fruit and Vegetable Intake in Grocery Stores and Communities: Policy, Pricing, and Environmental Change. Preventive Medicine. 2004; 39: S75-S80. Gray S. October 28, 2008. Aldi: A Grocer for the Recession. Time Magazine. Retrieved on October 17, 2010 from: http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1854348,00.html Gray S. May 26, 2009. Can America’s Urban Food Deserts Bloom? Time Magazine. Retrieved on October 17, 2010 from: http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1900947,00.html Horowitz CR, Colson KA, Hebert PL, Lancaster K. Barriers to Buying Healthy Foods for People with Diabetes: Evidence of Environmental Disparities. American Journal of Public Health. 2004; 94(9): 1549-1554. Laraia Ba, Siega-Riz AM, Kaufman JS, Jones SJ. Proximity of Supermarkets is Positively Associated with Diet Quality Index for Pregnancy. Preventive Medicine. 2004; 39: 869-875. Mokdad A, Bowman B, Ford E, Vinicor F, Marks J, Koplan J. The Continuing Epidemics of Obesity and Diabetes in the United States. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001; 286(10): 1195-1200. Morland K, Filomena S. Disparities in the Availability of Fruits and Vegetables Between Racially Segregated Urban Neighbourhoods. Public Health Nutrition. 2007; 10(12): 1481-1489. Morland K, Wing S, Diez Roux A, Poole C. Neighborhood Characteristics Associated with the Location of Food Stores and Food Service Places. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2002; 22(1): 23-29.

182

Newtown CRA. 2010. Retrieved on October 31, 2010 from: http://www.sarasotagov.com/Newtown/CRA.html Pearson T, Russell J, Campbell MJ, Barker ME. Do 'Food Deserts' Influence Fruit and Vegetable Consumption?--A Cross-Sectional Study. Appetite. 2005; 45: 195-197. Powell LM, Auld MC, Chaloupka FJ, O'Malley PM, Johnston LD. Associations Between Access to Food Stores and Adolescent Body Mass Index. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2007; 33(4S): S301-S307. Powell LM, Slater S, Mirtcheva D, Bao Y, Chaloupka FJ. Food Store Availability and Neighborhood Characteristics in the United States. Preventive Medicine. 2007; 44: 189-195. Progressive Grocer. Walgreens Expands Food Selection at 10 Chicago Stores. August 11, 2010. Retrieved on October 20, 2010 from: http://www.progressivegrocer.com/top-story-walgreens_expands_food_selection_at_10_chicago_stores-30219.html Sarasota Enterprise Zone. 2010. Retrieved on October 31, 2010 from: www.floridaenterprisezones.com Smoyer-Tomic KE, Spence JC, Raine KD, Amrhein C, Cameron N, Yasenovskiv V, Cutumisu N, Hemphill E, Healy J. The Association Between Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status and Exposure to Supermarkets and Fast Food Outlets. Health & Place. 2008; 14: 740-754. Timperio A, Ball K, Roberts R, Campbell K, Andrianopoulos N, Crawford D. Children's Fruit and Vegetable Intake: Associations with the Neighbourhood Food Environment. Preventive Medicine. 2008; 46: 331-335. Turrell G, Hewitt B, Patterson C, Oldenburg B, Gould T. Socioeconomic Differences in Food Purchasing Behaviour and Suggested Implications for Diet-Related Health Promotion. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics. 2002; 15: 355-364. White House. Retrieved on October 18, 2010 from: www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2010/02/24/taking-food-deserts Zenk SN, Schulz AJ, Hollis-Neely T, Campbell RT, Holmes N, Watkins G, Nwankwo, R, Odoms-Young A. Fruit and Vegetable Intake in African Americans; Income and Store Characteristics. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2005; 29(1): 1-9. Zenk SN, Schulz AJ, Israel BA, Sherman JA, Bao S, Wilson ML. Neighborhood Racial Composition, Neighborhood Poverty, and the Spatial Accessibility of Supermarkets in Metropolitan Detroit. American Journal of Public Health. 2005; 95(4): 660-667.

183

Sustainable Redevelopment within the Newtown Community of Sarasota, Florida:

Green Streets By

Katrina Johnson Introduction “Green streets” are a type of best management practice (BMP) that utilizes low impact

development techniques to manage the effects of urban stormwater runoff, benefiting not only

the environment but the people within it. The construction of impervious surfaces in urban areas

disrupts the natural hydrologic cycle. Traditional development practices handled runoff with

drainage systems that discharged untreated stormwater into nearby water ways. As stormwater

passes over impervious surfaces it picks up pollutants such as fertilizers, heavy metals and

sediments created by human activities becoming a non-point source pollutant that contributes to

the degradation of local water bodies in and around urban areas (Jartun, 2008; Hood, Clausen &

Warner, 2007; Elliott & Trowsdale, 2007; Brun & Band, 2000). Contaminated stormwater that

reaches water bodies can negatively impact ground water flow and the water quality, aquatic life,

and structure of streams, (Jartun, 2008; Dietz, & Clausen, 2007).

The use of low-impact development (LID) techniques has been shown to help in

managing stormwater runoff by reducing runoff volume and speed, and the level of

contamination that makes its way into nearby waterways (Elliott & Trowsdale, 2007; Hood,

Clausen & Warner, 2007; USEPA, 2000). LID practices accomplish this with techniques that

return the local hydrologic cycle back to predevelopment levels and filters the water as it

permeates through the soil. This recharges ground water and base flow, as well as slows down

and disrupts the rush of water into rivers, lakes and streams (Dietz & Clausen, 2008; Dietz, 2007;

Walsh, Fletcher, & Ladson, 2005). Green streets accomplish this goal with bioretention systems

and permeable pavements which create a more porous surface to allow for infiltration of runoff.

184

What makes a green street? Bioretention Systems Bioretention systems, also known as biofiltration systems, are built alongside roadways to help

intercept runoff before it reaches stormwater drainage systems. This is accomplished by

constructing these systems at a lower elevation than the roadway, allowing the stormwater to run

down into the bioretention area and accumulate before being absorbed into the ground.

Bioretention systems are also built to manage the pollutants that are washed off of impervious

surfaces in what is called the “first flush” of water (Jartun, 2008; Davis et al., 2001; US EPA,

2000). Bioretention systems manage runoff through their use of carefully selected permeable

drainage media and cover vegetation (Cho et al., 2009).

Many current BMPs such as vegetated swales and rain gardens can be considered types

of bioretention systems. Vegetated swales collect stormwater runoff in low lying features such

as ditches that run alongside roadways. Rain gardens reduce runoff and recharge groundwater

by redirecting stormwater into low lying depressions planted with an assortment of vegetation

and covered with mulch. Roads without curbs allow easy access to the bioretention systems,

while other areas may need to have sections of curbs removed to create a flow path for the

runoff.

Vegetated swales allow some filtration of the runoff, but they are primarily used to slow

down the runoff velocity and channel it into a connecting drainage system, with only limited

infiltration into the soil. Typical vegetation utilized in swales is grass for absorbing and trapping

contaminates within the runoff, but other types of plants can also be planted to increase

absorption rates. Vegetated swales are a less expensive form of managing stormwater then other

types of stormwater management practices (Deletic & Fletcher, 2005; USEPA, 2000). However,

a study conducted by Ana Deletic and Tim D. Fletcher observed that this type of biofiltration

185

system removes large sediment particulates more efficiently then it does nutrients (Deletic &

Fletcher, 2005).

The rain gardens collect the stormwater runoff and allow it to quickly infiltrate into the

ground, avoiding the accumulation of stagnant water and the need for a traditional drainage

system. The filtration that occurs as water permeates through the soil can allow for greater

removal of nutrients than vegetated swales, but researchers Michael E. Dietz and John C.

Clausen feel that much still needs to be studied about the “retention and infiltration abilities” of

rain gardens. In a field study conducted by these researchers, they observed 98.8% of the

stormwater runoff being absorbed. Unfortunately, their tests revealed that the rain gardens were

only able to significantly remove ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) from the runoff, with phosphorus

and other forms of nitrogen poorly filtered (Dietz & Clausen, 2005). Bioretention areas in

general however, have had more in-depth studies conducted recently to help in understanding the

mechanics of media filtration and plant absorption in removing runoff and pollutants.

Careful attention should be paid to the local soil when constructing a bioretention system;

unlike typical retention ponds the soil within this system should be highly porous with a high

percentage of sand. This allows for quick infiltration of stormwater into the media so that more

water can enter into the system and be removed from quickly and efficiently from the roadway.

Studies showed that as the runoff passes through the media, it also helps in removing pollutants

such as heavy metals, suspended solids and nutrients. At times, perforated piping is buried under

the layer of media to encourage the water to be pulled in, and carried to another location for a

more rapid removal of runoff (US EPA, 2000).

What also makes these bioretention systems different from traditional retention ponds is

the use of flora to assist in the absorption processes and the removal of pollutants. Ideally, the

186

flora used in these systems is native, however this is not always possible when looking for plants

that can withstand extreme wet and dry conditions, absorb large amounts of water, and handle

pollutants such as heavy metals and high levels of nutrients (Read et al., 2008; US EPA, 2000).

However, proper selection of plant species can affect how pollutants are treated by bioretention

systems, as different species vary in their ability to remove pollutants from stormwater runoff

(Read et al., 2008).

Overall, the structure of a bioretention pond has a layer of mulch over the media with a

variety of flora from trees to shrubs planted within. This combination is very efficient at

absorbing stormwater runoff and removing pollutants such as suspended solids and heavy metals

(Hatt et al., 2008; Hsieh et al., 2007; Davis et al., 2003). Tests have shown that the bioretention

systems were able to sink these pollutants, stopping them from exiting the system and reducing

the chances of groundwater contamination. However, soluble nutrients removal has had varying

results. At times it has been observed that phosphorous has exited the bioretention system at

higher levels than was introduced through runoff, possibly because of high preexisting levels of

fertilizer within the mulch or media (Bratieres et al., 2008; Hsieh et al., 2007). Caution should

be taken when constructing a bioretention that no fertilizer already exists within the media or

will be added during the maintenance of the system. Nitrate and ammonia were also found

within the effluent as it exited the system during lab tests. Researchers did possibly find a

solution for dealing with phosphorous as well as nitrates and ammonia by creating special

layering within the media to remove the pollutants. The media layering that was most efficient

at removing phosphorous was one that had a top layer of higher permeability and a second layer

underneath of a less porous media. The initial rapid absorption and then slowing down throuh

the second media layer allowed enough time for the system to remove the phosphorous (Hsieh et

187

al., 2007). The removal of nitrates and ammonia followed a similar pattern of a top media that

promoted rapid infiltration using mulch and soil mixture. However the second layer of sand also

is a highly permeable layer and wold not detain the runoff as long as the phosphorous media

mixture would (Hsieh et al., 2007).

Another concern regarding bioretention systems and other permeable surfaces is the

chance for groundwater contamination. By creating a more permeable surface that encourages

runoff to filter through, there is a fear of some contaminates reaching the water table below and

compromising the quality of the groundwater. Some researchers are concerned that more soluble

pollutants may not be able sink into the bioretention system as they pass through (Yang et al.,

2010), whereas other studies conducted using dissolved pollutants found that after filtrating

down 25 cm into a bioretention system, 90% of the pollutants were removed from the runoff

(Sun & Davis, 2007).

Lastly, bioretention systems and other pervious enhanced surfaces should only be built in

urban residential areas where pollutant build up is small. Business districts are not considered

adequate locations due to the larger concentration of pollutants that may accumulate on top of

the impervious surfaces. There is a concern that due to high levels of contaminates within the

industrial runoff, the bioretention system may not be able to remove all of the pollutants,

potentially leading to ground water contamination.

Permeable pavements (porous asphalt/concrete, pavers, grids) The use of traditional concrete and asphalt when developing homes, roadways, sidewalks,

parking lots and many other structures has lead to the problem we are facing today of impervious

surfaces disrupting the natural infiltration of stormwater into the ground. The hydrologic cycle is

renewed by taking impervious asphalt and concrete and replacing it with asphalt or concrete that

is more porous and allows water to filter through. This may be as simple as replacing the

188

traditional binding agents or particulates within the material to leave voids and openings between

grains that allow water to permeate. Blocks or grids can also be laid down to make surfaces

more pervious, with either turf or crushed rock placed between the pavers to further help with

water filtration (Dietz, 2007). Under these permeable top layers is another highly pervious layer

of mixed aggregate used to aid in filtration and stability of the road above. This layer of

aggregate has larger spaces between its particles, drawing the water through the first porous layer

and into the larger spaces of the crushed aggregate. Depending on the crushed aggregate used, a

highly pemeable layer would allow for a quicker movement of water through the system (Scholz

& Grabowiecki, 2007). Within this layer, the stormwater can infiltrate into the soil away from

the surface to reduce flooding and interrupt the flow of unfiltered runoff into waterways.

Studies have shown the effectiveness of permeable pavers in removing suspended solids,

hydrocarbons, and heavy metals (Scholz & Graboiecki, 2007). Tested both in a controled

laboratory setting and out in the field, the results were possitive in both situations. Of the four

pavers tested (non-permeable pavers with small gaps between pavers, permeable pavers without

gaps between the pavers, and two types of porous pavers with green spaces) the porous paver

with green spaces looking similar to latice work allowed for infiltration to occur quickest. The

second best at filtering runoff was the other type of porous paver that used green spaces between

the edges/joints of the paver. Not only were the porous pavers with green spaces efficient at

absorbing runoff, but also at removing hydrocarbons and heavy metals. Both the laboratory and

field tests concluded that there are no concerns for groundwater contamination when using

permeable pavers. The studies also showed that it may be at least 50 years before concerns

would need to be addressed regarding ground water contamination, and 15 when using porous

pavers in low impact areas such a playground (Dierkes et al., 2002).

189

An obstacle to the use of pervious pavements is the tendency for the pores to become

clogged, which means maintenance of permeable pavement is recommended to keep the system

running efficiently. The use of a high powered vacuum or power pressure washing is thought to

be the best way of removing the clogs. In a study conducted in Germany, a new device was built

that both power pressure washed and used a high powered vacuum to remove clogging material

and contaminates that were not absobing. The results of the study showed that after utilizing the

cleaner, the pores of the pavers was cleared and the efficiency of the system was greatly

increased (Dierkes et al., 2002). Maintenance however, can be time consuming and expensive to

keep up with, and it may be in the best interest of the city to only use the permeable pavers on

sidewalks and bike paths where less traffic occurs and a slower rate of clogging may occur.

Use of green streets in Seattle, WA Seattle has already begun the process of utilizing LID designs to build green streets in a program

called Green Stormwater Infrastructures (GSIs). The drive to build GSIs arose after it became

apparent that Puget Sound and other rivers, lakes and streams were suffering from pollutants

being washed into waterways through stormwater drainage pipes. Sediments and high levels of

nutrients along with other environmental contaminants were creating a habitat unsuitable for

salmon spawning as well as negatively affecting other wildlife (SPU, 2010). Using GSI

techniques the government came up with the idea of the Natural Drainage Projects (NDPs),

whose goals were reduce the amount and speed of runoff, reduce flooding, improve water

quality, and return the hydrologic cycle back to levels closer to predevelopment standards

naturally (SPU, 2010).

In 2001 Seattle’s pilot project called the Street Edge Alternatives (SEA) took root and

grew. It utilized vegetated swales and rain gardens as natural and aesthetically appealing BMPs

for slowing down and filtering stormwater runoff. Whenever possible, existing trees (especially

190

old growth) and other natural features to preserve the native landscape. Construction of the

NDPs brought awareness to the community of what a watershed is, how their actions were

affecting the environment around them and what could be done to lessen these harmful effects of

stormwater runoff. The goal of the city is to ultimately reconstruct all roadways running from

north to south using GSI. NDPs must fullfill stormwater management criteria as well as

maintaining an aesthetically appealing landscape so that residents and other pedestrians will be

able to enjoy walking along the sidewalks under the shade of old and young trees. It also

presents the opportunity to educate others who see the beautiful landscaping and want to know

more about what it is and what it does. Other benefits of GSI that do not include stormwater

control is their ability to assist with filtering air pollution and reducing the heat island effect

(SPU, 2010). An example of an NDP from Seattle can be seen in the Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Natural Drainage Project (NDP), Seattle, WA (SPU, 2010)

Newtown, Sarasota Located in northern Sarasota County, FL near the Gulf coast, Newtown is a community that

could benefit from the construction of green streets. The Environmental Protection Agency has

listed the Whitaker Bayou that runs through the community as impaired due to high levels of

nutrients within the water (USEPA, 2010). This is a sign that traditional methods of stormwater

management are discharging pollutants into the Whitaker Bayou, which leads into the Gulf of

191

Mexico. By redeveloping the current streets in Newtown, the community could not only help

reduce the amount of nutrients discharging directly into the Whitaker Bayou, but also improve

the community pride and knowledge of their actions towards the environment.

An example of how stormwater in Newtown is being handled currently is shown in Figures 2 and

3 below, where traditional stormwater management practices have pipes leading directly to the

nearest water to discharge.

Figure 2. Newtown Sarasota, FL traditional stormwater drainage system

Figure 3. Newtown Sarasota, FL stormwater drainage system discharge

192

Figure 4. Newtown Sarasota, FL ideal location for a green street

Roads such as the one in Figure 4 have potential to make ideal green streets. The grassy

easement seen on the left hand side of the picture would make an ideal location for a vegetated

swale. For this to occur the elevation of the easement would have to be lowered and an opening

in the curb would have to be created to direct the runoff into the swale. If no curb was present

the downward slope of the easement would be enough to redirect the flow. Within these

bioretention areas a variety of shrubs and trees should be planted to allow for efficient absorption

of the runoff and removal of pollutants from the system (Reed et al., 2008). Ideally, evergreens

would be used to allow for evapotraspiration year round, and more mature trees would have a

greater absorpion and storage capacity for runoff. Also an older tree would usually have a larger

canopy that could interrupt rainfall and allow for the water to evaporate from the leaves before

reaching the ground below (SPU, 2010).

193

Figure 5. Newtown Sarasota, FL potential location for permeable pavement

Other features that could be utilized by Newtown to make its streets greener would include the

use of permeable pavement on areas where there are sidewalks or bike lanes. In Figure 5 you

can see a bike lane that is not very well defined and a sidewalk. By using pavers or pervious

pavement with a different texture than the main street, you not only create an area where runoff

can be absorbed, but also better define the bike lane. This can be accomplished without the use

of lines and symbols painted on the road which wear away over time, and need to be reapplied.

Sidewalks could also be made more aesthetically appealing by using pavers that make the

sidewalk more permeable and stand out from the rest of the roadway.

However, not all roadways in Newtown can be considered adequate for redeveloping

into green streets. Areas that would not benefit from the use of green streets would be narrow

roads where the easement already contains a lot of large old growth trees that do not leave

enough room to construct a bioretention area. In some cases wider roads would allow the

bioretention area to be built into the street, narrowing the road and creating a traffic calming

structure where vehicles slow down to move around bioretention areas. The construction of

such features should be done carefully so as not to make the road too narrow and obstruct the

movement of fire rescue vehicles, making sure the roads the current regulations for streets is

194

maintained. Access by a fire truck however, has been noted to be possible within streets that

are 24 feet wide (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). These features are constructed using curbs to

define the boarders of the system, leaving open sections of the curb alongside to allow for

runoff to enter. These bioretention areas could be built alternating each side of the road

traveling down the street, creating a meandering pattern to the roadway which also helps slow

down runoff as well as vehicle traffic. With slower traffic the road can potentially become a

safer location for children to spend time outside enjoying the weather and the aesthetics of the

new landscape design. Not only would children benefit from slower traffic, but also pedestrians

and bicyclists would feel safer, and encourage healthy outdoor activities. Increased time spent

outdoors also helps to strengthen community relationships. Neighbors will watch out for one

another and help to reduce crime rates within their community. Another benefit of green streets

slowing traffic and creating more aesthetically enhanced areas is that they may also help entice

businesses to come build within a community which would help the local economy (Newman &

Kenworthy, 1999).

Figure 6. Newtown Sarasota, FL not an ideal location for a green street

Another area in Newtown that would not be ideal for the construction of green street features is

the large factory district as seen in Figure 6. The roads around this area are wide and constructed

195

in the manner of traditional practices that could normally benefit from the use of permeable

surfaces to reestablish the hydrologic cycle. However, there is potential for large amounts of

toxic pollutants to accumulate on the impervious surfaces and wash into the bioretention areas

and contaminate the groundwater. It is the goal of these systems to facilitate the infiltration of

contaminated runoff into the soil, which works well in urban residential locations where

pollutant levels are small and manageable. Factories create a wider range and larger volume of

contaminants, which bioretention areas may not be able to remove before the pollutants reach the

groundwater (Dietz, 2007). Although green streets could help return the hydrologic cycle of the

area, the potential for contamination of the groundwater is too great of a risk to take. The water

from around and on the land of these factories should be processed separately at another location

where special attention could be made toward removing the pollutants from the runoff without

risk to the surrounding environment.

Conclusion In conclusion Newtown would greatly benefit from the construction of green streets.

Construction of green streets uses a variety of different tree and shrub species, that when

professionally planted can add an aesthetic appeal that homeowners can enjoy while spending

time outside. Spending more time outside enjoying the beautiful landscape, neighbors could

start to form friendships that could lead to social events such as neighborhood barbecues. These

relationships could then lead to the neighborhood coming together and forming neighborhood

watches to help create a safe place to live and raise children (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999).

The construction of vegetated swales/bioretention areas could also help entice potential buyers to

purchase property within Newtown. Beautiful, environmentally conscious landscaping has an

aesthetic appeal that could help to catch the eye of a person looking to purchase a home near the

Gulf coast. Seeing people outside and children playing would appeal to younger families

196

looking to find a place to start a family that wanted the feel of a close-knit community which

would watch out for each other. The concept of going green is also becoming very popular, so

the construction of a green street, and being a part of helping the environment may also appeal to

those who want to live a more sustainable lifestyle.

In the end, these green streets will ultimately help Whitaker Bayou recover from the

effects of stormwater runoff. By constructing bioretention areas throughout the community, the

amount of nutrients and other pollutants discharged into the waterway would be greatly reduced,

helping to preserve the Whitaker Bayou for future generations to enjoy. The community could

also take pride not only in the aesthetics of their environmentally sustainable roadways, but also

in their contribution towards maintaining the rain gardens by removing litter and helping keep

their streets clean. At the same time as enjoying the beauty of their streets and contributing to

the maintenance of the system, the community becomes educated about the impact of humans to

the environment and how small contributions by individuals and a community can help to reduce

the impact (SPU, 2010).

References Brun, S.E., & Band, L.E. (2000). Simulating runoff behavior in an urbanizing watershed.

Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 24, 5-22. Cho, K.W., Song, K.G., Cho, J.W., Kim, T.G., & Ahn, K.H. (2009). Removal of nitrogen by a

layered soil infiltration system during intermittent storm events. Chemosphere, 76, 690-696.

Davis, A.P., Shokouhian, M., Sharma, H. & Minami, C. (2001). Laboratory Study of Biological

Retention for Urban Stormwater Management. Water Environment Research, 73, 1:5-14. Davis, A.P., Shokouhian, M., Sharma, H., Minami, C., & Winogradoff, D. (2003). Water Quality

Improvement through Bioretention: Lead, Copper, and Zinc Removal. Water Environment Research, 75, 1:73-82.

Deletic, A. & Fletcher, T.D. (2005). Performance of grass filters used for stormwater treatment –

a field and modeling study. Journal of Hydrology. 317, 261-275.

197

Dierkes, C., Kuhlmann, L., Kandasamy, J., & Angelis, G. Pollution Retention Capability and

Maintenance ofPermeable Pavements. 9th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Portland, Oregon. 8-13 September 2002.

Dietz, M.E. (2007). Low Impact Development Practices: A review of Current Research and

Recommendations for Future Directions. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 186, 351-363. Dietz, M.E. & Clausen, J.C. (2005). A field evaluation of rain garden flow and pollutant

treatment. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 167, 123-138. Dietz, M.E. & Clausen, J.C. (2008). Stormwater runoff and export changes with development in

a traditional and low impact subdivision. Journal of Environmental Management, 87, 560-566.

Elliott, A.H., & Trowsdale, S.A. (2007). A review of models for low impact urban stormwater

drainage. Envionmental Modelling & Software, 22, 394-405. Hatt, B.E., Fletcher, T.D. & Deletic, A. (2008). Hydrologic and pollutant removal performance

of stormwater biofiltration systems at the field scale. Journal of Hydrology. 365, 310-321. Hsieh, C., Davis, A.P., & Needelman, B.A. (2007). Bioretention Column Studies of Phosphorous

Removal from Urban Stormwater Runoff. Water Environment Research, 79, 2:177-184. Hsieh, C., Davis, A.P., & Needelman, B.A. (2007). Nitrogen Removal from Urban Stormwater

Runoff Through Layered Bioretention Columns. Water Environment Research, 79, 12:2404-2411.

Hood, M., Clausen, J., & Warner, G. (2007). Comparison of stormwater lag times for low impact

and traditional residential development. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 43, 1036-1046.

Jartun, M., Ottesen, R.T., Steinnes, E., & Volden, T. (2008). Runoff of particle bound pollutants

from urban impervious surfaces studied by analysis of sediments from stormwater traps. Science of the Total Environment, 396, 147-163.

Newman, P., & Kenworthy, J. (1999). Traffic calming. In S. & T. Wheeler & Beatley (Ed.), The

Sustainable Urban Development (pp. 123-129). New York: Routledge. Read, J., Wevill, T., Fletcher, T. & Deletic, A. (2007). Variation among plant species in pollutant

removal from stormwater in biofiltration systems. Water Research. 42, 893-902. Seattle Public Utilities. (2010). Natrual Drainage Projects. Retrieved November 9, 2010. From

http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Drainage_&_Sewer_System/GreenStormwaterInfrastructure/NaturalDrainageProjects/index.htm

198

Scholz, M., & Grabowiecki, P. (2007). Review of permeable pavement systems. Building and Environment, 42, 3830-3836.

Sun, X. & Davis, A.P. (2007). Heavy metal fates in laboratory bioretention systems.

Chemosphere, 66, 1601-1609. United States Environmental Protection Agency (2000). Low Impact Development (LID): A

Literature Review. Retrieved March 12, 2010. From http://www.eqa.gov/owow/nps/lid/lid.pdf

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2010). Total Maximum Daily Loads. Retrieved

on November 8, 2010, From http://iaspub.epa.gov/tmdl_waters10/enviro.control?p_list_id=FL-1936&p_cycle=

Walsh, C.T., Fletcher, T.D., & Ladson, A.R. (2005). Stream Restoration in Urban Catchments

through Redesigning Stormwater Systems: Looking to the Catchment to Save the Stream. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24, 3:690-705.

199

Promoting Sustainable Redevelopment in Newtown with Urban Forestry

by Jason Kendall

Abstract The Newtown Community Redevelopment Area Plan (NRAP) begins by discussing the

need of African-American community revitalization projects to go beyond just local cleanup and

streetscaping. The plan calls for a combination of these beautification efforts with specific social

and economic gains, in order to reach the full potential of project goals. Although the NRAP

calls for going beyond beautification, the need is clearly important to redevelopment in Newtown

as the terms trees, landscaping and streetscaping are discussed twenty-six times in the document.

In this paper I will discuss how a healthy urban forest will promote sustainable redevelopment in

Newtown by discussing some of the environmental, social, and economic benefits to the

community. I will also discuss the current state of Newtown’s urban forest and potential areas

for improvement.

Introduction The 1969 enacted Community Redevelopment Agency (CRA) first listed objective was

to address the physical, social and economic problems associated with distressed areas such as

Newtown. Development or redevelopment that addresses these three issues has been coined

“sustainable development” in the 1987 Brundtland Report. The Brundtland Report was the

product of a global commission that convened with the purpose of discovering a solution to some

of the problems associated with worldwide urbanization. The commission defined sustainable

development as “development that meets the needs of the present without jeopardizing the ability

200

of future generations to meet their own needs (World Commission on Environmental

Development, 1987).” This report has been widely accepted as the beginning of sustainable

development practices across the globe, although the definition has been the subject of some

amount of scrutiny. The major discussions about the validity of the definition focus on the term

“needs of the present,” and the question of what exactly are those needs, and who is to determine

what those needs are (Redclift, 1992). Regardless of the questioning of the definition, it is

important that Newtown use sustainable development as a guideline for the revitalization process

that is currently underway. One of the leading problems determined in the report is poverty, as

the poor typically live in degraded environments. It is easy to determine from this report that as

economies decline, then environments, society and quality of life are soon to follow.

The environment, society and economy of a community are closely related in many

aspects. There are also many methods in which to address the problems associated with them.

One subject that is commonly overlooked in previously developed spaces is the urban forest.

The urban forest is overlooked for many reasons, but one major reason is simply the lack of trees

due to maximization of building space and roadways. Street-side trees often come secondary to

the progress of development in urban areas as their many benefits were not recognized in the

past. It is also necessary to manage street trees with urban forestry programs which can be an

immediate cost to some communities (although the benefits far exceed the cost). “Urban forestry

is often defined as the cultivation and management of trees for their present and potential

contribution to the physiological, sociological and economic well-being of the urban society

(Falck and Rydberg, 2000).” Urban street trees and forested parks provide many benefits, some

of which are widely known and others that are not so easily observed. In fact, many of the social

and economic benefits of trees were not studied until recently. Simply providing and

201

maintaining street trees in urban areas can cover all three pillars of sustainable development

(economy, society and environment) if managed properly.

Benefits of Trees in Urban Spaces

Environmental

The environmental benefits of urban trees have been more widely studied and accepted

than the social and economical benefits. Urban areas are typically made up of dark surfaces such

as asphalt and roof tops that create a “heat island effect,” where local temperature are much

higher than surrounding areas. Streets trees provide shade which lowers the surrounding

building temperatures and directly lowers cooling cost for the owners. According to a study by

Akbari et al. (2001) “electricity demands in cities increases by 2-4% for each 1.8°F rise in

temperature.” The same study also determined that on a typical summer afternoon urban air

temperatures are as much as 4.5°F warmer than the surrounding rural areas. The decreased

building temperatures also indirectly reduce air pollution and energy use by lowering air-

conditioning usage. The reduced energy consumption lowers the amount of pollutants emitted to

the atmosphere from coal fired power plants. The shade provided by trees can also lower

temperatures over time by reducing the amounts of greenhouse gas being emitted to the

atmosphere through these plants. Air pollution is also directly reduced by the trees themselves

by the filtration of particulates such as pollen, dust smoke and ash. The leaves, bark and roots of

trees also store smog-causing carbon dioxide (CO2) for use in photosynthesis. In a study by

Nowak and Crane (2002), they found that “large trees store approximately 1000 times more

carbon than small trees.” This fact combined with increased shading of larger trees show the

importance of preserving large historic trees in urban areas.

202

Street trees also help to reduce water pollution and peak flooding by increasing filtration

and decreasing discharge. In urban areas, 60% of the rainwater is discharged to waterways

through storm drains carrying pollutants from roadways and parking lots with it (Bolund and

Hunhammar, 1999). This percentage is greatly reduced in vegetated landscapes as only 5-15%

of rainwater runs off the ground in these areas (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999). As rainwater

hits and stays in the canopy of the tree, peak runoff rates are reduced. Lower runoff rates mean

the rainwater that does hit the ground typically infiltrates or evaporates instead of discharging as

flood waters. Infiltration also filters pollutants that remain in the soil where they are used up by

the tree as nutrients instead of discharged into local waterways.

Social Benefits

While the environmental benefits of trees alone are enough reason to preserve and plant

trees in urban areas it can be hard to gain public support for urban forestry programs for just

these reasons. The people-tree relationship has become another major reason to promote urban

forestry programs. There are many of us who have childhood memories of playing around a

particular tree or have watched a tree grow as we did. There are many people who plant trees as

memorials for a loved one’s death or a child’s birth. As a result, people hold very strong ties to

trees, with some attachments approaching a spiritual level (Dwyer et al. 1991).

There is also the widely known aesthetic benefit of trees and landscapes. Too many

people, there is nothing more relaxing than a walk in the park or around the block to get some

fresh air and take in nature. In a study by Dwyer et al. (1991), the authors surveyed people

outside the Morton Arboretum in Chicago to try and understand some of these emotional ties we

have with trees. Four-fifths of the people studied described the park as “serene,” “peaceful,” and

“restful.” The venue for rest or relaxation does not need to be a park as it can be any canopy

203

covered street where any type of recreation can take place. Recreation can be explained as an

“activity that is engaged in for pleasure, which includes among other things, exercise, relaxation,

social contacts, natural studies and aesthetic pleasure (Falck and Rydberg, 2000).” In a study by

Wolf (2010), she found that people are more inclined to walk to task destinations (work,

shopping, school, etc.) if there are natural features such as street trees. As the number of obese

Americans and cars on the road grow by the second, making cities more friendly to walking

should be a top priority in every community. Tree plantings can also be a good way for people

of a community to come together for a common goal. This can be done through churches,

schools, community clean-ups, Earth Day celebrations and so on. Tree plantings are not only a

way for people to socialize but also provides the community with a sense of accomplishment, as

they feel they are improving their environment and creating something for future generations to

enjoy. Trees also help to establish a sense of place; that is a feeling of identification and

belonging that is important to people’s enjoyment and well-being and to the process of

community (Elmendorf, 2008).

Another important social benefit of street trees and perhaps the most important benefit to

Newtown at this early stage in the redevelopment process can be crime prevention. Streetscaped

environments have proven to reduce both the fear of crime and the potential for committing

crimes. The theory of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) involves the

design and management of the physical environment to reduce the opportunities for crime, and is

based upon the assumption that the offender enters into a rational decision making process before

committing a crime (Cozens, 2002). Cozens (2002) explains that CPTED is based upon four

strategies, which are: territoriality, natural surveillance, activity support and access control.

Trees and landscaping (among other strategies) can establish well defined spaces and create

204

territoriality. Natural surveillance can be provided by designing for the right landscaping in the

right place, such planting trees and other landscaping away from building entrances so people

might be seen from the inside and outside. Activity support is accomplished by encouraging

public gatherings to occur in central locations such as city parks where large amounts of people

typically go. Access control can be accomplished by Newtown’s front porch initiative. If

entrances are landscaped to provide one way in and out and there is a neighbor on the front

porch, then criminals would likely think twice before committing a crime. These principles

should also be adhered to on city wide level. Key entranceways into Newtown such as Dr.

Martin Luther King Jr. Way could be accentuated with landscaping to mark the boundaries of the

town limits.

Economic Benefits

Perhaps the most important benefit of trees to Newtown at this time will be the economic

ones. The increased shade provided by large tree canopies can lower cooling cost for residents

and business owners alike. There are however, many other benefits that are not as easily

recognized, such as increased shopper traffic in tree covered versus non-tree covered business

districts. In a detailed study by Wolf (2005), she looked beyond the typical marketing studies of

aesthetics and consumer responses inside the stores, and looked at the streetscapes outside the

store. Data from her study indicated that stores on tree covered streets were much more

desirable than quality designed buildings with small sidewalks and no trees. In fact “images

having well-tended, large trees received the highest preference ratings of all examples, even

though the large trees obscured other elements (such as historic buildings) that often are the

targets of business improvement programs (Wolf, 2002).” In the same study by Wolf (2002) she

found that patrons spent longer times and spent more money in business district with trees versus

205

barren landscapes.

Many of the benefits an urban forest has on a community are closely intertwined. There

is also evidence that most of the benefits increase in proportion to increased size of the trees

(Schroeder et al. 2009). Tree lined streets in business districts make them more appealing and

physically comfortable. As a result, more people visit the area and more money is spent. When

trees are planted or preserved in residential areas, property values rise and make the area more

attractive to outsiders, eventually inviting more people to the area. When more money is spent

and more people move into the area, tax revenues increase and more money can be spent in the

community to improve parks, streets and so on. More people then walk the streets and social

interactions increase, along with a feeling of pride about their community.

Trees of Newtown

I wanted to search Newtown for the locations of historic trees, tree covered roadways and

areas for opportunity. The main priority of my study was first to examine the major roadways

through and around Newtown since they mainly represent the business districts. To do this I

traveled the perimeter streets: US 41, HWY 301, Myrtle Street and 17th Street and then Dr.

Martin Luther King, Jr. Way by car. Secondly, I wanted to see the majority of the Central

Cocoanut Historic District and the surrounding residential areas within the Newtown CRA. To

do this I parked at Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Park and biked the entire Central

Cocoanut Historic District and as many of the north south residential streets within the CRA area

as possible over one afternoon. Although US 41 has been constructed, Hwy 301 is currently

under construction and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Way has been master planned, it was

important to see how these business districts connected to the residential areas of Newtown. I

was able to drive the entire perimeter and central streets stopping at several locations, bike the

206

entire area northeast of US 41 and 17th Street to Orange Avenue to the east and Dr. Martin

Luther King Jr. Way to the north, and approximately 20% of the north/south streets east to US

Hwy 301.

It was found that the streetscape was more established and diverse the closer to US 41

you are. The Ringling College had been constructed around many large trees that provided

canopy covered access around the school. The main thoroughfare of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Way was surprisingly lacking of any large historic street trees. The area containing the largest

amount of historic trees was found to be the Central Cocoanut Historic District located south of

Whitaker Bayou.

Discussion As Newtown moves forward there are many opportunities that need to be taken

advantage of in the subject of urban forestry. Newtown is a historic community with a proud

past, and its historic trees should be honored and protected, just as its historic buildings are. It

was obvious through talking to several members of the community that many important events

have happened around these trees. The community could start a campaign to find the most

historic tree in Newtown by asking the public for pictures of trees that are still here today and in

good condition. Stands could be set up by these trees with the old pictures and stories about

whom the tree was important placed in each. This would be a way to educate the youth about the

history of the community, and promote awareness of urban forestry at the same time. Trees such

as the 51” diameter live oak (Appendix A; Fig. 1) at the corner of 18th Avenue and Cocoanut

Drive in the Central Cocoanut Historic District could be added to historic tours throughout the

area.

207

Some of the important areas to Newtown’s redevelopment are already under construction

or have already been master planned. Phase II of the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Way Economic

Development Plan calls for buildings to be placed towards the street with parking in the rear.

This is evident in the Market Place at Janie’s Garden development that is currently under

construction, where little room has been left for street trees to provide patrons with shade during

summer months (Appendix A; Fig. 2). It is important that planners and developers reflect on the

Visual Preference Survey from the same development plan. It is clear to see by the first choice

of those surveyed, the desired look of the corridor is one with landscaped areas and trees. For

those areas not in these two categories, Newtown could designate certain scenic corridors that

lead to key locations such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Way, the Robert L. Taylor Community

Complex or parks throughout the neighborhoods. These scenic corridors could be implemented

into code or constructed as public works projects. Emphasis could be put on developing a

continuous tree cover from the neighborhoods to business districts to provide shade and

protection for residents such as Bradenton Road south of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Way

(Appendix A Fig. 3) or 23rd Street (Appendix A, Fig. 4) do now. In areas where there are power

lines or other limited space obstacles, silviculture plans could be put in place now for the

harvesting of street trees for production of mulch and lumber in the community, and then

replanting the area with trees again. A perfect area to start this might be 21st Street on the way to

the Boys and Girls Club where there is little to no canopy cover. Another opportunity might be

Myrtle Street across from Booker Middle school where there is a large open ditch located in the

median that could be planted with Cypress Trees to filter pollutants and reduce runoff.

There are many funding opportunities available for street tree programs and Newtown

redevelopment officials should work closely with the Sarasota Environmental Services

208

Department to access these possibilities. The City of Sarasota and Sarasota County have been

designated Tree City USA Communities by the Arbor Day Foundation, which provides financial

assistance for forestry programs. The City of Sarasota also requires people who remove trees

without permits to replace the trees or pay into a tree fund. Newtown officials could request that

these trees and/or funds be placed in their area for a time in specific areas of importance. Lastly

the Florida Chapter of the International Society of Arboriculture in located in Sarasota and is

always available for support.

One other key area of opportunity is the establishment and management of city parks in

Newtown. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Park is situated perfectly as a natural area

located centrally in town for residents to enjoy. Parks multiply the many environmental, social

and economical benefits trees provide mentioned above, and provide a meeting place for city

residents. Additionally, planners should look at vacant properties to see if any other

opportunities exist to convert these areas to parks. Several studies have shown that resident’s

feelings of insecurity associated with vandalism and crime increases around vacant buildings

(Chiesura, 2004).

Conclusion

With the unique opportunity that has been provided to this community, it is important

that the Newtown Community Area Advisory Board address urban forestry issues to aide in

sustainable redevelopment practices. Focusing on urban forestry and sustainable development

will provide for the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations

by harnessing the environmental, social and economic benefits of street trees. Special emphasis

should also be put on preserving the historic trees in the community, as they have provided such

209

an important meaning to some of Newtown’s residents. Urban planners and developers should

work together to design streetscapes that promote walkability and natural crime prevention.

Increased walkability and crime prevention would bring more business and residents to the area

and ultimately increase tax revenues. The community would benefit greatly if social

organizations such as churches became involved in tree plantings to promote civic awareness and

pride in the area. While this report focused on the large historic trees and canopy covered

streets, it is important that Newtown considers the entire urban forest of small and large trees.

The practice of “right tree, right place” must be implemented by planners and developers, as

Newtown moves forward.

References

Akbari, et al. (2001). Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce energy use and improve air quality in urban areas. Solar Areas, 70(3), 295-301. Bolund, P. and Hunhammar, S. (1999). Ecosystem services in urban areas. Ecological Economics, 29, 293-301. Chiesura, A. (2004). The role of urban parks for the sustainable city. Landscape and Urban Planning, 68, 129-138. Cozens, P. (2002). Sustainable urban development and crime prevention through environmental design for the british city. Towards and effective urban environmentalism for the 21st century.Cities, 19(2), 129-137.

Crane, D. and Nowak, D. (2002). Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environmental Pollution, 116, 381-389. Dwyer et al. (1991). The significance of urban trees and forest: Toward a deeper understanding of values. Journal of Arboriculture, 17(10), 276-284. Elmendorf, W. (2008). The importance of trees and nature in community: A review of the relative literature. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 34(3): 152-156. Falck, J. and Rydberg, D. (2000). Urban forestry in Sweden from a silvicultural perspective: a review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 47, 1-18.

210

Redclift, M. (1992). The meaning of sustainable development. Geoforum, 23, No.3, 395-435 Schroeder et al. (2009). Big trees in the urban forest: An endangered resource worth sustaining. Arborist News, 18(2): 60-62. Wolf, K. (2005). Business district streetscapes, trees, and consumer response. Journal of Forestry, (103)8, 396-400. Wolf, K. (2010). City tree, nature and physical activity. Facility Management Journal, 20(1), 50-54. World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press

211

Appendix A

Figure 1: A 51” diameter live oak with large spreading canopy on 18th Street just west of Cocoanut Drive

Figure 2: The Market Place at Janie’s Garden along Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Way under construction with little room left for street trees.

212

Figure 3: Bradenton Road just south of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Way. From left to right a 46” oak, 27” pine, 30” oak and a 31” oak.

Figure 4: Canopy cover of 23rd Street west of Orange Avenue.

213

The Potential Effects of Rising Sea Levels on Sarasota and Newtown, and the Lessons learned from Hurricane Katrina. Christopher Klug Sea Level Rise is Real There is no dispute that sea levels are rising due to climate change. Although various factions

disagree on the causes of said climate changes, almost none in the business of climate study

denies the observable and measurable phenomenon of global warming.(Anderegg, 2010) In a

recent survey, 97.5% of climatologists that actively publish research on climate change agreed

that global warming is occurring, and that human activities have a significant impact on climate

change.(Cook, 2010) Global warming is melting the polar ice caps and sea levels are

measurably rising. (Vermeer, Dec 22 2009) As coastal Floridians, we will be among the first

Americans impacted by these rising waters. Because we make our home in Florida, we are

subject to seasonal hurricanes and the accompanying tidal surges. Florida is a naturally low lying

State, with virtually no high ground to speak of. Can the Sarasota and Newtown area survive a

class 5 hurricane if sea levels rise 4 feet? What kind of storm surge can the area expect if sea

levels change dramatically?

The following illustration Figure 1 is from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change, and shows a 2100 sea level rise prediction of 60cm due to rising temperature, but does

not take into account recent measurements of accelerated ice pack melt.(Nicholls, 2010) It

should also be noted that sea level rise is not uniform, and that it is generally observed to be

accelerating. (Ibid)

Courtesy: Science, Vol 328, June

2010

214

Scientific Geographical Examination

This study focuses on the redrawing of flood maps due to rising sea levels, a measurable feature

of our landscape. The case will be made that sea levels will rise, and that upper level estimates

are in the neighborhood of a rise of 4 feet by the year 2100. Parts of Sarasota County are very

low lying, and the potential for property loss due to the rising sea level is great. Human activity

such as agriculture and the drawdown of underground water supplies contribute to subsistence,

the phenomena of sinking land. Currently, the elevation reported at Sarasota-Bradenton airport

215

is 21.9 feet above sea level; Venice airport, representing the southern half of Sarasota County is

reported to be at 12.2 feet above sea level. (AirNav, 2009) What will happen during a Category

5 hurricane, when the storm surge can exceed 60 feet? (Scales-Wikipedia, 2010)

Current Federal flood maps of the Sarasota area are out of date, and are being updated with a

completion date of Nov 2011. The Geologic Survey data used to determine land elevation

derives from National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929, and was only accurate that year to

within 1 meter.(Frazier T. G., 2010) The latter makes forecasting storm surge less accurate, but

even with these shortcomings the projections are ominous. The modeling was done using data

from Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes, or SLOSH. This data was obtained from

the National Hurricane Center and NOAA, who rely on the same data for their modeling and

projections. (Frazier T. G., 2010)

Researchers took the data from this model and using GIS, created overlays of the land use map

of Sarasota County 2050 Comprehensive Plan. The researchers presented this data during a one

day workshop in Sarasota to “Workshop participants (who) reflected various political agendas

and socioeconomic interests of five local knowledge domains: business, environment, emergency

management and infrastructure, government, and planning.”(Frazier T. G., 2010 (30)) This

assembly absorbed the science, and remarkably “Despite different agendas, interests, and

proposed adaptation strategies, there was common agreement among participants for the need to

increase community resilience to contemporary hurricane storm-surge hazards and to explore

adaptation strategies to combat the projected, enlarged storm-surge hazard zones.” (Frazier T. G.,

2010 (30))

It is common knowledge in planning circles that comprehensive land-use planning is the most

effective method for reducing vulnerability and increasing resilience to natural hazards.

216

Sarasota’s population has grown by 17% in the last ten years (US Census 2000), and City and

County planners have had to consider a host of socioeconomic pressures as well as hazards

imminent and far into the future. To grapple with population increase is hard enough, but if

elements enter the equation that dramatically reduce the land area and can radically affect power

distribution networks, sewer and water line placement, storm-water control and rezoning of

residential neighborhoods based on newly drawn flood plain maps, the job becomes extremely

difficult. This is especially true if these elements are due to a volatile subject like the effects of

climate change.

Historical Weather and the Future

Sarasota’s history of hurricanes is documented from 1858, and shows storms in 1878, 1901,

1903, 1925, 1944, 1983, 1988, 2001, and 2004. The last severe hurricane to hit Sarasota County

directly was in 1944. The Pinar del Rio hurricane was a Category 3, and caused nine deaths and

severe damage to the citrus industry. It has been estimated that this storm damage would

approach $40 billion by today’s standards. (Barnes, 2007) Hurricane Charlie just brushed the

unincorporated and mostly uninhabited part of southern Sarasota County, and yet this category 4

storm caused 19 deaths and $25 billion in damages. Some experts argue that climate change will

increase the number of hurricanes each year, and some argue against it. (Knutson, May 5 2010)

A consensus is building that hurricanes will increase in intensity and strength, even as the

numbers of events decrease.(Frazier T. G., 2010) The danger is amplified by the high numbers

of new residents moving into coastal zones, which are already crowded and overbuilt.

Local Impact

To be in compliance with the Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000, cities and counties have been

encouraged to inventory their assets located in hazard zones. It is also important to know how

217

many critical and essential facilities lay within these hazard zones. By critical and essential, we

are speaking of clinics, doctor’s offices, hospitals, government offices, fire stations, police

stations, first responder locations, grocery stores, fueling stations, etc, etc. Electricity

distribution infrastructure is also considered critical and essential, as substations can take months

to bring back online once flooded, delaying recovery. Municipal water wells, septic treatment

plants and sewer infrastructure are also subject to outages and damage from flooding, as well as

salt infiltration and pollution of drinking water supplies and networks. All of these facilities are

needed for normalcy in living conditions, and great deals of these are now in new hazard zones,

capable of being functionally wiped out by storm surge flooding.

218

The increased size of the projected hazard zones is apparent in these illustrations. The number of

critical and essential facilities within the flood zone also increases, from 1% in a Category 1

storm to 9% and from 5% in a Category 2 event to 20%. Affected population also follows this

trend, with 8% affected in a Category 1 event to 16%, or 51,000 people now living within the

hazard zone. The Category 4 and 5 increases were not as dramatic, as 69% of Sarasota County’s

232,000 people would be affected in this scenario from storm surge flooding with a 120cm rise

in sea level. In the unincorporated area, just over 50% of the county’s population is in the

exposed area while about 40% of the city of Sarasota’s population, almost all of Venice’s

population, and just over half of North Port’s residents are exposed. The smaller municipalities

219

of Longboat Key, Siesta Key, Nokomis, Plantation, Englewood, Laurel, and Warm Mineral

Springs all have a smaller number of residents exposed than the four bigger communities but

have 100% of their total population in the hazard zone. There are several smaller communities

that are entirely in the storm-surge hazard zones and several more that are almost entirely in the

hazard zones when sea level rise is added. (Frazier T. G., 2010 (30)) One can see that this

changes the character of storm-water management dramatically, and raises the problem of

effective land planning strategy with regard to the new flood hazard boundaries.

Planning and Regulation

In looking at Sarasota’s 2050 Comprehensive Plan, the trend is followed in future land use for

residential use; double the land currently classified as in the hazard zone will fall in the new

hazard zone accounting for sea level rise. Commercial and transportation property fared far

worse, with four times the area falling into the new hazard areas. Truly, this will take some

creative engineering and flood control to allow for safe development for Sarasota County’s

newly arriving population.

On the bright side, Sarasota County has a comprehensive land use plan, and a coordinated effort

by Federal, State, County and local officials to solve these problems before they become

disasters. One of the first things to come to light in post-Katrina New Orleans was the fact that

the city and parish had no comprehensive plan for development, and instead had allowed

communities, private flood control contractors and local governments to develop willy-nilly,

without control or zoning.(Cigler, Dec 2007) Florida requires a comprehensive plan by mandate,

and the Florida Department of Community Affairs reviews all proposed changes to the plan. In

this regard, Florida is miles ahead of Louisiana in regards to public safety.

The Local Government Comprehensive Planning and Land Development Regulation Act

220

requires all of Florida's 67 counties and 410 municipalities to adopt Local Government

Comprehensive Plans that guide future growth and development. Comprehensive plans contain

chapters that address future land use, coastal management, conservation, recreation and open

space, intergovernmental coordination housing, transportation, infrastructure, and capital

improvements.(Florida Statutes Chapter 163, part II) This is absolutely vital for storm-water and

flood control, and New Orleans had nothing like it. Their Federal flood maps were out of date,

too.

Environmental Impact of Wetlands Destruction

New Orleans also had something in common with Florida; Big Oil had cast its eye on the oil

reserves off the Gulf coast. Louisiana, long time friend of the oilman, welcomed the oil

exploration and production that made billionaires of several of the State’s citizens and

politicians. The oil companies dredged and cut canals through most of Louisiana’s wetlands for

heavy equipment access, opening up “hurricane highways” through the buffering wetlands.

Katrina’s storm surge was funneled up these channels, intensifying the pressure against New

Orleans’ levees and floodgates with predictable and terrifying results. Florida must guard

against damage to wetlands, as they are the first line of defense against storm surge and flooding.

In the years leading up to Katrina, The Corps of Engineers received $2 billion for New Orleans

levee projects, but the money was diverted to politically lucrative development projects, instead

of overdue levee repair.(Cigler, Dec 2007) No comprehensive plan, no zoning in coastal areas,

monies diverted from levee repair and “hurricane highways” all contributed to the horrible

flooding, loss of life and national tragedy that was the effect of Hurricane Katrina on New

Orleans. (ibid) The extreme vulnerability of the human populace also came to light, and has

lessons for all who live in the potential path of hurricanes.

221

Newtown’s Vulnerability

In Newtown, human vulnerability to extreme climatic events is perhaps greater for some

residents than others. It is clear that some people are more likely to be affected by a disastrous

event than others. In New Orleans, people that were able to flee the hurricane did so, but the

great majority of people trapped in the city did not evacuate because they either had no specific

place to flee to, or because they did not have the motivation, ability or finances to flee. (Cigler,

Dec 2007) Reasons vary, but lack of access to an automobile, lack of funds to flee and survive

while evacuation is in effect can affect the ability and will of people to evacuate when ordered to

do so. Some people will refuse to evacuate because of the natural reluctance to leave one’s home

and neighborhood, or the fear of looters pilferage. Some are disabled, perhaps unwilling to leave

pets or unable to take them, or unsure of what to do or where to go. Different human

characteristics, including demographic and socioeconomic ones, lead to different vulnerabilities

for a population at risk. (Tobin, 2009)

Many of these vulnerabilities can be addressed by the community leaders, churches and citizens

prior to events. Vulnerability can be ameliorated by planning and dissemination of knowledge.

For those of us that live on the sea coast, it is imperative that evacuation plans be discussed and

mapped out before the event is imminent. Local government can determine the at-risk groups of

citizens, and make plans for their evacuation. Local churches can provide buses and an out of

town haven for vulnerable residents by making evacuation compacts within parishes and fellow

religious organizations. Many churches do outreach service to the community on a regular basis,

and can be invaluable to city planning staff in identifying and briefing at-risk citizens.

Arrangements can be made for the safety and transportation of pets. Newtown has a strong

community identity and spirit, this is key to the sustainability of Newtown’s people.

222

Sarasota maintains a very good website with information on hazard planning, and access to the

Internet is provided free from public libraries. (www.sarasota.gov) Evacuation, securing of

property, stockpiling of food and water are just a few of the topics covered on this website. The

new Robert L. Taylor Community Center can be an ideal place for stockpiling of emergency

supplies, foodstuffs and water, and for conducting an educational program regarding hurricane

preparedness. In a few very significant ways, Newtown is in a better position to provide for its

residents than other communities in Sarasota County, and this position will only strengthen with

time.

North Sarasota County is of higher elevation than the southern portion of the county, and

therefore will not be as affected by sea level rise. With a projected sea level rise of 120 cm or 4

feet, Longboat Key and most of the City of Venice will be completely flooded. The most severe

flooding could occur in the areas of offshore barrier islands, coastal properties and rural south

Sarasota County.(Frazier T. G., 2010) The following chart is representative of the number of

residents exposed to flooding after the anticipated sea level change. It is plain to see that the

northern portion of Sarasota County will fare much better relative to sea level rise, and as the

federal flood maps are updated property values could reflect the relative safety of higher ground.

Plainly speaking, Newtown is in a good geographical position, and represents an excellent

staging area for assisting the rest of the county in times of future high water.

Figure 2 The gray bars represent pre-sea level rise storm surge, the black area of the bars

represent post sea level rise storm surge. (Frazier T. G., 2010)

223

Sarasota Urban Service Boundary

Sarasota County has sought to restrict urban sprawl by designating an urban service boundary.

This restricts development from occurring east of the service boundary, and allows for

development west of I-75. Unfortunately, this boundary restricts development to areas prone to

storm surge. Much of the county’s utility infrastructure also is in this area, and with increased

development, it is to be expected that increased utility infrastructure will follow. It is important

for utility companies to evaluate the potential damage from immersion in flood waters, and to

plan accordingly. Although sprawl may be controlled by the urban service boundary, it is certain

that is a tradeoff for increased hurricane vulnerability in coastal developments. (Frazier T. G.,

2010)

Newtown is well within this urban service boundary, and is experiencing the pressures of growth

224

of the community around it. Road widening, utility construction and more and more close-by

developments increase the demand on flood control measures. More development means more

pavement and buildings, increasing runoff and exacerbating flood control. Newtown city leaders

should pay close attention to flood control improvements aimed at providing relief to

neighboring developments, in the event that some of these could adversely affect the citizens of

Newtown in the future. Sarasota County planners are under pressure from many directions and

interests, and Newtown should make its voice heard on any proposed “improvements” before

permanent changes to the Comprehensive Plan are made. It is much easier to voice objections

and concerns at scheduled public hearings and forums before undesirable changes are adopted

and made part of the Comprehensive land use plan.

Conclusions and Recommendations

In conclusion, the studies done on sea level rise were done scientifically using National Ocean

and Atmospheric Administration models. The rise of 120 cm, or four feet are at the high range of

estimated rise by 2100. It is prudent to plan for the worst, and to carefully watch developments in

measurements and data. Newtown’s Booker Elementary School shelter is at an elevation of 34

feet above sea level. (Sarasota) Newtown is fortunate to be on higher ground than most of

Sarasota County, and is in the portion of the county least likely to suffer an extreme shift of

hazard zones. It would be prudent for property owners and City officials to keep abreast of

changes in sea level and to mark changes in the 2050 Comprehensive Plan and future updates

that could affect storm-water management in their neighborhoods. Newtown’s population needs

to be prepared for severe weather by utilizing Sarasota’s excellent hazard planning resources, by

making plans for evacuation before the need arises, and by supporting local government, local

churches and community groups in hurricane preparedness outreach efforts.

225

In terms of potential property damage and loss of life due to flooding, Newtown is much

better situated than more affluent areas such as Longboat Key and the expensive high-rise

developments of the Florida Coast. Areas directly on the Sarasota coast will be affected by

rising sea levels first, with a direct impact on wealthy homeowners and condominiums. This is

in sharp contrast to the damage inflicted by Hurricane Katrina, which primarily affected those

citizens without the means to flee, and who lived in those neighborhoods of New Orleans with

lower elevations and high proximity to weak Mississippi River levees. (Cigler, Dec 2007)

Newtown still faces vulnerability to flood damage to utilities, water delivery systems, sewer

systems and communications because these systems exist largely outside of the Newtown area.

In the event of significant flooding in southern and coastal Sarasota County, power and other

utilities could be disrupted for weeks. However, the Newtown Community Redevelopment Area

is situated on some of the highest ground in Sarasota County, and the value of high ground in

this area and should not be underestimated. Potentially, this area could have the highest

commercial and residential value in the county in the next century.

Bibliography AirNav. AirNav: KSRQ. 2009. 26 Nov 2010 <http://www.airnav.com/airport/KSRQ>.

—. AirNav: KVNC. 2009. 26 Nov 2010 <http://www.airnav.com/airport/KVNC>.

Anderegg, William R.L., James W. Prall,Jacob Harald, Steven Schnieder. "Expert Credibility in Climate change." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ofthe United States of America (2010): 1-3.

Barnes, J. Florida's Hurricane History. Chapel Hill: the University of North Carolina Press, 2007.

Cigler, Beverly A. "The "Big Questions" of Katrina and the Great New Orleans Flood of 2005." Public Administration Review (Dec 2007): 64-76.

Cook, John. Skeptical Science. 2010. 26 Nov 2010 <http://www.skepticalscience.com/global-warming-scientific-consensus.htm>.

226

Frazier, Tim G., Nathan Wood, Brent Yarnal. "Stakeholder perspectives on land-use strategies for adapting to Climate change-enhanced Coastal Hazards:Sarasota, Florida." Applied Geography (2010 (30)): 506-517.

Frazier, Tim G., Nathan Wood, Brent Yarnal, Denise Bauer. "Influence of Potential sea level rise on Societal Vulnerability to Hurricane storm surge hazards:Sarasota, Florida." Applied Geography (2010): 490-505.

Knutson, Thomas R. Has Global Warming Affected Atlantic Hurricane Activity? Scientific. Princeton, NJ: General Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, May 5 2010.

Nicholls, Robert J., Annie Cazanave. "Sea Level Rise and its Impact on Coastal Zones." Science (2010): 328: 1517.

Sarasota, City of. http://maps.scgov.net/evacinfo/evacinfo.aspx. 26 Nov 2010 <http://maps.scgov.net/evacinfo/evacinfo.aspx>.

Scales-Wikipedia, Tropical Cyclone. Tropical_Cyclone_Scales. 20 Oct 2010. 1 Nov 2010 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales>.

Tobin, G.A. and T.E. Montz. "Environmental Hazards." 2009.

Vermeer, Matin and Stefan Rahmstorf. "Global Sea Level linked to Global Temperature." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ofthe United States of America (Dec 22 2009).

227

Bicycle Infrastructure in Newtown Anna Leech

Introduction

Sustainable development has been defined as “meeting the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on

Sustainable Development, 1987). Basic needs generally refer to food, shelter, jobs and clothing.

In the United States, it seems like they would be quite easy to meet due to widespread

availability, but transportation is generally necessary to meet these needs. Transportation also

needs to be sustainable, and it is not currently due to the dependence on automobiles, and the

pollution and noise that they spew (Black, 1996). Fortunately, with research from Europe, and

changes in policies, it is possible to create more sustainable transportation that is less

environmentally damaging, and potentially could increase transportation availability (Green and

Wegener, 1997).

A possible way to increase the sustainability of transportation and decrease congestion

and environmental problems due to automobiles is to increase the use of walking and bicycling

for transportation. Options for this include traffic calming, which creates an environment more

conducive to alternative forms of transportation, and the addition of bicycle friendly

infrastructure (Newman and Kenworth, 1999; Stillings and Lockwood, 2000).

The purpose of this project is to understand transportation in low income communities,

and with this information, look specifically at Newtown. This will include an investigation into

the current bicycle infrastructure in Newtown, and a proposal for improvements such as bicycle

lanes and traffic calming. The traffic calming program in West Palm Beach, Florida, will be

discussed in order to better understand how it works, and how it can impact Newtown.

228

Transportation in Low-Income Households

Lower-income households are less likely than others to own a vehicle (Schimek, 1996;

Murikami and Young, 1997; Pucher and Renne, 2005). A city that is designed to increase

walkability and bicycle usage will have a higher rate of walking and cycling than most other

cities; however, income is an even bigger influence on vehicle ownership and use than the

walkability and density of an area (Saelens et al, 2003; Schimek, 1996). Twenty six percent of

low-income households do not own a car, and are dependent on other forms of transportation

(Murikami and Young, 1997; Pucher and Renne, 2005).

Unfortunately, the lack of a car can make everyday life difficult for low-income

individuals in their everyday life. Low income mothers are more likely to walk than their higher

income counterparts, and although this is good exercise, it can also increase stress levels and

exhaustion (Bostock, 2001). The reliance on walking makes it difficult to travel any great

distance to reach food, medical care, and other important locations (Bostock, 2001; Yang et al,

2006). A lack of personal transportation also makes it difficult for low-income individuals to

find and keep jobs (Ong and Blumenberg, 1998). Mass transit can be helpful for getting to work;

however, these routes often lack flexibility and do not always stop in a close proximity to the

place of employment (Wachs and Taylor, 1998). Bicycles can increase the flexibility of public

transportation, because many busses can hold bicycles on the front, allowing individuals to bring

their bikes for use at either end of the bus route (Wachs and Taylor, 1998). Additionally, the cost

of public transportation can sometimes be a large portion of a person’s income, making it almost

impossible to make a decent wage (Wachs and Taylor, 1998; Ong and Blumenberg, 1998).

Children in low income households are also impacted by transportation, and are more

likely to ride bicycles or walk to school than higher income children (McDonalds, 2008; Martin

229

et al, 2007). Despite the fact that more children of low income households ride bikes to school,

and those with no cars are more likely to use bicycles to make trips, there may be a lack of

necessary infrastructure in important locations, such as bike racks at libraries, to accommodate

these travelers (Pucher and Renne, 2005; Thompson, 2006). In addition, a study from Florida

suggests that motor vehicle-bicycle collisions are more likely to occur in areas of low income,

potentially due to an increased use of bicycles (Epperson, 1995; Dill and Carr, 2003).

Traffic Calming

A potential method of increasing the safety of bicycling is through traffic calming.

Traffic calming is part of New Urbanism, which aims to move away from single-use suburban

neighborhoods, and more towards the mixed-use communities that were built prior to the

explosion of the automobile. New Urbanism principles include the following:

neighborhoods should be diverse in use and population; communities should be designed

for the pedestrian and transit as well as the car; cities and towns should be shaped by

physically defined and universally accessible public spaces and community institutions;

urban places should be framed by architecture and landscape design that celebrate local

history, climate, ecology, and building practice (Congress for the New Urbanism, 1996).

Since Newtown is an older community, many of these aspects are incorporated because it

was built before residential suburbanism was the norm. However, like many communities,

Newtown’s roads were developed for automobile traffic, and in many cases, bicycles and

pedestrians have lost out. This can be rectified in some cases through the use of traffic calming.

The purpose of traffic calming is “to slow auto traffic and create more urban humane

environments better suited to other transportation modes” such as bicycles and pedestrians

230

(Newman and Kenworthy, 1999). It began in the early 1920s with the automobile boom, and has

continued to be used across the world. The main method used for traffic calming is physically

changing the street. Some of the possibilities include adding S-shaped diverters and neck-

downs, which change the geometry of the road, as well as adding speed bumps or tables, which

force the driver to slow down. Adding more landscaping and pedestrian/bicycle friendly design,

such as wide sidewalks and bicycle lanes, also slows drivers, because the road is no longer a

clear asphalt path. With these changes, drivers will realize that there are more pedestrians and

bicycles, so they must be more aware (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999).

An example of a successful road calming project is in West Palm Beach, Florida. This

project was part of a larger New Urbanism project that was designed to revitalize the city in

many aspects (Stillings and Lockwood, 2000). Similarly to Sarasota, West Palm Beach has the

reputation that its residents are all wealthy; however, there are sections of the city that are low

and middle income (Stillings and Lockwood, 2000). A great deal of West Palm Beach’s early

traffic calming was based on main roads. For example, Clematis Street is a main through road,

and the city added on street parking, wider sidewalks, clearer crosswalks, a raised intersection,

and landscaping and furniture that were pedestrian friendly (Stillings and Lockwood, 2000).

Following several other traffic calming projects, residents are generally supportive of the

measures, and pedestrians and cyclists feel safer moving through the area (Stillings and

Lockwood, 2000). An important aspect of the traffic calming projects is to gain community

support, and take a close look at the area to understand what traffic calming measures will work

in the area.

231

Figure 1: Bicycle sharrow located in the automobile travel lane. From: http://www.flickr.com/photos/litlnemo/3615826903/sizes/o/in/photostream/

Bicycle Infrastructure and Safety

In addition to traffic calming, there are bicycle infrastructure options that can make

cycling safer. This is imperative for those that depend on cycling for transportation. Allen-

Munley et al (2004) found that roads without shoulders, regardless of lane width, were more

likely to have accidents involving bicyclists. Numerous studies have been done to determine how

to increase the comfort of cyclists, safety and motorist’s awareness( Van Houten and Seiderman,

2005). These showed that regardless of the type of markings, from just adding an undesignated

lane on a wide road (Hunter et al, 2005), to adding signage and blue road markings at motor

vehicle-bicycle crossings (Jensen, 2008; Hunter et al, 2000), cyclist safety and comfort

increased.

The most common form of bicycle infrastructure on a road is a bicycle lane – a good

bicycle lane is at least four feet wide, but substandard lanes can be as narrow as 3 feet (Florida

Bicycle Associate, 2010). Bicycle lanes include bicycle markings on the road as well as bicycle

lane signs that alert drivers to the presence of the bicycle lane (Florida Bicycle Association,

2010). However, it is important to take into consideration how to end these markings, and doing

so abruptly mid-block has

been found to be quite

dangerous (Krizek and

Roland, 2005).

When roads are not

wide enough for bicycle

lanes, a road marking known

as a bicycle sharrow can be

232

used (Figure 1). These markings are located in the middle of the lane, and consist of a bicycle

outline and two arrows. This indicates to automobile operators that bicycles may be travelling in

the lane, and to be aware. Sharrows have been used in several locations in Florida, including

30th Avenue North, St Petersburg (personal experience).

Since Newtown is a low-income area with high rates of unemployment, it is possible that

alternative forms of transportation can help decrease unemployment. Even with mass

transportation, it can be less expensive to ride a bicycle, and a bicycle can increase the distances

that can be travelled vs. walking. This can increase access to not only jobs, but to medical care

and food. Since children may be more likely to ride bikes to school, and cars may not be widely

available, cycling is potentially a great option for transportation, and should be made as safe as

possible. This brings up the question of what bicycle infrastructure already exists in Newtown,

and how can it be further developed to increase safety?

Current Bicycle Infrastructure in Newtown The town of Newtown has some bicycle infrastructure currently in place. Bicycle lanes

of varying degrees of signage and marking exist on several of the main roads through the town

(Figure 2). Old Bradenton Road is considered by the City of Sarasota to be a fair bicycle route,

as it has moderate to high speed limits and traffic levels (Alliance for Responsible

Transportation, 2009). The bicycle lane on Old Bradenton Road has very worn painted road

markings and bicycle lane signs from Myrtle Street south to Dr Martin Luther King Way. In

some areas it is difficult to see the remnant of the paint on the road, which can create problems at

night since the reflectivity of the paint has deteriorated. Cocoanut Avenue and Central Avenue

both have bicycle lanes from Dr Martin Luther King Way south, past 17th Street and are also

233

considered to be fair bicycle routes (Alliance for Responsible Transportation, 2009). These

avenues both have bicycle lane signs and street markings, however, the markings and signs are

few, and there are great distances between them. Cocoanut Avenue also has no parking signs,

which can help with reducing parking in the bike lanes, which appears to be a problem in several

parts of the community. North Orange Avenue has a bicycle lane complete with road markings

and signs. Unfortunately, since the bicycle lanes were added after the roads were built, they

disappear at several intersections. Finally, North Washington Blvd is currently under

construction; however, the plans include bicycle lanes in both directions, including the section

that borders Newtown, from Myrtle Street, south to 17th Street.

There are currently two east-west bicycle lanes in Newtown. The first is a small section

of Dr Martin Luther King Way. This bicycle lane is part of the Sarasota Recreational Trail. The

234

section of bicycle lane enters Newtown from the west side of US 41(N Tamiami Trail), and is an

undesignated lane up to Old Bradenton Road. In the roadway between N Tamiami Trail and Old

Bradenton Road, there are speed tables to calm the traffic. East of Old Bradenton Road to

Cocoanut Avenue, the bicycle lane is marked on the road and with signs. At Cocoanut Avenue,

there is a small sign that indicates that the bicycle trail turns south onto Cocoanut Avenue;

however, the bicycle lane is on the left of the right turn lane, indicating that bicyclists can safely

continue travelling east, even though there is no bicycle lane. The other east-west bicycle lane

is on 17th Street between North Orange Avenue and US 301 (North Washington Blvd). This

bicycle lane has on-street markings and signs, however, it ends mid-block, just before N

Washington Blvd, and there is no sign to indicate the end of the bicycle lane.

As is evident in Figure 2, there is a lack of east-west bicycle lane connectivity. Despite

this, based on current road widths and parking needs, it appears that Newtown has done a very

good job in adding bike lanes where it is possible. There are several changes that can be made to

increase bicycle infrastructure and encourage the use of bicycles within the community, which

will be discussed throughout the next sections.

Suggestions for Bicycle Infrastructure Improvement

Many of the roads through Newtown have low speed limits (35 mph and below), and are

narrow. The low speed limit makes cycling safer than higher speed limits, but the narrow roads

make it difficult to add bicycle lanes. Looking at the map, it is clear that many of the main

north-south roads have bicycle lanes. Even though the roads are painted with lines and the

bicycle symbol, and have signs, there are a few improvements that could be made. To begin,

235

Old Bradenton Road has very worn road markings, and could benefit from being re-marked.

This will increase the visibility of the bicycle lanes, and potentially make drivers more aware of

its presence. On both Cocoanut and Central Avenues, it would be beneficial to add more bicycle

lane markings on the road. Since there are a lot of side streets, this would make it clear to drivers

turning onto these avenues that they need to be aware of bicycles. North Orange Avenue has

safety issues based on the fact that the bicycle lanes disappear around intersections. The long

term goals could be to slightly widen the road to add a bicycle lane all the way through;

however, this is not a practical short term solution. In the mean time, the addition of signs to

indicate that the bicycle lane ends can make drivers more aware of cyclists.

North Tamiami Trail runs along the western border of Newtown, and does not currently

have a bicycle lane in the Newtown area. This road is currently labeled as unsafe for bicycles by

the city of Sarasota due to a lack of bicycle lane, high speeds and a lot of motor vehicle traffic.

The Bicycle/Pedestrian Advocates (BPA) have proposed that the road be restriped to include a

bicycle lane. There are two twelve feet wide lanes in each direction, and BPA proposes

changing it to two ten foot wide automobile lanes and one four foot bike line in each direction.

This can make it safer for bicycles, while still maintaining the same number of lanes for motor

vehicles (Bicycle/Pedestrian Advocates, 2009). This is a well researched proposal, and would

increase the bicycle accessibility of Newtown residents.

The only other north-south road that is wide enough to have traffic lanes and bicycle

lanes is North Osprey Avenue from Myrtle Street to Dr Martin Luther King Way. An issue

arises here in that there is on street parking in the vicinity of several churches along this road.

This could be accommodated for by warning that the bicycle lane is going to end near those

locations, and allowing parking. Safety could be improved in the parking area by adding “Share

236

the Road” signs, and decreasing the speed limit.

Starting at the northern boarder of Newtown, Myrtle Street does not have a bicycle lane.

Unfortunately, due to the narrow width of this road, adding a bicycle lane or a narrower,

undesignated lane is not possible. Widening this road is also not a feasible long term goal,

because both sides have drainage ditches and buildings. A potential short term safety feature that

could be added would be “Share the Road” or similar signs (Figure 3), as well as adding bicycle

sharrows. The speed limit on this road is low, and traffic was not observed to be heavy, so this

could sufficiently increase safety. In the longer term, adding other traffic calming measures such

as speed bumps or tables can help reduce speeding. Since this road runs next to the high school,

it could potentially increase the safety for drivers coming and going from the school, especially

during high traffic times. Again, the drainage ditch makes it difficult to widen sidewalks, but

this green area could have increased landscaping to calm the road.

Dr Martin Luther King Way has a short distance of bicycle lane, but is mainly void of

them. This particular road presents a problem because of the parking on both sides. Cars parked

on a street present a special problem, because drivers can open their doors without checking for

bicycles and cause serious injury. Because of this, it is recommended that automobile traffic

should flow no closer than 14 feet from the curb for parked cars and bicycles, and bicycles ride

at least 4 feet away from parked cars (Florida Bicycle Association, 2010). Currently, it is not

Figure 3: Several of the Florida Department of Transportation approved signs that could be used in Newtown to alert drivers to the presence of bicycles, and remind them of the law. Images from: http://flbikelaw.org/2010/01/riderightdrive-right-campaign/ and http://www.ckwheelmen.org/images/Share_the_Road.gif

237

feasible for Dr Martin Luther King Way to have marked bicycle lanes next to the parked cars

because the road is not wide enough. Unfortunately, because there are buildings close to the

street, it is not going to be possible in the long term to widen the road to accommodate parked

cars and a bicycle lane. A suggested way to increase safety in this area is to add “Share the

Road” signs and bicycle sharrows. Traffic calming measures can also be added. The on-street

parking and trees already in place are traffic calming measures. Adding speed bumps or tables in

some locations can also calm the road. Potentially improving crosswalks to be more visible,

such as adding a new color similar to the bicycle lanes mentioned previously can make drivers

more aware of a change. Like Myrtle Avenue, traffic calming could potentially greatly increase

safety on Dr Martin Luther King Way.

Also, although it is not generally encouraged, according to state statute 316.2065(10)

bicycles are legally allowed on the sidewalk in Florida as long as they follow pedestrian laws, do

not ride at high speeds, and yield to pedestrians (Florida Bicycle Association, 2010). Sidewalk

riding can at times be a safe alternative as long as the bicycles respect the sidewalk riding rules.

An alternative route for those trying to travel east-west on Dr Martin Luther King Way

would be using either 21st or 24th Street. Although both of these have parking down each side,

they are quiet roads that already have traffic-calming speed bumps in place to keep the speed

limit low. Although adding bicycle lanes is not an option for these roads, it would potentially be

safer to encourage bicycles to use these roads instead of Dr Martin Luther King Way when

possible. Again, the addition of “Share the Road” or similar signs, as well as bicycle sharrows,

can increase driver awareness on these roads.

On many of the roads throughout the community, cars have been observed parking in

bicycle lanes. This can create hazardous conditions for bicyclists, and should be avoided.

238

Parking needs can be taken into account when looking at bicycle lane placement; however, in the

areas that this was observed, there generally appeared to be sufficient driveway parking

available. In these areas, it is suggested that no-parking signs be added and enforced. However,

it is suggested that some community input is taken into account when making changes, because

there could be potential conflicts.

Bicycle Parking

Research suggests that even when bicycle lanes are in place, it is difficult to use bicycles

because there is not always a place to secure them once a rider is at a destination (Thompson,

2006). Throughout Newtown, it appears that bicycle racks have been included in many of the

newer facilities, such as the library and the park on the corner of Washington and Dr Martin

Luther King Way. There are still many places that lack this basic facility. Bicycle racks make

people more comfortable using bicycles and make public places look neater, as the bicycles are

all in the same place and not just attached to whatever looks secure. Bicycle racks are

recommended at several locations throughout the community. The Newtown Redevelopment

Office, the health clinic on Dr Martin Luther King Way, and the Robert L. Taylor Community

Complex are all important places within the community that provide valuable services, yet they

do not have bicycle racks. Businesses and churches are also encouraged to add bicycle racks

whenever possible. Businesses and churches can benefit by appearing to be welcoming to those

on bicycles, which could potentially increase the number of customers/followers.

239

Conclusion

Overall, the bicycle infrastructure currently in place in Newtown is a very good

beginning. Almost all of the roads that are wide enough for bicycle lanes have them, although

there are some parking issues that can potentially be taken care of by the addition of no parking

signs. Now is the time for the more difficult bicycle infrastructure and safety steps to be taken.

These projects include traffic calming and signs indicating that bicycles are sharing the roads. It

is critical that bicycle friendly infrastructure is present in the community. This infrastructure will

potentially increase the sustainability of the community by reducing vehicle emissions, and can

create a better environment for the numerous residents that can be seen riding bicycles

throughout the community. Getting to work, the grocery store and the health clinic can all be

easier, safer, and more comfortable with access to safe bicycle routes.

Despite the numerous benefits that come from adding bicycle infrastructure and traffic

calming, it is imperative that the community is involved in the decision making process. There

could be underlying reasons that are not visible to an ‘outsider’ that would make changes such as

adding no parking signs and reducing speeds difficult to digest. However, with community

education and discussion, these community improvements can most likely occur with community

support.

240

References

Alliance for Responsible Transportation. (2009). Bike Facilities. Accessed 9 Oct 2010 from < www.sarasotagov.com/sgc/YGC/pdfs/bike_suitability_map.pdf>

Allen-Munley, C., Daniel, J., & Dhar, S. (2004). Logistic Model for Rating Urban Bicycle Route Safety. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1878, 107-115.

Bicycle/Pedestrian Advocates of Sarasota. (2009). Accessed 8 Oct 2010 from < http://www.bike-

ped-sarasota.org/index.html> Black, W.R. (1996). Sustainable Transportation: A US Perspective. Journal of Transport

Geography, 4:3, 151-159. Bostock, L. (2001). Pathways of Disadvantage? Walking as a Mode of Transport Among Low-

Income Mothers. Health and Social Care in the Community, 9:1, 11-18. Congress for the New Urbanism. (1996). Charter of the New Urbanism. Accessed 5 Oct 2010

from < http://www.cnu.org/charter> Dill, J., & Carr, T. (2003). Bicycle Commuting and Facilities in Major U.S. Cities: If You Build

Them, Commuters Will Use Them. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1828, 116-123.

Epperson, B. (1995). Demographic and Economic Characteristics of Bicyclists Involved in

Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Accidents. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1502, 58-64.

Florida Bicycle Associates. (2010). Florida Bicycle Law Enforcement Guide. Greene, D.L., & Wegener, M. (1997). Sustainable Transport. Journal of Transport Geography,

5:3, 177-190. Hunter, W.W., Feaganes, J.R., & Srinivasan, R. (2005). Conversion of Wide Curb Lanes: The

Effect of Bicycle and Motor Vehicle Interactions. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1939, 37-44.

Hunter, W. W., Harkey, D. L., Stewart, J. R., & Birk, M. L. (2000). Evaluation of Blue Bike-

Lane Treatment in Portland, Oregon. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1705, 107-115.

Jensen, A.U. (2008). Safety effects of blue cycle crossings: A before-after study. Accident

Analysis and Prevention, 40, 742-750.

241

Krizek, K.J., & Roland, R.W. (2005). What is at the End of the Road? Understanding Discontinuities of On-Street Bicycle Lanes in Urban Settings. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 10:1, 55-68.

Martin, S.L, Lee, S.M., & Lowry, R. (2007). National Prevelance and Correlates of Walking and

Bicycling to School. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33:2, 98-195. McDonalds, N.C. (2008). Critical Factors for Active Transportation to School Among Low-

Income and Minority Students: Evidence from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34:4, 341-344.

Murakami, E., & Young, J. (1997). Daily Travel by Persons with Low Income. NPTS

Symposium, Bethesda, MD. 29 October 1997. Newman, P. & Kenworth, J. (1999). “Traffic Calming” From: Sustainability and Cities:

Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Island Press: Washington, D.C. Ong, P., & Blumenberg, E. (1998). Job Access, Commute, and Travel Burden among Welfare

Recipients. Urban Studies, 35:1, 77-93. Pucher, J., & Renne, J.L. (2005). Socioeconomics of Urban Travel: Evidence from the 2001

NHTS. Transportation Quarterly, 57:3, 49-77. Saelens, B.E, Sallis, J.F., & Frank, L.D. (2003). Environmental Correlates of Walking and

Cycling: Findings from the Transportation, Urban Design, and Planning Literatures. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 25:2, 80-91.

Schimek, P. (1996). Household Motor Vehicle Ownership and Use: How Much Does Residential

Density Matter? Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1552, 120-125.

Stillings, T., & Lockwood, I. (2000). West Palm Beach Traffic Calming: The Second

Generation. TRB Circular E-C019: Urban Street Symposium, I-5, 1-22. Thompson, S.T.C. (2006). Bicycle Access to Public Libraries: A Survery of Pennsylvania Public

Libraries and Their Accessibility to Patrons Arriving via Bicycle. Library Philosophy and Practice, 9:1, 1-11.

Van Houten, R., & Seiderman, C. (2005). Part 1: Bicycles: How Pavement Markings Influence

Bicycle and Motor Vehicle Positioning: Case Study in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1939, 1-14.

Wachs, M., & Taylor, B.D. (1998). Can transportation Strategies Help Meet the Welfare

Challenge? Journal of the American Planning Association, 64:1, 15-19.

242

World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987) “Towards Sustainable

Development” From: Our Common Future. UN Documents. Yang, S., Zarr, R.L., Kass-Hout, T.A., & Kourosh, A. (2006). Transportation Barriers to

Accessing Health Care for Urban Children. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 17:4, 928-943.

243

Assessing the Potential Benefits of Florida Friendly Municipal Landscaping in Newtown, Sarasota Corey Leonard Background

Over the past fifty years, big beautiful green lawns and public spaces have become iconic,

symbolizing the American dream. Unfortunately, the watering and maintenance requirements

that these turf laden lawns and landscapes require are not sustainable. The benefits of alternative

landscaping practices, such as Florida Friendly Landscaping (FFL), have been documented in the

literature, however there is a lack of information regarding the benefits of using FFL techniques

on municipal lands or common areas. The Newtown Redevelopment Office has identified city

landscaping along U.S.301, from 10th St. to Myrtle St. as a prospective project in the near future.

This research aims to quantify the environmental and economic benefits that FFL will bring to

Newtown, Sarasota. Specifically, this research will (1) calculate the land area that will be

affected by the new city landscaping, (2) design two theoretical landscapes (conventional and

FFL) to be used in the analysis, and (3) calculate the annual economic and environmental

benefits of landscaping the study area using FFL techniques. This will be accomplished with the

use of a Resource Conserving Landscaping (RCL) cost calculator provided by the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) and GIS.

Recent research emerging from Canada and the northeast has challenged the

sustainability of private green spaces and lawns. The socio-cultural perspectives of the American

lawn and the assessment on behavioral and risk perception of lawn chemical usage have been

well documented, however the risks associated with the high input regimes that traditional

landscaping requires has been outweighed by the pursuit of suburbanization (Robbins and Sharp

244

2003, Robbins 2001, Sandberg 2005). It was not until the post World War II era that the lawn

became a homogenous norm in the United States and Canada. The post war economic boom led

to an unprecedented level of spending power in the middle class, resulting in changes in urban

and suburban practices (Robbins and Sharp 2003). An increase in suburban development, fueled

in part by the creation of the highway system, turned the nation into a green canvas. The lawn

had become the outdoor expression of 1950’s conformism (Steinberg 2006). The unnatural look

of the lawn became the standard, and has since become embedded deep within the American

psyche.

The perfect landscape is a “dream founded on two resources our nation is rapidly running

out of-oil and water” (Steinberg 2006). Water resources around the globe are being threatened

by pollution and by increases in demand (Loucks 2000, Solomon 2010, Vorosmarty et al. 2000).

Florida is not considered an arid region, however the amount of clean drinking water available

has decreased significantly over the past decade (Fletcher 2002). According to the Department

of Environmental Protection (DEP), landscape irrigation accounts for up to one-half of all

public water supplied in Florida. Adding to the problem, the top ten species of sod commonly

used in Florida are non-native and either requires thick rich soil or continuous irrigation to

thrive. The soil in Florida is generally sandy, which drains well and is incapable of retaining

water for significant amounts of time. Studies have shown that people associate the quest for a

perfect lawn with home values and neighborhood connectivity, so even when the negative

consequences are known, the behavior still persists (Robbins 2001).

The high chemical (pesticide and fertilizer) input that is required by exotic landscaping

practices pose environmental and health hazards (Sandberg 2005, Robbins 2001). The risks

245

associated with lawn chemical usage have increased with the spread of the suburban lawn. Raw,

non-agricultural pesticides have a world market value of $10.4 billion dollars, with 40 percent

of the sales being represented by US household consumption. In 1984 more synthetic fertilizers

were used on American lawns than on all of the food crops of the entire nation of India

(Robbins and Sharp 2003). Research illustrates that the consumption of lawn chemicals in the

U.S. has increased, and we are using more than necessary. Studies have shown that nearly 50%

of households fail to carefully read and follow the directions when using lawn chemicals.

Overuse of chemicals leads to a buildup of residue, which is often tracked into the home where

they accumulate on carpet. Small children, who are more vulnerable to toxins, become at risk

for chronic exposure (Robbins and Sharp 2003, Steinberg 2006). Humans are not the only ones

at risk from the adverse affects of lawn chemicals. Pesticides are designed to kill pests, however

they commonly affect non-target species. It is estimated that lawn-care pesticides are

responsible for the death of 7 million birds each year (Steinberg 2006).

Nevertheless, not all of the literature regarding landscaping is negative. In fact, research

has attempted to document the social, economic, and environmental benefits of landscaping

(Grove 2006, Laverne 2003, Wei et al. 2009, Xian, Crane, and Su 2007). Good landscaping

aesthetics have been shown to have a positive effect on commercial building rental rates and

property values (Laverne 2003). When executed properly, landscaping can also increase the

surface area of non-impervious surfaces, reducing pollution loading into drainage basins (Wei et

al. 2009, Xian, Crane, and Su 2007). Although the aforementioned research is aimed at

highlighting the benefits of landscaping, the control or comparison group is often pavement.

One can argue that any form of landscaping would be better than pavement. However, the

benefits cited do not offset the current unsustainable practices and maintenance regimes.

246

The movement towards alternative practices has been slow; few people question the

conventional lawn “because its true price is not readily apparent” (Steinberg 2006). In 1989,

the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) imposed restrictions aimed to reduce

excessive lawn watering, and in 1991 Florida passed the nation’s first water reducing landscape

laws (Adams 1993). The Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) released a

report in 2006 that examines Florida friendly landscape and irrigation standards, which revealed

significant reductions in the amount of water and chemicals used on residential lawns

(Landscape Irrigation 2006, Haley et al. 2007). Florida friendly landscape standards have also

been set fourth by SWFWMD and are based on the following nine principles:

1. Right Plant, Right Place: By removing exotic and invasive species, decreasing the amount of

turf, and increasing the amount of plants that thrive in the local environment, the need for

water and lawn chemicals can be drastically reduced.

2. Water Efficiency: Water plants only when they show signs of stress, use a moisture sensor,

and decrease watering in the cooler months. This will help create a healthier landscape and

save water and money.

3. Fertilize Appropriately: Excess fertilizer seeps into the aquifers or runs into water bodies.

Only fertilize to maintain health, use a slow release fertilizer, follow directions on the

package, and avoid weed and feed products.

4. Mulch: Mulching around plants shrubs will help to control weeds, retain moisture, and will

reduce storm water runoff and erosion. Replace grass with mulched areas. Be sure to look

for mulch not harvested from Florida’s wetlands, or choose recycled mulch or mulch

alternatives.

247

5. Attract Wildlife: Attract friendly visitors by providing cover with trees and shrubs and

introduce native plants, which would serve as natural food, shelter, and nesting plants to local

wildlife.

6. Manage Yard Pests Responsibly: Misused pesticides can enter waterways and harm

beneficial wildlife. Let beneficial insects to the work for you and be tolerant, low levels of

best do minimal damage. If pesticides are needed, choose the least toxic and read and follow

the labels carefully.

7. Recycle: Recycling yard waste back into the landscape can improve water-holding abilities

and improve fertility. Leave grass clippings on the turf and start a compost pile with yard

waste and kitchen scraps.

8. Reduce Stormwater Runoff: Runoff carries pollutants and excess lawn chemicals into nearby

waterways. Direct gutters into the lawn or plant beds, sweep clippings, fertilizer and soil into

the lawn, and pick up pet waist to help reduce the amount of pollution washed into the storm

drains.

9. Protect the Waterfront: To increase the quality of waterways, plant a buffer zone between

your property and the shoreline; a maintenance free zone of at least 10 feet should be

established. Never prune mangroves or remove any vegetation without proper permits or

guidelines (SWFWMD 2010).

Florida Friendly landscaping is slowly gaining popularity in Florida’s suburbs, however,

there is a lack of literature quantifying the effects of Florida friendly landscaping on common

areas that are maintained by individual municipalities. Sustainable landscaping of common

areas has the potential to benefit the environment and save money by reducing the amount of

248

water, pesticides, and fertilizers needed to maintain them. Documentation of the economic and

environmental benefits would ultimately progress the alternative landscape movement.

Research Objectives and Methods

The Newtown Redevelopment Office has identified city landscaping along U.S.301, from

10th St. to Myrtle St. as a prospective future project. This research aims to quantify the

environmental and economic benefits that Florida friendly landscaping will bring to Newtown.

The individual research objectives of this research include the following:

1. Determine the land area that will be affected by the new city landscaping,

2. Design a conventional landscape and calculate irrigation and maintenance

requirements for total area,

3. Design a Florida friendly landscape and calculate irrigation and maintenance

requirements for the total area,

4. Determine the annual economic and environmental benefits of landscaping the

study area using Florida friendly landscaping.

Areal imagery (2009) obtained from the City of Sarasota was added in ArcGIS 9.2 to

map the study area, and a parcel shape file provided by the property appraiser’s office was used

to identify areas that may be landscaped. Polygons were manually drawn around areas of land

along U.S.301, from Myrtle St. to 10th St., that are owned by the municipality. The polygons

were used to calculate the area of land, in square feet, that could possibly be affected by the

city-landscaping project. The actual area of land that will be landscaped may vary; however,

the calculated study area is large enough to make an accurate and meaningful comparison.

249

After the area was calculated, a Resource Conserving Landscaping (RCL) cost calculator

provided by the EPA was used to compare differences between the two landscape types. Based

on the size of the area to be landscaped, the RCL cost calculator demonstrates how differences

in landscape design could lead to a net economic and environmental savings over time (EPA

2010). In order to accurately assess savings and to calculate the cost of generated waste, the

length of the growing season for the study area was determined by using data provided by ESRI

Globe. The annual maintenance requirements were calculated based on a set of estimates

provided in the RCL calculator. These estimates are based on average prices charged by private

landscaping businesses, so the actual cost of maintenance provided by the city will be lower

than the maintenance figures calculated. The estimates are included in both analyses to

demonstrate the differences in maintenance costs between the two types of landscapes. Next, the

calculator required that the area be divided into three zones:

1. Regular watering zone – zones that require watering at least once per week, once

established, in the absence of rain;

2. Occasional watering zone- zones that would require watering once every two to

three weeks, once established in the absence of rain;

3. Natural rainfall zone- zones that only require water from natural rainfall, once

established (EPA 2010).

After the percentages of land in each zone was determined, the percentages of turf, shrubs, trees,

and flowering plants were input based on landscape design standards provided by the DEP and

SWFWMD. Finally, the initial costs of the landscaping projects were calculated using national

averages provided by the EPA; similarity in costs between the landscape types was assumed. All

250

of the parameters were input into the calculator. The 3-year, 6-year, 10-year, and average annual

cost savings are determined based on water savings, maintenance cost, and the cost of waste

disposal.

Results

The polygons created to represent the area to be landscaped from Myrtle St. to 10th St.,

along U.S.301 had a total land area of 100,717 square feet. This area was divided into three

zones based on vegetation type for conventional and Florida friendly landscapes. The

conventional landscape was designed to have a ground cover dominated by sod, accounting for

80573.6 square feet (80%) of the study area. Flowerbeds planted with annuals typically found in

conventional landscapes accounted for 100717.7 square feet (10%), shrubs and bushes accounted

for 5035.85 square feet (5%), and trees made up 5035.85 square feet (5%) of the study area. The

Florida friendly landscape was designed with sod accounting for 50358.5 square feet (50%) of

the ground cover. Flowerbeds planted with perennial Florida friendly species accounted for

5035.81 square feet (5%), shrubs and bushes accounted for 30215.1 square feet (30%), and trees

accounted for 15107.51 square feet (15%) of the study area. The areas of the three watering

zones were calculated based on type of plant cover. Sods in both landscapes were assigned to

zone 1. Flowerbeds in the conventional landscape were assigned to zone 1 while flowerbeds in

the Florida friendly landscape were assigned to zone 2. Shrubs in both the conventional and

Florida friendly landscape types were assigned to zone 2 and trees in both landscapes were

assigned to zone 3. The cost per 1000 gallons of water was determined to be $6.60. This was

based on tier II irrigation water costs provided by the City of Sarasota. Actual costs paid by the

city may vary.

251

The gallons of water needed to irrigate the conventional landscape was calculated to be

1,132,331 (low estimate) to 2,280,180 (high estimate), which would cost $7,473-$15,049

annually. The gallons of water needed to irrigate the Florida friendly landscape was calculated

to be 651,734 (low estimate) to 1,334,502 (high estimate) annually. The annual cost of irrigation

would be $4,301-$8,808. A Florida friendly landscape design on U.S. 301, from Myrtle St. to

10th St., could reduce the amount of water used for irrigation by 773,138 gallons (58.2%) per

year. The water savings would equate to $4,706 per year, which could go towards other projects

to benefit Newtown.

The average annual cost for irrigation, maintenance, and disposal of generated waste for

the conventional landscape was calculated to be $66,036 (Table 1), while the average annual cost

for the Florida friendly landscape was $42,671 (Table 2). If Newtown uses Florida friendly

landscape designs they could possibly save an average of $23,365 per year (64.41%) on

irrigation, maintenance, and waste disposal (Figure 1). The average annual water, maintenance,

and disposal costs at 3, 6, and 10 years were $70,063, $140,126, and $233,543 respectively

(Figure 2). The proportionate increase over time was expected due to the assumption of equal

initial cost. If initial capital requirements are higher for the Florida friendly landscape, the water

savings would remain the same, but the economic benefit would increase over time.

252

Conventional Landscape Low Cost Estimate

High Cost Estimate Averages

Initial Cost $193,377 $374,667 $284,022Gallons of Water Used Annually 1,132,331 2,280,180 1,706,256Annual Water Cost Due to Irrigation $7,473 $15,049 $11,261Annual Flower Bed Maintenance $18,532 $38,172 $28,352Annual Turf Maintenance $11,119 $15,954 $13,536Annual Shrub and Ground Cover Maintenance $655 $1,108 $881Annual Tree Maintenance $252 $957 $604Landscape Firm's Travel Cost $228 $228 $228Landscape Firm's Profit $3,079 $5,267 $4,173Annual Maintenance Cost $33,864 $61,685 $47,774Annual Yard Waste Disposal Cost $7,000.00 $7,000.00 Annual Water Maintenance and Disposal Cost $48,337 $83,734 $66,0363 Year Cost $338,389 $625,869 $482,1296 Year Cost $483,400 $877,070 $680,23510 Year Cost $676,749 $1,212,006 $944,378

Table 1: Water, maintenance, and disposal cost estimates for the conventional landscape, as calculated by the EPA’a RCL cost calculator

Water Saving Landscape Low Cost Estimate

High Cost Estimate

AVERAGE

Initial Cost $193,377 $374,667 $284,022Rebate $0 $0 $0Net Initial Cost $193,377 $374,667 $284,022Gallons of Water Used Annually 651,734 1,334,502 993,118Annual Water Cost Due to Irrigation $4,301 $8,808 $6,555Annual Flower Bed Maintenance $9,266 $19,086 $14,176Annual Turf Maintenance Cost $6,949 $9,971 $8,460Annual Shrub and Ground Cover Maintenance $3,626 $6,345 $4,985Annual Tree Maintenance $604 $2,719 $1,662Landscape Contractor's Travel Cost $228 $228 $228Landscape Contractor's Profit $2,067 $4,164 $3,116Annual Maintenance Cost $22,741 $42,513 $32,627Annual Yard Waste Disposal Cost $3,500.00 $3,500.00 Annual Water Maintenance and Disposal Cost $30,542 $54,821 $42,6813 Year Cost $285,003 $539,129 $412,0666 Year Cost $376,629 $703,591 $540,11010 Year Cost $498,797 $922,874 $710,835

Table 2: Water, maintenance, and disposal cost estimates for the Florida Friendly landscape, as calculated by the EPA’s RCL cost calculator

253

Figure 1: Cost savings for conventional and Florida friendly landscape types

Figure 2: The annual water, maintenance, and disposal cost over time for conventional and Florida friendly landscapes Discussion and Conclusion The RCL cost calculator allows one to estimate the total cost of a landscaping project

over time. This analysis has shown that Florida friendly landscaping has the potential to

economically benefit Newtown, as well as reduce the need for pesticides, fertilizers, and

unnecessary irrigation. The study area used in the analysis is only an estimate of the total land to

254

be landscaped; so actual water savings could be higher. The economic benefits from the

decreased water needs of the Florida friendly landscape could also be underestimated. Water

savings could lead to price drops into a lower tier, causing actual savings to be higher. Reducing

the turf area by 30% and increasing shrubs and bushes by 25%, which also increases mulched

areas, greatly reduces the amount of water needed for irrigation. The type of plants that will be

selected will also have an affect of the amount of water needed for irrigation. Newtown should

select plants and sod that are native to the area and are able to thrive, given the soil and

precipitation conditions.

The maintenance needs and generated waste also decreased with the Florida friendly

landscape. Again, choice of plants and sod will be extremely important. Many of the Florida

friendly species grow slowly, which reduce maintenance needs and generated waste. The actual

figures calculated for maintenance costs are not meant to represent the costs that will be incurred

by Newtown, they are general estimates provided by the EPA, which are necessary to generate

the calculation. Newtown’s cost of maintenance is expected to be lower, as the city will be

responsible. However, the figures do serve as an adequate comparison tool that illustrates a

proportional difference between the two landscapes. Newtown could expect to save 31.7% on

maintenance and 50% on waste disposal.

While the analysis focused on how much water and money can be saved by implementing

Florida friendly landscaping, there are several other environmental benefits that are associated

with this type of landscaping that cannot be calculated. For instance, a Florida friendly

landscape conserves fossil fuels. Minimizing turf grass reduces the need for mowing and

trimming, which ultimately reduces the amount of fuel used to power lawn equipment. This also

reduces the associated air emissions, which reduces air pollution and improves air quality.

255

Florida friendly landscaping requires the grouping of plants based on water needs, which reduces

runoff and retards erosion. It also supports the local ecology because native plants are uniquely

adapted to the local ecosystem and are better able to resist drought and disease, while supporting

local flora and fauna. The resistance to disease and drought means that less pesticides and

fertilizers are needed, keeping lawn chemicals out of the fragile ecosystems and our homes

(SWFWMD 2010).

The solution to the high environmental and economic costs of the conventional lawn is

alternative landscape practices, such as Florida friendly landscaping. However redesigning the

American lawn is not going to be an easy task. The traditional lawn holds “an important place in

the American view of an ideal life” (Bormann et al. 2001). To move forward, a mass awakening

of people who question traditional landscaping practices is necessary. The lawn, with all of is

glorious greenness, is a human-modified ecosystem that has no function other than to consume

resources that are in short supply in order for people to feel a sense of belonging. Traditional

landscaping practices and maintenance regimes are not sustainable; we must reevaluate our

attachment to the lawn and begin to redefine the purpose and function of landscaping. The use

of alternative landscaping along busy streets and in common areas, such as the proposed

landscaping project in Newtown, has the potential to create a trend in residential areas. Once

people are given an example that showcases the beauty and cost-effectiveness of alternative

landscapes, the easier it will be to challenge the monoculture of the traditional lawn.

Works Cited

Adams, Bruce. "Florida's Cooperative Approach." Planning 59.9 (1993): 12. Print.

Birkenholtz, T., Robbins, P. “Turfgrass Revolution: Measuring the Expansion of the American Lawn”. Land Use Policy 20 (2003): 181. Print.

256

Bormann, F. et al. Redesigning the American Lawn. Yale University Press: New Haven and London (2001).

Department Of Environmental Protection. “Landscape Irrigation and Florida-Friendly Design Standards” Report. (2006) Print.

Environmental Protection Agency. “Greenscape Tools”. 2010. http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/greenscapes/tools/

Feagan, R. "Reading Private Green Space: Competing Geographic Identities at the Level of the Lawn." Philosophy and geography 4.1 (2001): 79. Print.

Fletcher, C. “Florida Water Resource Development: A Call for State Wide Leadership”. Journal of Land Use 18.1 (2002): 113. Print.

Grove, M., Cadenasso, M., et al. “Data and Methods Comparing Social Structure and Vegetation Structure of Urban Neighborhoods in Baltimore, Md.” Society and Natural Resources 19 (2006): 117. Print.

Haley, M., Dukes, M., and Miller, G. “Residential Irrigation Water Use in Central Florida”. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 10 (2007) :427. Print

Laverne, R. J., Windson-Geildeman, K. "The Influence of Trees and Landscaping on Rental Rates at Office Buildings." Journal of arboriculture 29.5 (2003): 281. Print.

Loucks, D. P. "Sustainable Water Resources Management." Water International 25.1 (2000): 3. Print.

Robbins, P. et al."Lawns and Toxins:: An Ecology of the City." Cities 18.6 (2001): 369. Print.

Robbins, P., Sharp, A. "Producing and Consuming Chemicals: The Moral Economy of the American Lawn." Economic Geography 79.4 (2003): 425-51. Print.

Sandberg, L. A., Foster, J. "Challenging Lawn and Order: Environmental Discourse and Lawn Care Reform in Canada." Environmental Politics 14.4 (2005): 478-94. Print.

Solomon, Steven. "Fresh, Clean, and Scarce." Sierra (2010): 80-1. Print.

Steinberg, T. “American Green: The Obsessive Quest for the Perfect Lawn”. W.W. Norton and Co.: New York (2006).

SWFWMD. “Florida Friendly Landscaping” 2010. http://www.swfwmd.state.fl.us/yards/.

Vorosmarty, C. J., Green, P., et al. "Global Water Resources: Vulnerability from Climate Change and Population Growth." Science 289.5477 (2000): 284. Print.

257

Wei, O. Wang, X., Hao, F., and Srinivasan, R. “Temporal-spatial Dynamics of Vegetation Variation on Non-point source pollution”. Ecological Modeling 220 (2009): 2702. Print.

Xian, G., Crane, M., and Su, J. “An Analysis of Urban Development and its Environmental Impact on the Tampa Bay Watershed” Journal of Environmental Management 85 (2007): 965. Print.

258

Noise Pollution and Environmental Justice

Scott A. Moore

There is nothing environmentally sustainable about the roaring sounds of a highway

outside of a bedroom window, or similarly, the supercharged sounds of jet engines overhead

during a meal. People are unable to achieve peace of mind when they are literally surrounded by

a cacophonous din for most of their waking and sleeping life.

By definition, one could call these sounds I have described above as noise. Additionally,

when compared to an ideal situation, one could portray the situations described above as being

negatively affected and polluted. Naturally, these two concepts come together in the field of

Noise Pollution, and these are precisely the concepts that I will focus on in this study. Noise

pollution is a social ailment that plagues many different kinds of people in many different

circumstances and locations. Generally speaking, it is the poorer parts of a city that tend to be the

noisiest, as there are much less effort made to soften the sounds of modernity.

In this paper, I will consider the broad field of noise pollution and bring it into the context

of how it relates specifically to lower-income neighborhoods and parts of larger towns. I will

also consider why or why not this is different from the way these sounds interact with residents

living in a wealthier part of a city or municipality.

Newtown, Sarasota is one place in particular that falls on the lower side of the economic

spectrum, and one can be sure that as the highways outside of their neighborhoods are widened,

the amount of noise being produced will increase dramatically. This kind of dynamic, which is to

say, the battle between people and access to assets and a fine quality of living, can be described

259

as a study in Environmental Justice, and this field will be an active informant in conducting this

study.

One of the most significant notions of this paper is that all of these noise-sources and

noisy environments can be totally rectified, and done so in a natural and sustainable way.

Throughout this study it will be my goal to relate the two fields of environmental justice and

noise pollution by arriving at an end-point that is deeply indebted to sustainability. The present

age is one of very green intentions: sustainable solutions are becoming more viable with each

passing day, and eventually systems will be in place that will solve an environmental problem

once and for all, rather than hastily patching it up to attempt to fix it again later. This paper will

look optimistically towards the future by way of nature’s path for a practical and contemporary

solution to the problem of noise pollution and environmental justice, which faces our cities

presently. In order to set the scene for sustainable solutions in the field of noise pollution, what

it means to be “sustainable” must first be gleaned and gathered.

Something can be considered sustainable when “it meets the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Wheeler, 62).” This can

be interpreted as perfecting a system of growth or operations until it results in a natural and

cyclical wheel of life or process, rather than one that is linear and finite. To achieve the

sustainable is to finally return to progressivism and practicality. The goal and inspiration for the

sustainability movement is to create scenarios where something new begins directly after

something old has just ended, forming out of the ashes of the leftover components. This new

component is developed through to maturity, processed, finalized, and then reconsidered in

preparations for naturally restarting the cycle. An ideal example of this would be a harvest of

trees. Let’s say that five trees are planted, maintained and allowed to flourish for some time.

260

Then, five more are planted as two of them have reached maturity by completely natural means,

and are harvested. So, now two mature, organic trees have been produced, and there are eight

more to follow with an ever-increasing amount of surplus trees being produced due to the fact

that the harvester is imitating nature’s cycle of endless plenty.

How then, do such scenarios play into the fields of noise pollution or acoustics? Before

this question is answered, the intricacies of all things noise must be described and brought into

context.

What then is the official definition of noise? Not surprisingly, this question can result in

several answers: one could either go the direct way, as described by Clifford R. Bragdon on page

fifty-one of his book “Noise Pollution,” declaring that noise can be “defined subjectively as

unwanted sound, sound not desired by the recipient” (Bragdon, 1970). Of course after being told

that this is the definition of noise, one may openly declare that they feel their conversations with

other people are unwanted sounds, and that their colleagues are noisemakers! Or one could also

describe the sounds coming from an undesired radio station as noise, and that it is polluting the

sonic environment. However, these are not necessarily the kinds of noise I am interested in

regarding this research.

The above quips could almost be understood as problems of aesthetics and irritation,

rather than problems of especially noisy sounds. If Bragdon has decided that noise is merely

subjective to the listener and that it has a sliding scale of validity or affectation, then I am more

interested in a different kind of noise. I am interested in the kinds of noise that are objective; the

instances of noise that affect everyone around them just the same, the kinds of noise that truly

impose upon the lives of those in its proximity. Perhaps, I am really talking about volume here,

but then again, the constant and quiet hum of electronic signals or cars passing on the highways

261

have certainly been defined as noise before.

It has already been seen that, in some cases, there is a fine line between what can be

called noise and what cannot. It is one thing for someone to call a song in the rock and roll genre

a bunch of noise, and another to call a steam hammer noisy as it pounds enormous pilings into

the ground. In his book “Noise Pollution,” Donald Anthrop divides noise into four different

categories: noise in dwellings, construction noise, motor vehicle noise, and aircraft noise

(Anthrop, 1973). He attributes poor home construction as a large factor in regards to the amount

of noise experienced by the inhabitants of any given dwelling. This includes both poor

workmanship of the walls and ceilings of buildings regarding their density and insulation, as well

as the general acoustic design of the home. One can certainly deem a household as being noisy

when someone in one room can perfectly hear what is being said or done in the next room over,

especially if what is being said or done is at a high volume. A good example of this is when a

student is doing their homework or working on something in their bedroom, but someone

watching the television of vacuuming somewhere else in the house is constantly distracting them.

As far as acoustic design goes, plenty of scientific research has been conducted that

explains the angles that walls and ceiling should be placed at in order to ensure that sound can

reverberate adequately and accurately. Sometimes homebuilders complete construction never

having heard of these things. Perhaps this is due to a lack of financial support, poses Mr.

Anthrop. Financial support and the lack of it is something I will return to later when considering

poorer neighborhoods and their problems with noise.

Having mentioned the vacuum cleaner already, one naturally moves to think of other

appliances found in households today that have, by default, noisy modes of operation. These

include, the dishwasher, the blender, the hum of a microwave or refrigerator, a coffee grinder,

262

washer, dryer, or even the occasional use of the garbage disposal. At first consideration these

may not seem to be such a nuisance, but throughout the day, month, and year one is in close

proximity to these things on a semi-regular basis, which can certainly cause the ears to fatigue

and become numb to those frequencies.

Yes, it is true that prolonged exposure to a constant noise will cause your ears to

eventually tune it out for good. Of course by now appliance manufacturers are aware that

consumers prefer quieter appliances; meaning that while models are getting newer, they are also

getting quieter and more expensive. Once again it can be seen that peace of mind and a quiet

home really comes down to finances and whether someone can afford the finer things, or

whether they cannot.

Besides the ancient blender that hacks dully away at the ice inside it, or the vacuum that

sounds like a jet engine, are the actual jet engines that are careening and soaring overhead each

and every day of this modern life. The sound that immediately comes to one’s mind when

considering an airplane is, of course, the roaring sound of the engines as the plane picks up speed

for a takeoff. The low-rumble of the engines shakes the insides of all of those in its proximity,

and one can still hear those sounds even after the plane has already taken off into the sky. That

is, unless you are still on the plane, then it can be expected that these sounds will follow for quite

some time! We know that the sounds of a plane can be heard for miles and miles as it takes off

above the ground, so all along the way people living and working below can hear the noisy

sounds, and odds are that it can pose as a distraction and a nuisance from daily activity.

Up until now I have only been considering the sounds of airplanes as only ever coming

from a single airplane, one at a time. However, it is obviously apparent that these enormous

vehicles don’t just appear out of thin air, but that they, along with hundreds of their brothers and

263

cousins, reside in airports around the globe en masse, only to experience an exodus en masse as

well. Being that there are so many people living in the United States, there must be just as many

planes in operation to shuttle them to and fro. This means, that airports are taking up more and

more space to accommodate all of the necessary planes, runways, hangers, and hubs needed to

support such a high demand. It just so happens that due to the same fact of having so many

people needing somewhere to live, more and more neighborhoods are being built up as well.

This brings the discussion to a very interesting point: that there are many neighborhoods

being built in, sometimes extremely, close quarters to the ever-expanding and operating local

airport. Now, on first impulse, which would one guess as being the more expensive place to live:

a house that has a backyard that oversees one of the nation’s largest runways, or the home that is

miles away from the din of airports, and is tucked away nicely behind some exotic trees and

landscaping? This is certainly a rhetorical question, as everyone knows that if one lives near the

airport then one will most certainly be hearing those sounds most associated with airports

throughout their waking and sleeping life. In fact, the authors of the book “The Impact of Noise

Pollution” describe this exact scenario in their introduction to the chapter on Air Traffic noise. It

is most unfortunate that some people cannot escape the roar of the jet engine; that it serves as a

constant reminder that they are not wealthy enough to move to a different part of town. But this

is exactly the situation at which this paper is aimed.

There are two possible solutions when a family is not wealthy enough to live far away

from a noisy airport, and are forced to experience the constant wash of sounds that travel directly

into their daily lives: they can either magically come up with enough money to move out of the

neighborhood and into a different part of town, or proper measures are taken so that their quality

of life is improved without them having to fully relocate and abandon their home. There are

264

numerous books that depict a number of possible solutions in the use of sound barriers and other

sound-reducing technologies, and the book “Environmental Noise Barriers” by Kotzen and

English is a wonderful resource to learn more about them. A very curious detail is that these

barriers can be produced sustainably from nature in plenty. Yet it’s time to go on the road again.

The open road: nothing but miles and miles of open highway with desolate and far-

reaching dessert on either side as far as the eye can see. Nice and quiet, besides the sounds of

wind and the occasional caw of a bird or two, all one hears is the sound of the wheels spinning

underneath and the quiet sound of the engine hard at work. Perchance this scene is, in fact, a

daily routine in the life of someone residing in the United States, but chances are, that the more-

common scenario experienced while having to ride daily in a motor vehicle is one of bumper-to-

bumper traffic and stress. Car horns honking, people possibly shouting, and this repeating for

miles and miles, as far as the eye can see. Truly, if there was ever an image of a large-scale

metropolis, or a developed and evolved city, it was one depicting a traffic jam on a hot and

humid day. Imagine if these jam-packed streets were directly outside of a bedroom window, not

very appealing is it? I am unsure whether or not countless cars lined-up one after the other

ensures progress, yet that is indeed what can be found in some of the most prosperous cities in

America these days. And just as poorer families are unable to afford an escape route away from

the dissonance of the modern-day airport, they are unable to elude the encroaching pavement of

another road-widening construction job and all of the busy honkers and drivers that go along

with it. Just to be explicit, this is not an uncommon occurrence. That being the case, it can be

gathered that issues like relate directly to environmental justice. That a family or group of

families is forced to sit and listen to the sounds of traffic all day because they cannot afford a

nicer area of town is an outrage.

265

Economics are harder than I am making them out to be, but actually a sustainable

solution is not too difficult to imagine. There are numerous possible solutions available to the

retrofitter and city-liver, yet those doing the building, expanding and polluting, do not often

propose these solutions. One wonders why this might be, why a construction company or builder

may decide to avoid the extra amendments to the fairness of his job, such as sound barriers or

more-efficient design. Quite simply, it is due to the fact that the builder knows that they will

finish the job and return to their homes far away from the construction zone. It is understood that

low-income families currently reside close to the construction zone, and that they will just have

to deal with fact that they will not go more than an hour without hearing some imposing sound

swoop into their daily routine, all of this being due to their economic situation.

Now would be a good time to start to investigate the real way that noise affects the ones

who experience it. In his introduction to the first chapter of the book “Environmental Urban

Noise,” the editor Amando Garcia states, “noise fills everything and affects everybody

(Environmental Urban Noise, page 1). If this really is the case, than all people rich and poor

should be concerned with their day-to-day acoustical environment, because it could very well be

affecting them without their being aware. Which is to say, that the affects of noise on people can

be dramatically severe, as well as subtle or nuanced. In pages 75 to 78 of their book entitled

“Environmental Factors in Urban Planning,” E. Grandjean and A. Gilgen go to great lengths in

order to describe the various negative side effects brought on by noise. It may come as a surprise,

but it is actually possible to become deaf if forced to experience constant noise that does not

change.

Yes, it is quite possible for a listener to eventually become numb or deaf to a certain

sound, pitch, or frequency if they are forced to hear for extended periods of time. This includes

266

musicians who listen to and experience music at loud volumes, but also people who live close to

construction yards or other heavy-machinery factories. The constant banging and piling sound

can grate at one’s ears until it has literally broken a hole in the person’s hearing. This is not a

very good thing to say the least! Additionally, it has been discovered that noise affects the

automatic nervous system. The authors state that very loud and sustained noises can “cause

narrowing of the blood-vessels and hence raise the blood-pressure.” They move to say, “The

respiratory system is even more sensitive, and reacts by breathing more rapidly” (Grandjean,

1973). It is hard to imagine someone being able-bodied and in good health if they are breathing

rapidly and have high blood pressure, but alas, this is common among poorer people who live

near industrial zones in large cities where the more wealthy people live in far-removed or

secluded communities far away from the din of reality.

Further complications include the disturbance of sleep, which is obviously essential for

success in daily activities. Sleep is the time when the body recovers from the stresses of the day.

The immune system rebuilds itself and works to fight off any ailments, and the muscles finally

relax and reset themselves for the next day. The mind is allowed to relax, wander, and dream-

constantly compiling and reformatting its memory banks and pathways. But what if this is

disturbed by the sounds of cars and airplanes, or perhaps by neighbors shouting or carrying-on

down the hall, down the street, or down the block? The body becomes restless and agitated when

pulled from sleep while deep in the middle, and it is usually difficult to fall back asleep. Even

then, “disturbance of this sort prevents sleep from having its restorative effect, and brings about

chronic weariness, with all of its consequent ill-effects on well-being, efficiency and liability to

illness (Environmental Factors, 76).”

So now it can be seen that a typical scenario of someone being affected by noise is a grim

267

one. The person is surrounded by noise pollution and struggles with rapid breathing, narrow

arteries, chronic fatigue and distraction, as well as a poor-immune system. Take also into account

that not everyone can afford expensive and/or skilled doctors to prescribe to them the help

needed to recover or deal with these negative effects. Some people cannot even afford medicine

if they become sick, possibly due to a weakened immune system.

Furthermore, it is common knowledge that “one of the most obvious effects of traffic

noise is interference with communication” (Urban Traffic Noise, 41).” How people are able to

speak and communicate with one another while distracting sounds interfere is a baffling mystery.

Also take into consideration that many schools are located deep within the infrastructure of a

city, where cars and planes are constantly making their presence known by the loud and caustic

sounds they make. Even if a school is located in a suburb, there are highways and roads all

around, and an open window in the classroom could be an open-invitation for distraction and

confusion.

Scenarios like this paint an ill-fated picture of contemporary city life, one that seems

depressing, drab, and bleak, yet this does not have to be the case at all. Of course one can

appreciate the complexities and benefits of technology and modern-day methods of operation,

but with it does not have to come all of the noisy side effects. It is, indeed, possible to retrofit

these devices and or surroundings with noise barriers and insulation, and I will now discuss some

of these in this paper.

Sound is energy, and energy can never be destroyed, it is only absorbed or transferred

someplace else. The goal of most noise barriers is to either bounce the sounds away from the

people who wish not to hear the sound, or they absorb it within their walls in order to slightly

dampen and soften the sound, these two types are called “reflective” and “absorptive”

268

(Environmental Noise Barriers, 95). In many cases, planting and greenery are brought into the

project, both to increase visual appeal, and effectiveness, as trees and plants can absorb some of

the sound as it bounces from the road or from the sky.

A great deal of thought it put into to selecting the exact color, size, shape, and texture of a

new noise barrier as it is brought into a setting or project. For the most part, a sound barrier as

used to help residents carryout their lives alongside the noisiness of planes and car, looks like a

tall and large wall that stretches for a large length. These can be constructed from many types of

materials, including metal, alloys, wood, and dirt. The last two materials listed are particularly

important because they come from nature. They are sustainable materials. These are the kinds of

materials that builders should focus on using when devising new sound barriers for highways,

gardens, schoolyards, neighborhoods, and any other setting where humans interact. Even if

something more impervious such as a metal is required for a job, builders should work to ensure

that it has come from recycled materials so that the sustainability factor is still there.

Not only does planting a long row of trees along a city street beautify the street and

increases people’s happiness, it also helps to dampen the vehicle noise coming from the streets

themselves. This is not a remarkably expensive thing to do, and it should be done much more

often than it is currently. Solutions like this fit perfectly into the needs of poorer communities

such as Newtown in Sarasota County, Florida. While one construction company expands a two

lane road into six lanes, all the while drilling and pouring and pounding and drilling and

compounding noisily, just outside the windows of the neighborhood residents, another

construction company should be building a wall to act as a noise barrier for the residents. It is not

fair for poorer people to be forced to live in noisy, uninhabitable zones, when these areas can be

adapted to better-suit a peaceful and quiet environment.

269

Luckily, there has already been some impetus in revitalizing and adapting the city of

Newtown for a new and improved modern age and city-image. Listed on the city’s website

(http://www.sarasotagov.com/Newtown/CRA.html) is a detailed description of plans to

redevelop the community and downtown areas. This redevelopment plan includes many different

kinds of legislation and planning, which will, indeed, greatly improve the residents’ quality of

life, however, I did not notice much work being made in the area of noise pollution and

acoustics. Listed among the goals and initiatives of the redevelopment area are plans to beautify

the community with more trees and park areas, yet these new additions can be placed

strategically, and not just aesthetically.

One can see from the side effects I have listed above that noise and noise pollution are

very detrimental to one’s health and well-being. As the residents of Newtown begin to rebuilding

and retrofit their city to make it ideal, I would advise them to consider greenery as not only a

way to titivate the area, but also as a way to quiet it down. I know for a fact that the sounds of

loud car stereos can be heard indoors are cars drive through the streets of Newtown. By

strategically placing foliage and trees in spots between the streets and the homes, the sound that

is transferred can be reduced dramatically. For areas that require much more noise dampening

than a few trees, denser foliage and landscaping can be devised to accommodate the task at hand!

Whether or not it is the residents of the city or private licensers that do the planting, I would hope

that the answer to Newtown’s noise pollution is a sustainable one, as a finite solution will have to

be achieved eventually.

There will come a time when all construction and landscaping companies use strictly

sustainable materials in their designs, and the sooner this happens, the better. No person should

be forced to endure a situation where their quality of life is negatively affected and they are

270

unable to do anything about it because of financial limitations. It is the duty of the airport to

account for the noise their premises produces, and they should be required to perform tests that

access the noise levels that the local people will be forced to experience because of their being

there. Moreover, rather than mining, drilling, and producing new metals to construct a noise

barrier that will act as a boundary for a highway or roadway, constructors should seek-out

recycled and sustainable sources to re-work for their new purpose of being an effective sound

dampener. Allowing poor and rich people to live in peace is not as difficult as abstract

mathematics or experimental physics, yet it is treated as such. There must be accountability for

the people who build objects that increase the noise pollution of local residents without fully

taking care of their responsibilities. When a plumber installs a new kitchen sink, it is their

responsibility to include the faucet and proper piping. When a company paves a new road or

adds a new expansion to an airport, it is their responsibility to provide the premises with proper

noise barriers and insulation, and for these new barriers to be sustainably produced. Anything

else is environmentally unjust, and should not be allowed to go on further.

We have seen the detrimental effects of noise on the people forced to experience it, and

we have also seen several different ways that the problem can be rectified. It may be surprising

to find that plants and trees can be combined to sustainably bring down noise levels within a

community, but a great solution is not much harder than that. Even if construction companies or

urban planners neglect to include any kind of sound barriers for the people tat live and work in

areas that tend to be noisy, at least it is possible to add sound insulation where it is needed, no

matter how rich or poor an area is. It is not fair for poorer people to be forced to forever hear the

sounds of cars outside their window and planes constantly flying overhead, it is my aim that

someday the state of affairs will be ideal.

271

Works Cited:

Anthrop, Donald F. Noise Pollution. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973. Print. Bragdon, Clifford R. Noise Pollution The Unquiet Crisis. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971. Print. Consultative Group on Transportation Research Urban Traffic Noise strategy for an improved environment. Paris, France: Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 1960. Print. Grandjean, E, and A Gilgen. Environmental Factors in Urban Planning. Britain: Taylor and Francis Ltd., 1976. Print. Kotzen, Benz, and Colin English. Environmental Noise Barriers A Guide to their Acoustic and Visual Design. New York, New York: E & FN Spon, 1999. Print. Vallet, M. "Effects of Noise on Health." Environmental Urban Noise. 2001. Amando Garcia. Boston, MA: WIT, 2001. Print. World Commission on Environment and Development, "Our Common Future." The Sustainable Urban Development Reader. 2004. Stephen M. Wheeler and Timothy Beatley. London and New York: Routledge, 2004. Print.

272

The Benefits of On-Site Power Generation for Newtown

By: Lin Allen Ozan

Introduction

Conservation is a vital component of sustainability and is deemed a primary forcer to

alleviate the depletion of natural and manmade capital (Dincer and Rosen 1999, Kamerschen and

Porter 2004, Vlek and Steg 2007). One approach used for conservation that has meaningful

results is demand-side management (Didden and D’ haeseleer 2003, Loughran and Kulick 2004,

Reddy and Parikh 1997, Strbac 2008). Demand-side management is s multi-dimensional tool

that uses planning, implementation, and monitoring to facilitate the balance between consumers

and utility needs (Gellings 1985). Nevertheless, many demand-side management programs have

inherent communication and adoption complexities that can be easily overcome through policy

modifications (Chappells and Shove 2005, Gellings 1985, Nadel 1992). This paper attempts to

highlight the fascinating potential and attractive benefits of demand-side management strategies,

and provide possible resolutions to current program implementation issues (McKenzie-Mohr

1994, Roe et al 2001). Specifically, the benefits of on-site power generation will be discussed

and sites to implement the program in Newtown, Sarasota will be identified. Onsite power

generation imparts many incentives to those who take advantage of this demand-side

management method by peak shaving, increased efficiency, reduced premiums, and mitigation of

greenhouse gas emissions (Bourgeois et al 2003, Stern 1992, Hughes and Bell 2006, Yates and

Aronson 1983). In addition, the transfer from remote capture and transmission of coal energy to

the onsite capturing and conversion of natural gas energy to produce electricity provides even

greater benefits (Ellerman 1996, Holtz-Eakin and Selden 1995, Jaramillo et al 2007). To achieve

sustainability we must move away from non-renewable sources of energy production.

273

Nevertheless, even the most enthusiastic proponents for onsite photovoltaic power generation

admittedly maintain that the technology of photovoltaics is much closer to commercial

feasibility, however it requires more policy options and partnerships to foster its growth (Byrne

et al. 1996). Natural gas prices have sharply fallen recently, and the savings are being taken

advantage of by electricity providers across the nation. Major conglomerates such Exxon Mobil,

Chevron, and Shell have began acquiring a major stake in the natural gas market (Washington

Post). They foresee the promise of natural gas as a major, if not primary fuel source in the future

as the world’s proven oil reserves dwindle. Although natural gas is not a renewable source of

energy, it is an extraordinary bridge fuel that can provide the scale of current energy needs while

ushering the United States away from a foreign-dependent carbon-based economy to an

independent energy production nation with furthered economic resilience. At the local level, the

application of on-site power generation technology by means of natural gas and participation in

the incentives provided by Florida Power &Lighting (FPL) demand-side management load

control programs will greatly benefit Newtown, Sarasota. Not only would it be fiscally

responsible, but it would also bestow a tremendous example of forward progress to achieving

both economic and environmental sustainability.

I. Background

In recent years we have all observed a shifting in our nation’s economic prosperity, and

as individuals we have become more self-reliant and less communal while our government has

strived to promote fundamental policy to strengthen our nation’s future and provide energy

security. However, at the individual level it seems as if investing in our future has taken a back

burner within Florida’s regional policy. This is exceedingly evident recently with the lack of

support and disappointing outcome to neighboring Hillsborough County’s referendum that was

274

designed to strengthen the transportation infrastructure. This important decision was put in the

hands of those who would benefit most, everyday citizens. In addition, this referendum was just

the start to regional transportation throughout the entire Southwest region of Florida. It can be

argued that the majority of citizens in Hillsborough County did realize the value obtained

through supporting the referendum, but did not want the economic burden to fall upon the

individual citizen with an increased consumption tax. This real-world scenario is analogous to

many missed opportunities due to lack of strong education/marketing endorsement and failure to

garner support for investing in the future. With regards to conservation initiatives, there are

three classes of resource use behavior, which include: investment, management, and curtailment.

Conservation marketing campaigns typically focus on management and curtailment behaviors in

hopes of obtaining positive outcomes, while investment in newer or improved technologies

characteristically falls by the wayside. In addition, investment classically has the greatest impact

on reducing resource use (McKenzie-Mohr 1994). Therefore, this research is a call to invest in

the future of Newtown by providing natural gas powered generators to key community buildings

and facilities that will decrease green-house gas emissions, decrease energy expenditures, and

increase energy production efficiency. Newtown has an excellent opportunity to strengthening

its community by investing in the future, and this opportunity can be exploited without garnering

financial backing form the everyday citizen. A fraction of redevelopment funds could have a far-

reaching impact on the community. Investing in the future while promoting conservation and

sustainability can transform Newtown into an example community of forward progress through

demand-side management regimes. Therefore, this analysis illuminates specific methods

targeted towards conservation initiatives and provides clear examples for points of action.

Section two provides a thorough examination of key aspects of demand-side management in

275

relation to energy conservation. Section three details the current shifts in the utility market and

the progressive steps being achieved to promote stabilization of the current electricity

infrastructure through the investment of natural gas. In addition, section three features scientific

analysis of environmental benefits to natural gas a fuel source in relation to coal combustion.

Section four provides information on the benefits of on-site power generation and shining

examples of what benefits can be realized as a product of stabilizing on-site power generation.

Section five illustrates the savings that can be obtained through instituting on-site power

generation in key facilities within Newtown. The final section, section six, provides a

summarization of the key points of this article.

II. Demand Side Management

Demand-side management (DSM) programs are varied and many. These programs can

provide increased decisive action with the consumer and increased efficiency with the provider

to reduce energy costs. A study on the technical potential for conservation and load management

savings in New York projected a statewide electricity reduction potential of over 34% with the

application of cost-effective conservation and load management measures (Nadel 1992). In

addition, a 1990 report arranged for the Electric Power Research Institute established that the use

of energy saving technologies could potentially reduce United States electricity expenditures

between 24-44% within ten years (Nadel 1992). The technical potential of energy conservation

initiatives through DSM programs are astounding. Nevertheless, these studies do not account for

the impediments of adoption by the consumer. The consumer’s foremost concern when adopting

energy saving technologies resides in the notion of time span until realization of return on the

initial investment. Most consumers believe that the payback period from investment in

technology is far too extensive. This is typically the case when purchasing consumer goods such

276

as energy efficient washing machines, refrigerators, and other highly priced necessary consumer

products. Nevertheless, there are many technologies that increase efficient use of resources with

a short duration between investment and payback. Examples include, switching form

incandescent to fluorescent lighting to save on electricity consumption and the installation of

soil-moisture-sensors to save water expenditures with automated irrigation systems. These

technologies realize the financial benefits quickly due to the restructuring in the way the

foundational resource is allocated and harnessed, and the relative low cost of the technology. For

example, the average residential consumption of electricity within the state of Florida is 960

kWh a month at a rate of 11.65 cents per kWh, which equates to $130.52 a month in electricity

expenditures (DOE 2008). In addition, the average home within the United States spends

approximately 10% of electricity costs on lighting, hence lighting costs for an average Florida

home would cost $13.05 a month (Reliant 2010). Given that a 50-75% reduction in energy

savings can be attained through the replacement of incandescent light bulbs with energy efficient

compact fluorescent light bulbs (DOE 2008); a savings of $6.52 - $9.78 can be realized a month

by the consumer. With an initial investment of $39.88 for 12 compact fluorescent light (CFL)

bulbs the return on the investment would be in approximately 4 months (Walmart 2010).

Therefore, within the first year of replacement there would be a net reduction of $52.16 - $78.24

in energy expenditures when accounting for the initial investment. In addition, the CFL’s have a

lifespan of eight times that of incandescent bulbs. So, over the lifespan of the CFL’s there would

be a savings of $599.84 - $899.76. This restructuring is how the DSM framework creates

benefits. Specific DSM programs include strategic conservation, load management,

electrification, and customer generation (Gellings 1985). These measures are not mutually

exclusive and hybridized versions can exist as the recommendation of this analysis suggests with

277

customer generation load management. This can be achieved by on-site generation of power

during peak demand. Peak demand is distinguished by time of day, day of week, and season due

to the temporal and spatial variation in peak usage. For example, energy usage increases

significantly in the Northeastern United States due to heating during the winter months, however

energy consumption reduces in the South due to decreased dependence on air conditioning for

thermal comfort during the same time period. Outside of the many environmental benefits, DSM

strategies are mutually financially beneficial to the producers and consumers of electricity; the

producer saves on capital investment while the consumer reaps lucrative financial savings

through a decrease in utility bills (Gellings 1985). Florida Power & Lighting (FPL) DSM

programs have greatly reduced the need to increase the size of their infrastructure. According to

FPL, they have avoided building twelve medium-sized power plants due to the efforts of DSM

(FPL Releases 2008). FPL is the industry leader in DSM program effectiveness, and in 2008

FPL avoided the distribution of 3,724 megawatts through its programs (DOE 2008). The

following graph (Figure 1) depicts the greatest savings through DSM programs throughout the

entire nation.

Figure 1

Source: Department of Energy; Energy Information Administration; 2008 data

The Department of Energy’s Energy Information Administration conducts studies each year to

278

assess the progress of the utilities market in the deployment and utilization of mandated DSM

programs. Florida Power and Lighting has ranked in the top ten in many Energy Information

Administrations studies throughout the past decade.

The political climate has never been as complimentary to increasing energy efficiency as

it is now, but as each year passes the incentives provided by legislation can expire. “Never has

the U.S. legislative and economic landscape been so favorable to commercial, industrial, and

institutional end-users pursuing energy-efficient lighting and electrical product upgrades in their

facilities, and never has a community been better positioned to help end-users capitalize on

today’s extensive range of demand-side management opportunities than electrical contractors”

(Washington Post 2009). The revitalization of past conservation initiatives have regained

popularity for the individual consumer and the opportunity is ripe for residential and commercial

consumers to invest in sound efficiency technologies. The DSM programs are centered on the

residential and commercial end-user, however with the mounting pressure on utility suppliers to

provide clean affordable energy they must diversify their energy acquisition portfolio. Within

the last decade there has been a shift of electricity suppliers from coal-based production to more

inventive methods of production and distribution of their product. The current trend has been to

subsidized the current coal combustion infrastructure of electricity generation with natural gas.

III. Natural Gas vs. Coal

A large percentage of new energy production is not coal fired but by means of natural

gas. In 2000, exactly 23,453 megawatts of electric capacity was added to the United States

infrastructure, in which 95% was realized by natural gas fired additions (Electric Generation

2010). The following graph (Figure 2) depicts the relationship between historical and projected

electric generation capacity and sources of fuel for production. The graph illustrates the relative

279

growth of coal, nuclear, and natural gas from 1970 to 2000 and the stagnation of renewables and

petroleum during that same time period.

Figure 2

Electricity Generation by Fuel 1970-2020 (billion kilowatt hours)

Source: EIA Annual Energy OutlookWith Projections to 2020

In addition, the growth of coal as fuel capacity has remained relatively constant during the

historical and projected time periods while natural gas is expected to grow exponentially beyond

the year 2000. Current data suggests that these projections have come to fruition. In light of

recent assessments of the United States proven gas reserves, this shapes natural gas as the

quintessential transitional bridge fuel as we move towards renewable sources of energy

production. The Potential Gas Committee releases its 2008 assessment of proven natural gas

reserves and determined that the US possesses 1,836 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, which is a

33% increase from the previous year’s assessment and the largest calculated reserve mark in 44

years (Potential Gas 2009). Many speculators assess that the United States is to natural gas what

Saudi Arabia is to oil. Coal has a considerable technical disadvantage when compared to natural

280

gas. It is a less concentrated form of energy; therefore it requires more sophisticated equipment

and processes to eliminate the large quantity of non-combustible matter and water that is bundled

with the hydrocarbon content (Ellerman 1996). In addition, there are subsequent negative

environmental implications from the combustion of coal.

Figure 3

(Source Jarmillo 2007)

In relation to natural gas, coal is exceedingly more deleterious to our environment when

accounting for all factors of production and distribution. Figure 3 depicts the life cycle of coal

and various forms of natural gas and their associated CO2 emissions per megawatt hour. When

comparing coal production, processing, and combustion with carbon capture sequestration to

natural gas’s combined life cycle including carbon capture sequestration there is a significant

difference in their CO2 emissions, with approximately 375 lbs per megawatt hour for coal and

approximately 225 lbs per hour with natural gas. In addition to decreased CO2 emissions, there

are large decreases in SO2 and NO. The following table (Figure 4) depicts the relationship of

SO2 and NO with usage of coal and natural gas as fuels in electricity production.

281

Figure 4

(Source Jarmillo 2007)

Figure 4 reflects that emissions from SO2 and NO natural gas are significantly lower than that of

coal. This illustrates the promising environmental advantages attributed to natural gas in

comparison to coal. In addition, natural gas can be purchased directly by the end-user (domestic

or commercial consumers) to provide the same environmental and financial benefits being

achieved by the utility suppliers.

IV. On-Site Power Generation

Unlike most corporate entities that sell products, electric utility providers have extreme

difficulties in providing the infrastructure to support the increase in demand as the population

exponentially increases, and therefore promotes mitigating the consumption of their product. It

is in their interest to promote efficiencies in production and distribution in order to curb demand

and reduce addition capital investment. By curbing capital investment in conjunction with

conservation strategies such as DSM programs, FPL is able to increase the lifespan of current

infrastructure and invest in research and development towards renewable energy infrastructure

such as the DeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center that has an estimated power generation

of approximately 42,000 megawatt-hours (Exeneawable 2010). One of the city of Sarasota’s

282

Environmental Points of Pride is the participation in FPL’s Load Control Program. This

involvement has realized a yearly power cost savings of over $250,000 for the city (Points of

Pride 2008). Expanding this participation to facilities, such as schools and community centers,

would greatly increase the cost savings. Even though the savings reduce the direct profit to FPL,

there is a net profit associated with the reduction of consumption. Therefore, FPL promotes and

supports on-site power generation to reduce peak-load power distribution through its Load

Control Program. Electric power generation and distribution remote from the end user averages

an efficiency loss of approximately 33% before consumption (Bourgeois 2002). Thus, onsite

electricity generation curtails this loss and efficiencies are gained. The use of on-site generators

that are fueled by natural gas reduces the end-user cost for electricity by providing off grid power

directly instead of remote production and distribution.

V. Implementation of Onsite Power Generation in Newtown, Sarasota

Newtown will greatly benefit from participation in FPL’s DSM Load Control Program.

The city of Sarasota has already witnessed tremendous savings with the implementation of the

program and expansion of the participation is necessary to increase sustainability and financial

relief. The following is an example of the savings that can be obtained through participation.

The figures do not place into account the fixed rates that provide additional costs, but do provide

an accurate estimation of the differences between non-fixed cost distribution base rates. FPL’s

general on-peak service commercial rates range from 3.466 to 3.102 cents per kilowatt hour

(kWh) for usage ranging between 20 to 499 kW, and 0.953 to 0.635 cents per kwh for usage

ranging between 500 to 1999 kW. To put this in perspective, 1,000 kW of energy would cost

between $25.64 and $28.93 (base rate). FLP’s Load Control Program (LCP) charges a

significantly reduced base rate for commercial service during peak loads. FPL’s LCP on-peak

283

service commercial base rates range from 1.046 to 1.160 cents per kWh for usage ranging

between 20 to 499 kW, and 0.727 to 0.631 cents per kwh for usage ranging between 500 to 1999

kW. Therefore, 1,000 kW of energy would cost between $8.38 and $11.63. This is a savings

ranging from $14.01 to $20.55 with all other charges beyond the base charge remaining constant.

Therefore, a commercial facility that uses 10,000 kilowatts a month could save between $140.10

and $205.50 a month, which would be a yearly savings of between $2,466.00 and $1,681.20. The

financial return on the investment depends on how much energy is used and how much the initial

investment is, however the positive environmental implications associated with the switch in

technology are automatic. Determining the size of generator needed would be the first step for

establishing the initial investment cost. A 45 kW generator would be suitable for a large home of

approximately 4,000 square feet or a small to medium business, restaurant, or municipal

building. A 60 kW generator would be sufficient for a 6,000 square foot structure that has

multiple uses and power requirements. Commercial generators are available in multiple sizes

and range in sizes between 10 kW to 150 kW; larger generators are typically used for industrial

needs (Generac 2010). The following is a pricing structure for commercial generators: 45 kW

($10,800 – 15,400); 60 kW ($13,800 – 14,970); 80 kW ($16,800 – 22,400); 100 kW ($21,900 –

24,000); and 150 kW ($26,900 – 28,300) (Google Shopping 2010). A professional assessment

would be required in determining the actual needs of a facility. Nevertheless, a 150kW generator

can provide complete energy security for most commercial applications from gas stations and

convenience stores to restaurants, schools, assisted living centers, and municipal buildings

(Generac 2010). Expanding the city’s participation with FPL’s Load Control Program to other

local facilities within Newtown, such as schools, community centers, nursing and rehabilitation

centers, and other key buildings will provide enormous financial and environmental benefits.

284

Community health, safety, and welfare are core redevelopment plan focus areas within

Newtown. Instituting on-site generators in key locations will provide health, safety, and welfare

for Newtown citizens in the event of power outages by providing complete energy security.

Complete energy security can be highly beneficial during prolonged power outages during storm

events such as hurricanes. The facilities that are equipped with on-site generators are able to

fully operate off the grid when power outages occur. In addition, these facilities can also be used

as safe havens for community members that do not have residential power. The following map

(Figure 5) is marked with 9 specific facilities that would benefit from onsite power generation

and have the potential to serve emergency shelters.

Figure 5

These strategic sites consume large amounts of energy due

to building dimensions and utillity. These sites will make a sizeable impact on decreased energy

1. Booker High School 2. Booker Middle School 3. Emma E. Booker

Elementary

4. R. L. Taylor Community Center

5. Glasser Schoenbaum

Human Services Center 6. Pines Of Sarasota Nursing

and Assisted Living Care Center

7. J. H. Floyd Nursing and

Rehabilitation Center 8. North Sarasota Library 9. Newtown Redevelopment

Office

285

expenditures, mitigated emissions (CO2, SO2 and NO), and community security.

VI. Conclusion

Conservation is the cornerstone of sustainability. As world populations increase

exponentially we must find creative ways to evolve our technologies and explore methods for

prolonging our resources. Conservation through demand-side management allows us to curb

energy expenditures and realize efficiencies. Load control programs have the benefit of reducing

the wear-and-tear on our utility infrastructure so the capital costs of developing new

infrastructure by the suppliers are not passed on to the consumer. Environmentally and fiscally,

the choice to provide energy security on-site versus solely remote distribution is exceptionally

sensible. Newtown has an excellent opportunity to strengthen its community by investing in the

future, and this opportunity can be exploited without garnering financial backing form the

everyday citizen. Currently Newtown has the means to redevelop its community, and during that

process there should be a focus on environmental sustainability for current and future

generations. On-site power generation by means of natural gas will supply lucrative savings,

reductions in volatile emissions, and progress community security. In addition, participation in

Florida Power and Lightings Demand Side Management Load Control Program will elevate

Newtown as a city of increased sustainable self-reliance and provide a shining example of what

local communities can do to invest in a sustainable future.

References

Basiago, A. D. (1998). Economic, social, and environmental sustainability in development theory and urban planning practice. Environmentalist, 19(2), 145.

Berke, P. R. (2002). Does sustainable development offer a new direction for planning? challenges for the twenty-first century. Journal of Planning Literature, 17(1), 21.

286

Bourgeois, T. G. (2003). Creating markets for combined heat and power and clean distributed generation in new york state. Environmental Pollution, 123(3), 451.

Byrne, J. (1996). Evaluating the economics of photovoltaics in a demand-side management role. Energy Policy, 24(2), 177.

Chappells, H. (2005). Debating the future of comfort: Environmental sustainability, energy consumption and the indoor environment. Building Research and Information, 33(1), 32.

Daly, H. E. (1990). Operational principles for sustainable development. Ecological Economics, 2(1), 1.

Didden, M. H. (2003). Demand side management in a competitive european market: Who should be responsible for its implementation? Energy Policy, 31(13), 1307.

Dincer, I. (1999). Energy, environment and sustainable development. Applied Energy, 64(1-4), 427.

DOE energy consumption: at http://www.eia.doe.gov/ask/electricity_faqs.asp. Accessed on November 1, 2010.

Ellerman, D. (1996). The competition between coal and natural gas the importance of sunk costs. Resources Policy, 22(1-2), 33.

Exeneawable Solar Park: at http://www.exenewable.com/projectProfile.asp?id=20706. Accessed on November 1, 2010.

Exxon Mobile Mobile to buy natural gas specialist: at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/14/AR2009121403505.html. Accessed on November 1, 2010.

Gellings, C. W. (1985). Concept of demand-side management for electric utilities. Proceedings

of the IEEE, 73(10), 1468.

Gellings, C. W. (1989). Integrating demand-side management into utility planning. Proceedings of the IEEE, 77(6), 908.

Generac generator sizing: www.generac.com/Commercial/Commercial/Products/Commercial_Series_22_-_150_kW/. Accessed on November 1, 2010. Holtz-Eakin, D. (1995). Stoking the fires? CO2 emissions and economic growth. Journal of

Public Economics, 57(1), 85.

Hughes, L. (2006). Compensating customer-generators: A taxonomy describing methods of compensating customer-generators for electricity supplied to the grid. Energy Policy, 34(13), 1532.

287

Jaramillo, P. (2007). Comparative life-cycle air emissions of coal, domestic natural gas, LNG, and SNG for electricity generation. Environmental Science Technology, 41(17), 6290.

Kamerschen, D. R. (2004). The demand for residential, industrial and total electricity, 1973-1998. Energy Economics, 26(1), 87.

Loughran, D. S. (2004). Demand-side management and energy efficiency in the united states. Energy Journal, the, 25(1), 19.

McKenzie-Mohr, D. (1994). Social marketing for sustainability:: The case of residential energy conservation. Futures, 26(2), 224.

McMichael, A. J. (2003). New visions for addressing sustainability. Science, 302(5652), 1919.

Munson, R. (2006). Yes, in my backyard: Distributed electric power. Issues in Science and Technology, 22(2), 49.

Nadel, S. (1992). Utility demand-side management experience and potential-a critical review. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 17(1), 507.

Reddy, B. S. (1997). Economic and environmental impacts of demand side management programmes. Energy Policy, 25(3), 349.

Reliant Energy Home Improvements: at http://www.reliant.com/PublicLinkAction.do?i_chronicle_id=090175228030b78d&language_code=en_US&i_full_format=jsp#lighting. Accessed on November 1, 2010.

Roe, B. (2001). US consumers' willingness to pay for green electricity* 1. Energy Policy, 29(11), 917.

Stern, P. C. (1992). What psychology knows about energy conservation. The American Psychologist, 47, 1224.

Strbac, G. (2008). Demand side management: Benefits and challenges. Energy Policy, 36(12), 4419.

Vlek, C. (2007). � Human behavior and environmental sustainability: Problems, driving forces, and research topics. The Journal of Social Issues, 63(1), 1.

Wall, G. (2002). Conditions and tools in the design of energy conversion and management systems of a sustainable society. Energy Conversion and Management, 43(9-12), 1235.

Walmart lighting pricing: at http://www.walmart.com/cp/home-lighting/133113. Accessed on November 1, 2010.

Yates, S. M. (1983). A social psychological perspective on energy conservation in residential buildings. The American Psychologist, 38, 216.

288

A Natural History of Newtown, Sarasota, Florida: Including Geology, Hydrology and Soils

Adrien Roth

Recently, more and more talk has been generated about sustainability - and the green

movement as a response to research on climate change. While the issue of global climate change

sometimes seems daunting and too much for small groups to do anything about, the key to

generating change lies in the efforts made by small local community groups. Community groups

often have very strong ties to their neighborhoods and surroundings and are devoted to

sustainable changes and development techniques to preserve their communities for generations

to come. Often, local groups come equipped with the knowledge of the place they call home, but

attaining even more information about the natural environment in which they live can further

impact their desire to protect and preserve their surroundings. Now more than ever, it is

becoming imperative that we protect the environments in which we all live, as the impacts of

global climate change accelerate, and before more unique ecosystems suffer irreversible damage.

Here I will discuss the unique natural environment that exists in Newtown, Sarasota, as well as

the rest of Florida, including: geology, hydrology and soils.

Global Climate Change and Sustainability

More and more research is being done on the issue of global climate change, and a

multitude of reports and new data are being released regarding the issue on a regular basis. The

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has released four reports since 1990 which

detail the scientific community’s progress in understanding global climate change. A fifth report

is in the beginning stages of compilation. Several important determinations and suggestive data

289

have been presented in these reports and offer evidence to support climate change. Some of the

most key findings include: a) certainty that human activities are substantially increasing the

concentrations of greenhouse gases (IPCC, 1990), b) a prediction that surface air temperatures,

and global average temperatures will increase, and sea-level will rise during the next century as a

result of the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases (IPCC 2001), and c) past and present

carbon dioxide emissions caused by human activity will contribute to temperature and sea-level

rise for more than a millennium to come (IPCC, 2007).

Though these reports are backed by hard scientific data, they urge that there are

uncertainties associated with their assumptions, such as: estimates for future emissions, data and

model reliability, and detection. All in all, the research compiled by the IPCC has provided the

public with information about the changes the planet is undergoing. Given this information,

many groups both large and small have begun to take action to slow the affect of human activity

on the health of the environment, and in some cases even attempt to reverse some of the damage

that has been done.

Granted, most everyone has some place they feel connected to, whether it’s within their

community, or somewhere else they feel they’re part of. Aldo Leopold’s book A Sand County

Almanac describes his connection to the natural environment of an area of Wisconsin he

considers his home. He makes several points in this early book on environmental conservation,

one of which is that we are part of our natural surroundings. Not only can we have an impact on

our environment, but it also impacts us. For example, if we treat an agricultural area well, it will

provide us with a bountiful harvest. On the other hand, if we pollute our local streams with trash

and pollutants, the impacts could be harmful not only to the organisms that are part of the stream

ecosystem, but ultimately to humans as well. He suggests that those most likely to take action to

290

protect their cherished natural environments are those who have an understanding of its value

and of what it can offer and what humans can give back to it.

This idea is included in the sustainability framework. It considers how we as humans can

use the land and environment in a way that provides for our needs, but sustains the natural

systems in a mutually beneficial relationship. The more understanding people have of the

environments in which they live, the closer they will feel to the area. This closer tie will lead to

more efforts to preserve and protect these unique and delicate systems. This paper will provide

information that will deepen the understanding about the geology, hydrology, and soils in the

Newtown, Sarasota area and in Florida as a whole.

Natural History - The Geology of Florida

Geologic History

The geology of Florida, though not especially complicated, has its beginnings over

hundreds of millions of years ago. Throughout the course of geologic time, pieces of the Earth’s

crust called tectonic plates have undergone cycles of breaking apart and suturing back together.

The oldest and deepest rock in Florida, called “basement rocks”, are believed to have been part

of what is now northwest Africa and date back to 700 million years ago (Lane, 1994) (Figure 1).

The evidence lies in the rock types found in Africa and Florida and their similarities. Both

regions have sandstone, shale, and other similarly-aged rock types, as well as matching fossil

assemblages. It is believed that around 230 million years ago all of the present-day continents

were attached as one large landmass called Pangaea. It was during this time that the northwest

291

part of Africa was in contact with what is now the east coast of North America. About 195

million years ago, the Atlantic Ocean began to open up, causing Africa to separate from North

America and South America.

Figure 1: As the Earth’s continents appeared 230 million years ago when they made up the super continent, Pangaea (Lane, 1994).

As the continental plates drifted apart, the basement rocks of Florida were created at the

spreading center of the plates. They were very dense and thus, sank deep into the ocean floor,

which allowed for more rock to accumulate on top of it (Lane, 1994). The type of rock that

accumulated in the area where Florida exists are carbonates - rocks such as limestone and

dolostone. Limestone is created by various marine organisms, and can also be formed by the

decay of other organisms, such as coral and algae. In order for a thick carbonate platform to

form (Figure 2), as in the case of Florida, shallow waters and a large amount of carbonate-

292

secreting marine organisms are necessary. The oldest near-surface carbonate rocks found in

Florida are a relatively-young 45 million years old.

Figure 2: The Florida Platform formed by the accumulation of carbonate rocks (Lane, 1994).

It’s interesting to note that for the majority of the last 65 million years of Florida’s

geologic history, the area spent most of the time below sea level. During this time, there was a

gulf trough that circulated ocean water in a passage between present day Georgia and Florida.

Due to this passage, Florida was separated from the rest of North America and the sediments that

eroded from the Appalachian Mountains weren’t able to reach Florida. About 20-30 million

years ago, the present-day Appalachian Mountains were uplifted, which increased erosion rates.

Large amounts of sediments flooded the gulf trough and spread down into a newly raised

Florida. These sediments can now be seen all over the state mostly in the form of the white

quartz sand which has made Florida beaches famous.

Another important addition to Florida’s geology during this time was the deposition of

phosphate-rich sediments. It is believed that a mixture of phosphate-rich ocean waters,

293

phosphate-feeding organisms, such as plankton, and sediments helped to produce these deposits.

Named the Hawthorne Group of sediments, it is located in north-central Florida and

encompasses the Tampa Bay area, including parts of Sarasota County. In these regions,

phosphate is mined for fertilizing purposes.

Though Florida is mainly flat-lying, there are a few upwellings in the topography which

emerged during the last 65 million years. The oldest of these is called the Ocala Platform and

runs down the gulf coast side of the state; Newtown, Sarasota is contained in the Ocala Platform.

The most recent geologic event occurred during the last 1.8 million years through the last

major glacial period. At this point in history, sea level rose and fell several times, leaving

Florida underwater and above water alternately. It was during this era that most of the landforms

seen in Florida - such as ridges, sinkholes, springs, lakes and rivers were formed. It was also

through the glacial advances and retreats of this time that additional sediment eroded and moved

by glaciers was added to the surface of Florida’s rock formations and other sediment deposits.

That brings us to present day, where geologic history could repeat itself and put Florida

below sea level again. Even though this appears to be a cyclic event, evidence suggests that the

current sea level rise threats facing Florida and other coastal communities are being made worse,

or happening faster, due to human activity (Figure 3). Increasing rates of greenhouse gas

emissions are heating up the planet at a faster than normal rate, and melting icecaps in polar

regions. This melting is adding great volumes of water to the Earth’s oceans, and causing them

to rise world-wide.

294

Figure 3: An image of what Florida would look like if sea level rose 5 meters (Haxby, 2005).

Rocks of Florida

Perhaps the formation of Florida’s carbonate platform, during periods when sea-level was

higher than the present, does the best job of explaining why limestone is so widespread in

Florida (Singh and Vernon, 1959). It is the primary rock found near the surface, and though it is

abundant, it comes in many forms in different areas of the state (Lane, 1987). Most commonly,

it exists in pure rock form, which can look like white to yellow rocky clay, or simply coarse rock

of the same color (Figure 4). In other areas, especially along the east coast of the state, and to a

lesser extent, the southern Gulf region and Newtown, Sarasota, the limestone contains high

levels of coarse shell fragments and forms a carbonate rock called coquina (Figure 5). Dolostone

is another rock predominant throughout the state and though it appears to similar to limestone, it

contains an extra bond in its mineralogy, making it slightly more resistant than limestone.

295

Figure 4: Common coarse, creamy white Florida limestone (Roth, 2010).

Figure 5: Coquina is a rock similar to limestone made entirely of cemented shells. It is found in coastal regions of Florida, including the Sarasota area (Wilson, 2008).

Rocks of Sarasota

The region that encompasses Newtown, Sarasota was on the fringes of the Florida coast

line during glacial advance in retreat. Because of this, it was a depositional environment for a

very long time, and the majority of the sediment covering the carbonate platform is sand and

shell. The formations found in Sarasota County range from Oligocene (38mya to 22mya) to

Holocene (10,000 years ago to present) (United States Department of Agriculture, 1991). The

Suwannee Formation is the oldest in the county and contains yellow-white to gray dolomitized

and fossilized limestone. It is about 350 feet thick in Newtown, Sarasota. Covering the

296

Suwannee Formation is the Arcadia Formation which contains quartz sands, calcareous clay with

some phosphate and sandy limestone. Thickness of this formation ranges from 300-500 feet.

The Peace River Formation caps the Arcadia Formation and consists of greenish gray sands with

phosphate, clays, sandy clays and some dolomite. Ironically, the formation is found throughout

Sarasota County, with the exception of the city of Sarasota, including Newtown. From the

Pliocene to Pleistocene epochs (5.3mya to 0.1mya), shell beds and quartz sands were deposited

in blankets of 15 to 30 feet. The Anastasia Formation of the late-Pleistocene is primarily

coquina or cemented shells and can be seen in outcrop on Siesta Key near Newtown, Sarasota.

The newest sediments of the Holocene consist of sands, silts, clays and organic materials found

in stream beds, swamps, marshes and lakes.

Florida’s Karst Landscape

With most of the surface rock being carbonate in form, it gives way for a very special

geologic setting to exist throughout the state of Florida. Carbonate rocks, such as limestone and

dolostone, are especially susceptible to dissolution by groundwater, due to its acidic nature

(Lane, 1986). This process, or geologic phenomenon, is called karst activity. Karst landscapes

include features such as springs, sinkholes, and caves, all of which are the result of carbonate

rock being dissolved by groundwater circulation. Limestone and other similar rock types are

naturally filled with joints and fractures, creating more pathways for groundwater to travel and

more surface area of the rock exposed for dissolution.

Caves are areas, or voids, in underground carbonate rock which have been dissolved by

an underground stream or water table fluctuation. Most caves found in Florida are water-filled

and require diving to investigate because of the low water table. There are dry caves in the

297

Panhandle in Florida Caverns State Park which can be explored without diving.

Springs are places where underground streams reemerge at the ground surface. In

Florida, there are 300 known springs, including one notable spring located in Sarasota County.

Warm Mineral Spring is situated near the town of North Port, about eleven miles from Venice,

just south of Newtown, and is a popular tourist spot ( Scott, 2004). The spring is within a

sinkhole that is roughly 250 feet north to south and 315 feet east to west (Figure 6). The depth of

the spring is about 230 feet. There is a debris cone of sand, dolostone, and limestone, which

rises about 100 feet from the deepest part of the sinkhole. Very little vegetation lives in the

spring, and a small stream connects the spring to the Myakka River.

Figure 6: Warm Mineral Spring in Sarasota County, Florida is contained within a sinkhole (Warm Mineral Springs, 2004).

Sinkholes are expressions of dissolved carbonate rock, either at the surface or

298

underground. It is due to these these various types of formation that there are various types of

sinkholes found in Florida (Figure 7).

Figure 7: The four major zones and types of sinkhole formation in Florida (Florida Department of Natural Resources, 2005).

Solution sinkholes occur when there is carbonate rock exposed at or near the ground

surface and the cavity in the rock occurs at or near the surface. These types of sinkholes occur

mostly along the gulf coast north of Tampa and also in the Everglades region south of Naples

and Lake Okeechobee. Cover subsidence sinkholes occur mostly in areas with a moderate

299

amount of sediment (sand, silt and clay) covering the rock. This means that the rock gets slowly

dissolved underneath the sediment and gradually the sinkhole develops at the surface as the

sediments fall into the cavity in the rock. The process is similar to the sand grains falling in an

hour glass. In areas with 30 to 200 feet of sediment cover, these types of sinkholes are most

numerous, and are found mostly along the east coast of the state from around Daytona Beach

south to Lake Okeechobee. The third type of sinkhole most commonly found in Florida are

cover collapse sinkholes, and they occur in areas with moderate sediment cover which consists

of mostly clay, or areas with very thick sediment cover. Areas with moderate sediment cover of

mostly clay are scattered, but can be found along the Alabama and Georgia borders in the

Panhandle and more locally in the Tampa Bay Area. This includes all of Pinellas County, the

top half of Hillsborough County, the middle sections of Pasco and Hernando Counties, and the

majority of Polk County. In areas with more than 200 feet of sediment cover, sinkholes are not

as common, but are catastrophic when they occur. Cover collapse sinkholes are usually the most

catastrophic because they occur so quickly and are large. They occur in two phases, due to the

great amount of sediment covering the rock. The process begins as a void in the rock, and

slowly the sediment will start to fall into the void, just as in the cover subsidence sinkhole. The

difference is that due to a greater volume of sediment, the void left in the sediment column as it

falls into the void creates a sinkhole itself. The Sarasota area, including Newtown, lies in an area

of this thick sediment cover, and thus, experiences very few sinkholes when compared to the rest

of the Tampa Bay area. Many of the lakes found in Florida are sinkholes which have filled in

with water over time.

300

Hydrology and Watersheds

Karst processes explain a little about what water does underground, but at the surface,

water is categorized and grouped by watershed. A watershed includes the area of land in which

all water drains to the same location. Watersheds are separated by a geographic barrier, which is

normally an area of higher elevation which sends the draining water in different directions.

Newtown is part of the Sarasota Bay watershed, and is included in the larger Sarasota Bay-

Peace-Myakka Watershed system (Figure 8). The Peace and Myakka Rivers both empty into

Charlotte Harbor, south of Newtown, Sarasota. The Sarasota Bay watershed is fed by local

streams and bayous such as: Bowles Creek, North Creek, Catfish Creek, Phillipi Creek and the

Whitaker and Hudson Bayous.

Figure 8: A map of Florida highlighting the location of the Sarasota Bay-Peace-Myakka Watershed system (Sarasota Bay Estuary Program, 2006).

Sarasota Bay is actually an estuary, or a salt water mixing zone, where freshwater from streams

around Sarasota mixes with salt water from the Gulf of Mexico. During the advance and retreat

of glaciers, sediment was deposited on coral reefs, forming keys or barrier islands which

301

presently separate Sarasota Bay from the rest of the Gulf. This is a very unique hydrologic

system and ecosystem because several types of water bodies come together – local creeks,

streams, bayous and tidal waters – which creates habitat for several species of aquatic plants and

animals. The stormwater and wastewater runoff from Newtown enters Whitaker Bayou and

eventually Sarasota Bay, thus it’s important to control the quality of the water leaving Newtown.

The Sarasota Bay watershed is fortunate to have a local group - the Sarasota Bay Estuary

Program (SBEP) which has monitored, led clean-up efforts, and helped to restore areas of the

watershed since 1989 (Sarasota Bay Estuary Program, 2006). According to the SBEP, the

Sarasota Bay estuary is one of only twenty eight in the country to be recognized as an “estuary of

national significance” by the U.S. Congress. This designation was given to estuaries that are

important environmentally, economically and culturally in their regions and are in need of

protection and preservation due to development. In 2006, they released a State of the Bay report

which outlined improvements, concerns, and future goals for the watershed. The Sarasota Bay

watershed is home to a very special ecosystem. Not only is the area included in the watershed an

estuary, but some areas are delicate coastal lagoons. In SBEP’s 2006 report, they provide

information about the watershed’s unique hydrology. In the Sarasota Bay watershed, there is a

confining layer of clay which allows infiltrating surface water to pond on top of the clay layer.

Development and urbanization not only decrease infiltration and raise flooding concerns, but

provide more pollutant sources (Stringfield, 1933). Over the past decade, there have been overall

improvements in water quality, with only a few areas of concern remaining, mainly in sub

watersheds south of Sarasota Bay. Due to the relatively high level of agricultural activity in the

region, nitrogen pollution from fertilizers has been of rising concern for algal bloom disruption.

As runoff from farms enters small waterways upstream, the nitrogen-containing fertilizers

302

eventually flow downstream to their entry in Sarasota Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Efforts are

underway to improve storm water and wastewater runoff options to reduce pollution of bay

waters. These efforts include work on the septic to sewer issues, alternatives to fertilizers, and

native landscaping choices which require less water and work to filter water before it reaches the

bay. The Whitaker Bayou, which is adjacent to Newtown is one area of the Sarasota Bay

watershed which has its own comprehensive restoration plan that aims mostly at solving

wastewater pollution issues.

Aquifers

Through Florida is completely surrounded by water, the majority of water used for the

public comes from groundwater (Florida Department of Environmental Protection). An aquifer

is an underground layer of rock or unconsolidated sediment that contains water and can be

extracted to the surface by a well or a spring. There are around 12,000 wells in Florida used for

public supply, and are associated with five aquifers in the state (Figure 9).

303

Figure 9: A map showing the five major aquifers of Florida. Notice that the Surficial Aquifer System is the most wide-spread in the state, and includes Newtown, Sarasota. Areas in this aquifer are especially susceptible to groundwater pollution since it is near the land surface

(Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2007). Of the five aquifers shown in Figure 9, the Surficial Aquifer System is the aquifer that Newtown,

Sarasota uses for its water supply. Unlike the Sand and Gravel Aquifer and the Biscayne

Aquifer, the Surficial Aquifer is under generally unconfined conditions and is made up of

unconsolidated sand, shells or shelly sand material. The thickness of the aquifer is generally less

than 50 feet, especially in coastal regions like Newtown, Sarasota. Since the groundwater and

public water supply are so close to the surface, the region is especially vulnerable to groundwater

pollution.

Soils

The soils found in Florida come in colors ranging from reds to yellows to dark brown and

black, and are influenced by factors that include: parent rock material, native vegetation, surface

304

topography, temperature and precipitation, drainage, and human activity. Hydrology and

groundwater also have an impact on soil horizons, because it’s the water moving through the

sediment which allows for deposition and translocation of minerals through the soil column. In

Sarasota County, there are two primary classes of soils found: acidic soils with hardpan and soils

formed from sand on top of shells and limestone (United States Department of Agriculture,

1991). As mentioned, the Sarasota area, including Newtown, is primarily made of sand and

shells on top of limestone, and with a shallow water table, there is a range of soil horizon colors

that can be found as water translocates and deposits minerals. Acidic soils with hardpan are

formed from the translocation of minerals from acidic sands which are deposited shallow in the

soil column. This deposit becomes an almost cemented sandstone, or what is referred to as

hardpan. The majority of soil formations found in this group are dark gray at the surface and

transform into lighter gray and, eventually, brown as you move down the soil column (Watts and

Collins, 2008). These types of soils are suitable for shallow crops such as celery, tomatoes,

cabbage and sugarcane. They are deficient in most nutrients so fertilization is necessary. The

hardpan layer makes it difficult for water or root penetration, so it is not suitable for citrus,

tobacco, or peanuts. The soils formed from sands over shell and limestone are found in the

central and southeastern regions of Sarasota County. Vegetation found in these soils include:

palmettos, wire grass, oak and pine. For the most part, these soils consist of dark gray to gray

sands lying over marl, which is a calcareous clay. Though these types of soils require drainage

for crop cultivation, once fertilized they can produce a wide variety of crops including: cotton,

citrus and other subtropical fruits, sugar cane, cabbage, beans, tomatoes and corn.

305

Conclusion

The state of Florida, and Newtown, Sarasota in particular are unique and valuable

environments. They are the result of intricate Earth processes requiring millions of years to

develop and they have added to the natural mystique of what we see today. The geology,

hydrology, and soil-forming processes that surround us depend on our care and understanding to

sustain them for coming generations to enjoy and cultivate. It’s up to the people of today to help

slow the degradation of, and to protect the resources that exist in our local natural environments

so that they are in existence for generations of humans to come.

References Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2007) Aquifers, State of Florida, Accessed November 27, 2010. Available at: http://www.dep.state.fl.us/swapp/aquifer.asp . Florida Department of Natural Resources (1985) Sinkhole Type and Distribution in Florida, Bureau of Geology, Map Series No. 110.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report: Contributions of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001) Third Assessment Report (TAR): Climate Change 2001. Synthesis Report: Contributions of Working Groups I, II and III.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (1990) First Assessment Report (FAR), includes Contributions from Working Groups I, II, and III. United Nations Framework on Climate Change Convention (UNFCCC) Lane, E (1994), Florida's geological history and geological resources, Florida Geological Survey, Special publication 35, pp 1-65. Accessed September 12, 2010. Available at: http://ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00000124/00001/FC1?toc=y. Lane, E (1987) Guide to rocks and minerals of Florida, Florida Geological Survey, Special publication 9, pp 1-44. Accessed September 12, 2010. Available at: http://ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00099286/00001/FC. Lane, E (1986), Karst in Florida, Florida Geological Survey, Special publication 29, pp 1-97. Accessed September 12, 2010. Available at: http://ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00000144/00001/6J.

306

Leopold, A (1949), The Land Ethic, Sand County Almanac, Oxford University Press. Haxby, W (2005), NASA Earth Observatory, Accessed on October 14, 2010. Available at: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/TimeShelf/. Sarasota Bay Estuary Program (2006), State of the Bay 2006, pp 1-44. Accessed on September 12, 2010. Available at: http://www.sarasotabay.org/pdf/StateOfTheBay_06.pdf. Scott TM, et al (2004), Springs of Florida, Florida State Geological Survey, FGS: Bulletin 66, pp 1-658, Accessed on September 10, 2010, Available at: http://ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00094032/00001/1 Singh, PH and Vernon RO (1959), Summary of the geology of Florida and a guidebook to the classic exposures, Florida Geological Survey, Special publication 5, pp 1-255. Accessed September 12, 2010. Available at: http://ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00000137/00001/1. Stringfield, GT (1933), Groundwater Investigations in Florida, Florida State Geological Survey, FGS: Bulletin 11, pp 1-33, Accessed on September 10, 2010, Available at: http://ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00000441/00001/1 United States Department of Agriculture (1991), Soil Survey of Sarasota County, Florida, Soil Conservation Service, pp 1-159. Accessed on September 12, 2010. Available at: http://soildatamart.nrcs.usda.gov/manuscripts/FL115/0/sarasota.pdf Watts, FC and Collins, ME (2008), Soils of Florida, Soils Science Society of America, Inc., pp 1-88. Warm Mineral Springs (2004), Warm Mineral Springs, North Port, Florida, Accessed on October 28, 2010. Available at: http://attractions.uptake.com/blog/files/2009/02/warm_mineral_springs2.jpg Wilson, MA (2008),Coquina from Florida, Department of Geology, The College of Wooster.

307

The Feasibility of Public Wi-Fi in Newtown, Sarasota: Investigating Community and

Economic Development through Public Wireless Internet Access

By Matt Torrence

Introduction

Sustainability and equity take many forms, but the changing face of electronic

information and the access to data and other resources has been truly revolutionary. The Internet

has become less a luxury item and more a public utility, especially in terms of economic and

social development. While Internet access may be relatively prevalent in terms of raw

availability, at least in some form, quality information and consistent access are not yet

pervasive. This is both a challenge and an opportunity, providing communities like Newtown,

Sarasota the chance to expand on the plans and paradigms collected for this research and to

become a model community.

Newtown is a unique town as there are current economic and social challenges that

cannot be ignored. However, through research, observation, and other forms of investigation,

there is clear potential for this type of project. With strong community leaders and a cohesive

and connected population, there is the chance of great success through unity of effort and ideal.

Consequently, there is also the chance for abject failure if the community needs and standards

are not properly observed. By using the existing redevelopment planning documents, as well as

observation of existing and proposed community wireless models, options for sustainable future

development of public Wi-Fi emerge from the literature.

This effort will seek to present the feasibility of establishing free, or low-cost, community

wireless Internet access in Newtown, specifically in areas conducive to social and economic

growth. These new, or improved, resources would serve as a potential incentive for new and

existing businesses, as well as provide numerous advantages to residents and visitors. While it

will be difficult to provide flawlessly accurate and comprehensive estimates of the financial and

labor costs required to complete some, or all, of this endeavor, the data available does allow for

308

some excellent amateur investigation. As will be demonstrated by the review of the literature

and this brief examination of Newtown's existing resources, options for improvement in this

realm are available.

Outline

The following brief outline charts a course for navigating the existing and potential information

related to community wireless and improved information access in Newtown, Sarasota.

I. Literature Review

II. Existing Community Wireless Efforts

III. The Newtown, Sarasota Redevelopment Project

IV. Summary of Current Wireless Environment

V. Social Aspects of the New Information Age

VI. Economic and Development Benefits of Pervasive Wireless Access

VII. Partial Conclusions and Proposals for Future Efforts

Literature Review

To collect sources and expand the literature, I went first to the low-hanging fruit; access

to information and developing skills for information literacy are an essential part of my current

passion and profession and many of the initial few sources are already familiar favorites. Bertot,

Becker, and others in this initial literature review have long espoused the fundamental role public

and other libraries have played, and continue to play, in the provision of this essential tap of

information. The American Library Association (ALA) has collected current and historical

primary data on the need, use, and future goals for libraries and their role in providing access not

always available in home, or other environments. Pure access is important, but as discussed by

DiMaggio, et al, there are essential social and commercial elements to the Internet and the new

information community that may not be ignored.

309

The technical end is also heavily researched in the literature, particularly the articles by

Flickenger and Kavanaugh, et al. These works emphasize the importance of networked

communities and, anecdotally, helped immensely in the solidification of my topic. Other articles

from the literature, particularly those about universal and community wireless in Austin, TX, and

several Canadian cities also set examples for possible replication, or partial adoption. With this

project, the feasibility of ubiquitous wireless in a small, urban community will be superficially

examined. The larger question, though, is perhaps best stated by Middleton in the title of his

article, " Approaching digital equity: Is wifi the new leveler?" Newtown's questions and

challenges are more specific than this overarching concept, but this issue is still central to my

examination of fomenting community and urban renewal using the social and commercial

aspects of pervasive wireless access to information.

The final elements of this literature review are the less scholarly, but no less vital,

Internet and human sources utilized for this project. The history of the people, the place, and the

current state of redevelopment in Newtown are particularly integral to this potential

improvement to the town's electronic backbone. Without their stories, opinions, and ideas, not to

mention their potential efforts and collaborative business and community labors, this type of

proposal is doomed from the start. From this writer's brief experience with the people and the

place, there is more optimism and hope than pessimism and surrender. Among the community

leaders and spokespersons, there is a strong willingness to plan for the future.

Existing Community Wireless Efforts

To begin this journey, it’s first necessary to look at the existing models that demonstrate

social and commercial applications (or at least attempts and investigations) into community

wireless projects. The review of the literature brought forth two particular geographic locations,

as well as a few specific researchers, that are forging the pathway for this type of research. A

great number of resources and authors will be discussed, but the other part to the stat of this

examination is a brief summary of the work of Alison Powell in England and Canada, as well as

the work of Martha Fuentes-Bautista and Nobuya Inagaki in Austin TX. Following a short

review of these possible models, other aspects fall easily into the discussion.

310

Powell has written a number of works on the subject of public and community Wi-Fi, but

her 2008 piece in the journal Information, Communication, and Society brings together many of

the important concepts necessary for the Newtown environment. More specific information on

this area is not yet available, but Powell’s work charts the path of community Wi-Fi in Montreal

from its early days of novelty to the consideration of its fundamental social and political

significance (2008, p. 1069). In this work, she also discusses the overlaps, as members of the

community come to realize the importance of a tool like public wireless access in a number of

their own spheres, or activities (2009, p.1070). With little existing infrastructure limiting

development and continually reducing investment costs, there is opportunity for public and

private partnership.

Other researchers, such as Kavanaugh, et al, have written earlier articles on this element

of democratic participation through technology infrastructure, especially due to the power of this

medium to the ease the collection of information necessary for effective participation (2005, p.

11). The Montreal and Austin examples take it to a more comprehensive ideal, including the

economic, social, and political aspects. In the case of Fuentes-Bautista and Inagaki, a story

similar to that of our Canadian researchers begins to emerge. This piece delves heavily into the

political mandates for increased access, referencing calls by the Bush administration for

“connectivity at restaurants, airports, and other public spaces as one of the strategies to reach

universal broadband service by the year 2007” (2006, p. 407). With these authors, as well as

others in the literature, we see an imaged shift from the Internet as luxury, to the Internet as

public utility. Newtown has the opportunity to be a new model in this fashion.

Another important question, elegantly posed by Sansui and Palen, is “How do we think

about the relationship between the owner of the coffee shop/Wi-Fi space and the coffee ship

patron/Wi-Fi user?” (2008, p. 260). These authors also discuss important issues of virtual

barriers, equity in volume and type of use, and other possible hot-button issues (Sansui and

Palen, 2008, p. 260-1). Another opportunity afforded by this new virtual layer of space is the

new relationships between the people and these modified places (Sansui and Palen, 2008, p.

262). Newtown has the chance to transform parks, community centers, and other public and

meeting spaces into areas supporting numerous and concurrent types of activities.

311

The Newtown, Sarasota Redevelopment Project

Newtown is a place with strong history and motivated leadership, but one that also

demonstrates the tragic effect of general and specific economic downturn. On online profile of

Newtown from City-Data.com shows that the demographics of this town are quite different from

the surrounding areas, with a considerably higher percentage of minority residents and a lower

average per capita income (http://www.city-data.com/neighborhood/Newtown-Sarasota-

FL.html). Much of this writer’s impression of Newtown’s present and past comes from

observation and the oral histories provided by community residents and leaders.

Despite the social and economic barriers, this is a proud and improving community

thanks to the efforts of Sarasota County government and local town leadership. Crime and other

undesirable social factors are impediments to overall economic redevelopment, but these

problems have symbiotic remedies. It’s possible that public Wi-Fi has great potential playing a

role in the spread of sustainable and equitable access to information, as well as providing

external benefits to businesses, tourists, and new uses of social and other spaces. Community

wireless has the potential to influence the actions and development of residents and new

businesses.

This data online show a median income of $21,221 for Newtown, almost half the $39,458

figure quoted for Sarasota County in 2008. These financial hurdles are not impossible obstacles,

but the route to possible financing for community wireless will clearly require personal,

business, and other sources of funding. This document also provides other general facts, such as

a population of 5,762 in a 1.179 square mile area (http://www.city-

data.com/neighborhood/Newtown-Sarasota-FL.html). Not huge numbers, but far from

prohibitive population and land specifications to create a resource base for this type of

infrastructure.

State and County Quickfacts, available online from the U.S. Census Bureau at

http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/12/12115.html, helps to further display the economic gaps

evident when comparing Newtown with the rest of Sarasota County. Sarasota in general

312

demonstrates lower rates of female and minority business ownership than the averages for the

state of Florida and there are no available data for Black-owned firms in this area. The lack of

information is another hurdle, but where there is a dearth of existing infrastructure, there’s

always the chance to start with the newest and most innovative thoughts and technologies. This

project can’t be pioneered on hope, but the demographic and fiscal realities do open up a world

of possible grant and research options.

Another integral resource in the feasibility of this project is the synergy of this project

with the existing Newtown Community Redevelopment planning and timetables. Also available

online is a document titled, “Newtown Community Redevelopment Area: Narrative and

Chronology” (http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/Newtown_CRA.pdf). This document sets

forth many of the social, political, and statutory goals and motivations for this project and any

hope for the effective installation and use of public Wi-Fi technologies will need to dovetail with

this plan. Anecdotally, I can say that the redevelopment pioneers with whom I have met and the

energy I have witnessed encourage the belief that this and other documents created by these

community leaders will serve as strong assets. The participation of government and business

will be another requirement, but the community is ready to accept new and emerging

technologies.

Further review of this document demonstrates an intense focus on economic rebirth, as

well as a strong desire to curb crime and blighted areas. The previous examples from Austin and

Montreal show some hope for the use of public spaces by new and different parts of the

population. In addition to students, residents, and visitors, business will, hopefully, contribute to

this new local and social network, if only for their own financial gain. In the forthcoming

section on technology, some general costs will be discussed, but the rapid reduction in price

provides more room for optimism.

The Newtown Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan – 2020 is a document that will also

help to guide the possible benefits to the community in developing a public Wi-Fi culture and

infrastructure. This document divides the goals into eight major sections: Administrative Policy;

Economic Development; Housing; Land Use; Transportation; Community Health, Safety, and

313

Welfare; Infrastructure; and Urban Design/Parks. The advent of public wireless can be of

immense benefit to many of these goals and their related objectives.

Summary of Current Wireless Environment

Internet access has changed much in the recent years, with drastic increases in availability

coupled with reduction in costs and technology requirements. Much has been written on the new

era of sustainable computing and cheaper smart phones and netbooks are putting the power of

information access into the hands of more and more citizens. There will be more on the social

and political ramifications of this facet later, but the economic power and application in the

Newtown environment are the primary focus of this section.

As discussed in other elements of this paper, the Internet is increasingly available in U.S.

households of all income levels, as well as more and more public and community spaces. In

2005, researchers estimated around 20% of Internet subscribers to be on high-speed systems, at

an average cost of $42.36 (Savage and Waldman, p. 615). In the years following the publication

of this article, “dial-up” Internet access has largely disappeared, especially in densely populated

areas. With the surrounding areas being relatively affluent, contact with one major cable and

Internet provider revealed the availability of high-speed access in the Newtown area, but the cost

may still be prohibitive for many residents.

A look at table 1119 of the Statistical Abstract of the United States (attached hereto as

Appendix “A”) shows that 71% of all U.S. residents use the Internet each day at some location

(work, home, etc.), with 61.7% having access in their homes. In Florida, use in all locations is

slightly lower than the national average, at 69.7%. A higher than average percentage of

Floridians has home and broadband access, though, with figures of 64.8% and 53.2%,

respectively. These slight gaps are further opportunities for Newtown to emerge as a new model

for Internet use. Precise numbers of residential subscribers to home internet access was not

available from commercial vendors, but libraries, community leaders, and other elements of the

public and private sectors can mobilize to lead the charge for subsidized and ubiquitous Wi-Fi

access.

314

Regardless of the technological future of Newtown, public libraries and other free

Internet access points will continue play an important role in the lives of many U.S. residents.

The Newtown area does have library Internet facilities in close proximity to the downtown area,

along with several public school and university campuses. If government were to serve as a

potential partner in the facilitation of Wi-Fi, the libraries could serve as informational,

technological, and architectural hubs for the further development of a community network. As

established destinations of objective and helpful information, the libraries could easily expand

this role to assist with such a project, even working with new and interested businesses and local

residents to promote equity in opportunity and provision of these new services.

Software is available that allows residential users to share their connections, creating a

true community web (Ananthaswamy, 2008, p. 24). With such concentrated a downtown area, a

few key private and governmental people could get a trial system up and running in no time.

This could be used to help test the interest and feasibility of larger scale efforts in the central

Newtown area. The density of population may serve as an advantage lost on much larger and

more anonymous cities. The close-knit nature of this community would greatly benefit the

spread of participation in this model of residential collaborative wireless.

Social Aspects of the New Information Age

The first goal of the Newtown Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan – 2020 is to establish

the administrative and financial tools to meet all the other goals and objectives for this process of

rejuvenation. Part of this required efficient and equitably transmission of new information,

opportunity, and development. To spread the fire of success, public Wi-Fi could again play an

active role. Articles throughout the literature have debated the Internet’s ability to affect,

positively or negatively, general inequality by reducing the cost of information (DiMaggio, et al,

2001, p. 310). These and other authors intimated that there would remain heavy barriers, but the

decrease in the cost of information coupled with exponential increases in free technology tools

has increased equity in information access. A small business can market to and interact with and

a much bigger local and virtual community with a minimum of investment and knowledge.

315

This is not to say that everything is easier in the age of information overload. Many still

live without any type of home Internet availability and a good portion of these people rely on

public libraries for information access. With so many government agencies and services

accessible only via online accounts, this makes access more and more a need than a privilege.

According to a 2007 study by Bertot, McClure, and Jaeger, libraries are the only provider of free

Internet access in 73.1% of measure areas (2008, p. 28). Public libraries are already vested in

the role of providing access and points for the community to gather. There’s no reason these

hubs cannot also partner with other groups and individuals to provide the information, as well as

the means to access the necessary resources to procure them.

The scale of current Wi-Fi projects in many smaller towns and cities also lends

encouragement to the social and tightly-knit Newtown community. Much as the Internet bridges

people over distance, it could be utilized as a tool to further connect the already bound Newtown

community. One interesting example of small scale beginnings is cited by Sandvig in a 2004

article. In this work, he describes the “Warchalking” activity of a London resident who, in 2002,

physically marked various free Wi-Fi spots throughout the city using chalk (p. 585). As equity

of information access becomes more necessary, even in smaller and less-developed areas like

Newtown, these inexpensive and introductory steps toward a cohesive Wi-Fi net are extremely

important. As noted in the same article, these actions lead to more formal efforts, such as

mapping and disseminating other free Wi-Fi sources (Sandvig, 2004, p. 586-587).

Economic and Development Benefits of Pervasive Wireless Access

In a much broader sense, the government is always subsidizing new technologies. The

Internet infrastructure is no different, and an excellent 2006 article by Downes and Greenstein

summarizes the privatization and commercialization of the Internet during the last 30 years

(2007, p. 3). Their particular research tracks the spread of commercial Internet Service Providers

(ISPs), as well as the availability and pricing of Internet services in different population areas

and densities (Downes and Greenstein, 2007, p. 3). This raises an important initial question: are

there technology firms in Newtown, or the surrounding area, that might be amenable to

316

involvement in a public Wi-Fi project? A local company would benefit directly from new

businesses coming into the region, but is there any real likelihood of using their capital to spur

growth in the region?

According to the most recent Statistical Abstract of the United States, there were just

over 19,000 ISPs in 2007 (Table 1114). Using the North American Industrial Classification

System (NAICS) codes (518111 and 5182) for commercial ISPs, a search of the national

business directory database ReferenceUSA reveals some relevant information about the current

environment. The entire Sarasota County region shows 64 companies providing Internet service

and for the more specific Newtown zip code of 34234, the following four companies are listed:

Address City StateZIP Code Company Name

1748 Independence Blvd Sarasota FL 34234 Hamel Tronics 4405 Independence Ct Sarasota FL 34234 I KELA Co 3333 N Tamiami Trl # 110 Sarasota FL 34234

Performance Copying & Printing

1877 Northgate Blvd Sarasota FL 34234 Wild Wild East

*ReferenceUSA database, accessed November 1, 2010

All of these being smaller and private firms, there is little additional information available. The

lack of business available for recruitment in this project is a challenge, but expanding the search

to ISPs in Sarasota County would provide more targets for collaboration and possible

investment.

Downes and Greestein sum up many of Newtown’s realities with the following quote:

Our estimates indicate that the places that lacked access had features that drove up cost,

such as low density, lack of major highway or railway for carry backbone, and the

absence of investments in other IT infrastructure that supported a labor market for

technical talent. (2007, p. 23).

317

Many of these are elements that will constrain the infrastructure development for a potential

public Wi-Fi endeavor, but there are nearby elements that can help overcome these limitations.

Growth of educational opportunities, both physical and virtual, will train a new generation of

technology workers, increasing the possibility of entrepreneurial interest and investment.

Newtown may lack an extremely affluent, or dense populous, but the decreasing costs associated

with these technologies and the increasing general awareness of Wi-Fi, cellular, and other virtual

information tools and resources can contribute to successful implementation.

Businesses could also combine efforts for mutual benefit and economies of scale by

integrating their spheres of coverage. Economic activity is generally good for all local

businesses, especially for those businesses that are complimentary in nature. If one or two

businesses begin the trend, a Wi-Fi mesh, as described in a 2008 article by Szabo, Farkas, and

Horvath, can be cooperatively created, much as the individual residents might combine their

wireless access nodes (p. 149). Aggregating these efforts would be a possible secondary step,

which could then be marketed to consumers, other potential businesses and industry, as well as

residents and visitors to the area.

Partial Conclusions and Proposals for Future Efforts

With so many uncertainties and vague measures, it’s difficult to provide immediate and

accurate estimates on the probability of the success for this type of undertaking. Regardless, it’s

the sincere hope of this author that serious consideration is given to this, or related community

technology projects. As demonstrated by the literature, these types of projects are often difficult

to manage, but with little existing and expensive technology barriers to overcome, Newtown may

actually be poised to succeed where others have failed to gain traction. This type of

neighborhood investment requires considerable capital, but can quickly pay its own way with

new jobs, better and more pervasive access to information, and the possibility of more cohesive

economic development.

A primary goal of the Newtown Comprehensive Redevelopment Plan – 2020 is to develop

a system to exchange information and promote the financial and other goals of its residents.

318

With this benchmark in mind, it seems clear that the installation of free and public wireless and

broadband access could be used to facilitate, as well as meet, some of the necessary objectives.

Additional monies would be a certain need, but some existing funds could be routed to

supplement the initial investment, especially if the new system provided advances and

replacements for current tools and services. Funds for communication hardware and software

used by non-emergency workers, for example, could be added to the pool needed for initial or

continued investment.

As discussed by pioneering examples in Austin and other cities worldwide, there is

symbiotic benefit when there is the “presence of a critical mass of early adopters and tech-savvy

users” (Fuentes-Bautista and Inagaki, 2006, p. 414). Newtown may not be the ideal situation,

with a shortage of technology firms and leaders compared to Austin, or Montreal, but there are

nearby resources, including those from the academic and political environments. There exists a

leadership with a solid understanding of the community and the ability of this system to enhance

social, business, and other interactions. With this combination, as well as additional investments

and a bit of luck, there’s opportunity for success in developing public Wi-Fi in some scale for

Newtown.

The next steps are difficult, but rather obvious; gauge community interest, the attention

and capital availability of local businesses, and the change of involvement by local government.

The last of these three important pillars is likely the best place to start, considering the financial

and social involvement currently exhibited by the community leaders and other interested

officials. More and more people of all types and education levels are using the Internet and Wi-

Fi, but the fact that most users are college graduates from the ages of 25 to 34 need not be a

barrier (Powell, 2008, p. 1081). With the ease and experience now available in selecting the

hardware components, you no longer will require advanced computer skills to access next

generation computing.

Local schools and libraries also have much to offer, as well as the prospect of graduate or

faculty research attention. There are several institutions of higher education in the surrounding

area that could be approached to discuss research possibilities. In accordance with government

and FCC regulations, libraries and other educational institutions get reduced pricing on Internet

319

access, enhancing their selection as an early partner in a possible wireless endeavor. Bertot, et

al, in their 2008 publication, note that 54.2% of public libraries already provide wireless Internet

connectivity, with 17.4% more planning on implementing such services within one year (p. 292).

This type of activity indicates an interest, as well as a willingness by libraries to help lead the

way. Additionally, many libraries are firm believers in imitation as a form of flattery; and many

more are perfectly happy to share successes and failures, particularly if it rewards them with

positive recognition.

By cooperating with SCAT for transit, the libraries and schools for additional learning

and hardware centers, and the leaders most involved with the economic redevelopment, goals for

Wi-Fi accessibility may be accomplished more completely and efficiently. Establishing public

Wi-Fi in Newtown is ambitious, but completing this goal would directly benefit all other future

organizational efforts. This new open-access model may additionally be used to market services,

attract visitors, and gather the community. The technology costs are difficult to estimate, but the

potential benefits for Newtown’s emergence and economic recovery are great.

320

References

Ananthaswamy, A. (2008). Wi-fi “co-op” could spell internet for all. The New Scientist, 197(2641), 24-24. doi: 10.1016/S0262-4079(08)60294-8

Bertot, J. C., Clark, L., Davis, D., & McClure, C. R. (2008). Libraries connect communities : Public library funding & technology access study, 2007-2008. Chicago: American Library Association.

DiMaggio, P., Hargittai, E., Neuman, W. R., & Robinson, J. P. (2001). Social implications of the internet. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 307-336.

Downes, T., & Greenstein, S. (2007). Understanding why universal service obligations may be unnecessary: The private development of local internet access markets. Journal of Urban Economics, 62(1), 2-26. doi: 10.1016/j.jue.2006.10.004

Flickenger, R. (2002). Building wireless community networks (1st ed.). Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly.

Fuentes-Bautista, M., & Inagaki, N. (2006). Reconfiguring public internet access in Austin, TX: Wi-fi's promise and broadband divides. Government Information Quarterly, 23(3-4), 404-434. doi: 10.1016/j.giq.2006.07.013

InfoUSA. ReferenceUSA [electronic resource]. Omaha, NE: InfoUSA Inc. Retrieved from License agreement available:; https://web.lib.usf.edu/licenses/infoUSA; http://reference.infousa.com

Kavanaugh, A., Carroll, J. M., Rosson, M. B., Reese, D. D., & Zin, T. T. (2005). Participating in civil society: The case of networked communities. Interacting with Computers, 17(1), 9-33. doi: 10.1016/j.intcom.2004.10.006

Lane, G. (2003). Urban tapestries: Wireless networking, public authoring and social knowledge. Springer London. doi:10.1007/s00779-003-0229-8

Middleton, K. L. (2010). Approaching digital equity: Is wi-fi the new leveler? Information Technology People, 23(1), 4.

Newtown community redevelopment area narrative and chronology. Retrieved October 20, 2010, from http://www.sarasotagov.com/newtown/Newtown_CRA.pdf

Newtown comprehensive redevelopment plan - 2020

Newtown neighborhood in Sarasota, Florida (FL), 34234 detailed profile. (2010). Retrieved October 22, 2010, from http://www.city-data.com/neighborhood/Newtown-Sarasota-FL.html

321

Powell, A. (2008). WIFI publics: Producing community and technology. Information, Communication Society, 11(8), 1068.

Sandvig, C. (2004). An initial assessment of cooperative action in wi-fi networking. Telecommunications Policy, 28(7-8), 579-602. doi: 10.1016/j.telpol.2004.05.006

Sanusi, A., & Palen, L. (2008). Of coffee shops and parking lots: Considering matters of space and place in the use of public wi-fi. Computer Supported Cooperative Work: The Journal of Collaborative Computing, 17(2), 257-273. doi:10.1007/s10606-007-9062-3

Sarasota county libraries. Retrieved October 28, 2010, from http://suncat.co.sarasota.fl.us/

Savage, S. J., & Waldman, D. (2005). Broadband internet access, awareness, and use: Analysis of United States household data. Telecommunications Policy, 29(8), 615-633. doi: 10.1016/j.telpol.2005.06.001

SCAT: Sarasota county area transit. Retrieved October 15, 2010, from http://www.scgov.net/SCAT/

Szabó, C. (2008). Motivations, design and business models of wireless community networks. Mobile Networks and Applications, 13(1), 147.

United States Bureau of the Census. Statistical abstract of the United States. Retrieved November 1, 2010 from http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/

United States Census Bureau. State & county QuickFacts: Sarasota County, Florida. Retrieved November 1, 2010, from http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/12/12115.html

Appendix “A”

322