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Chapter Sixteen
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Chapter SixteenCulture and cross-cultural
variations in consumer behaviour
Chapter 16:Culture and cross-cultural
variations in consumer behaviour1. Concept of culture2. How culture is shared and acquired3. Cultural values classified into 3 categories4. Culture also involves non-verbal
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4. Culture also involves non-verbal communications
5. Consumption practices are influenced by cultural content
6. Considerations before undertaking cross-cultural or ethnic marketing
Cultural influences—Overview
1. Definitions2. Cultural values3. Cross-cultural variations4. Non-verbal communications
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4. Non-verbal communications5. Cross-cultural marketing strategy
Definition of culture
• Complex concept that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities acquired by humans as members of society.
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members of society.
• Culture includes almost everything that influences an individual’s thought processes and behaviours.
The Concept of CultureThe Concept of Culture
CultureCulture is the complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, law,
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belief, art, law, morals, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as members of society.
Variables influencing cross-cultural marketing strategies
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Culture• Is a comprehensive concept• Influences our preferences• Is acquired from our experiences and
learning
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learning • Supplies the boundaries for behaviour
in modern societies • Consumers are seldom aware of
cultural influences
Cultural values, norms, sanctions and consumption patterns
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Culture and change
• Cultures are not static and evolve and change slowly over time
• Sometimes changes can be rapid
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• Sometimes changes can be rapid – Technological advances– Dramatic events e.g. war
• Marketers need to monitor changes
Interaction between values, norms, and consumption patterns
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Classification of cultural values
• Three broad classifications are used:– Other-oriented
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– Environment-oriented
– Self-oriented
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Reflect a society’s view of the appropriate
Other-Oriented Values
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of the appropriate relationships between individuals and groupswithin that society.
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Prescribe a society’s relationship to its
Environment-Oriented Values
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relationship to its economic and technical as well as its physical environment.
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Reflect the objectives and approaches to life that the individual members of society find desirable.
Self-Oriented Values
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Other-oriented values
• Individual vs collective (initiative, conformity)
• Romantic orientation (love)• Adult vs child (child’s place)
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• Adult vs child (child’s place)• Masculine vs feminine (male role)• Competition vs cooperation (excel or
not?)• Youth vs age (wisdom of elders)
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Individual/CollectiveIndividual/Collective
Are individual activity and initiative valued more highly than collective activity and conformity?
Other-Oriented Values
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than collective activity and conformity?
Asian cultures more collective
U.S. culture more individualistic
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Youth/AgeYouth/Age
Other-Oriented Values
Is family life organized to meet the needs of
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to meet the needs of the children or the adults?
Are younger or older people viewed as leaders and role models?
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Extended/Limited FamilyExtended/Limited FamilyOther-Oriented Values
To what extent does one have a life-long
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one have a life-long obligation to numerous family members?
Extended family critical in South/ Central America
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Masculine/Feminine Masculine/Feminine
To what extend does social power automatically go to males?
Other-Oriented Values
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males?
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Competitive/CooperativeCompetitive/Cooperative
Other-Oriented Values
Does one obtain
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Does one obtain success by excelling over others or by cooperating with them?
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Diversity/UniformityDiversity/Uniformity
Does the culture embrace variation in religious belief, ethnic background, political views, and other important
Other-Oriented Values
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ethnic background, political views, and other important behaviors and attitudes?
Environment-oriente d values
• Cleanliness (extent of)• Performance vs status (performance or
class)• Tradition vs change (new behaviours?)
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• Tradition vs change (new behaviours?)• Risk-taking vs security (risk encouraged?)• Problem-solving vs fatalism (problem-
solving or acceptance encouraged?)• Nature (admired or overcome?)
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
CleanlinessCleanliness
Environment-Oriented Values
To what extent is
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To what extent is cleanliness pursued beyond the minimum needed for health?
U.S. very high on personal hygiene – some think to an extreme!
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Performance/StatusPerformance/StatusEnvironment-Oriented Values
Is the culture’s reward system based on performance or on inherited factors such as family or class?
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Closely related to the concept of power distance, which refers to the degree to which people accept inequality in power, authority, status, and wealth as natural or inherent in society.
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Tradition/ChangeTradition/Change
Is tradition valued simply for the sake of tradition? Is change or “progress” an acceptable reason for altering
Environment-Oriented Values
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change or “progress” an acceptable reason for altering established patterns?
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Tradition/Change (Cont.)Tradition/Change (Cont.)
A focus on technology as an indicator of change illustrates some dramatic differences across cultures that show the following:
Environment-Oriented Values
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following:
The above represent Internet users and cell phones as a percent of total population
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Risk taking/Security Risk taking/Security
Are those who risk their established positions to overcome obstacles or achieve high goals admired more
Environment-Oriented Values
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overcome obstacles or achieve high goals admired more than those who do not?
A society that does not admire risk taking is unlikely to develop enough entrepreneurs to achieve economic change and growth.
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Problem solving/FatalisticProblem solving/Fatalistic
Are people encouraged to overcome all problems, or do they take a “what will be, well be” attitude?
Environment-Oriented Values
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or do they take a “what will be, well be” attitude?
Is there an optimistic, “we can do it” orientation?
Mexico and Middle-East Countries tend to fall toward the fatalistic end of the continuum.
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
NatureNature
Is nature regarded as something to be admired or overcome?
Environment-Oriented Values
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overcome?
Self-oriented values
• Active vs passive (physical activity)• Material vs non-material approach
(acquisition?)• Hard work vs leisure (admire hard work?)• Postponed vs immediate gratification
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• Postponed vs immediate gratification (save/enjoy now)
• Sensual gratification vs abstinence (food, drink)
• Humour vs seriousness (is life serious?)
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Active/PassiveActive/Passive
Is a physically active approach to life valued more highly than a less active orientation?
Self-Oriented Values
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highly than a less active orientation?
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Sensual gratification/AbstinenceSensual gratification/Abstinence
To what extent is it acceptable to enjoy sensual pleasures such as food, drink, and sex?
Self-Oriented Values
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such as food, drink, and sex?
Cultures differ in their acceptance of sensual gratification.
Applications in Consumer BehaviorApplications in Consumer Behavior
Ad for Calvin Klein underwear:
OK in U.S. and
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OK in U.S. and France.
Not appropriate in cultures that place a high value on abstinence.
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Material/NonmaterialMaterial/Nonmaterial
How much importance is attached to the acquisition of material wealth?
Self-Oriented Values
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Two types of materialism:
1.1. Instrumental materialismInstrumental materialism – is the acquisition of things to enable one to do something.
2.2. Terminal materialismTerminal materialism – is the acquisition of items for the sake of owning the item itself.
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Hard work/LeisureHard work/Leisure
Is a person who works harder than economically necessary admired more than one who does not?
Self-Oriented Values
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necessary admired more than one who does not?
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Postponed gratification/Immediate gratificationPostponed gratification/Immediate gratification
Are people encouraged to “save for a rainy day” or to “live for today”?
Self-Oriented Values
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“live for today”?
Variations in Cultural ValuesVariations in Cultural Values
Religious/SecularReligious/Secular
To what extent are behaviors and attitudes based on the rules specified by a religious doctrine?
Self-Oriented Values
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the rules specified by a religious doctrine?
The Australasian culture
• Australasian values– Self-oriented values– Environment-oriented values
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– Self-oriented values
Australasian self-oriented values• Hard work valued• Strong bias for action• May be a lessening of self-gratification
– But very high personal debt
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– But very high personal debt• Material orientation• Humorous outlook
Australasian environment-oriented values
Traditionally have admired:• Cleanliness• Change• Performance
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• Performance• Risk taking• Conquest of nature
How have these changed?
Australasian other-orientated values
• Traditionally (Aust-NZ) have been individualistic, competitive, romantic, masculine, youthful, and parent-oriented societies
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oriented societies
How are these changing?
Australasian values dictate that hard work is desirable
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Western society accepts open courtship
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Cultural variations in non-verbal communications
Translation problems in marketing
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Cross-cultural variations: Factors influencing non-verbal
communications
• Time• Space• Friendship
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• Agreements• Things• Symbols• Etiquette
Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communications
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Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communications
TimeTimeThe meaning of time varies between cultures in two major ways:
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• Time perspective—the culture’s overall orientation toward time (monochronic monochronic vs. polychronicpolychronic)
• Interpretations assigned to specific uses of time
ways:
Time perspectiveMonochronic and polychronic cultures
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Non-verbal communications (cont.)
• Space• Friendship• Agreements
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• Things• Symbols• Etiquette
Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communications
• Overall use and meanings assigned to space vary widely
SpaceSpace
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assigned to space vary widely among different cultures
-how office space is allocated
-Personal space
Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communications
SymbolsSymbolsColors, animals, shapes, numbers, and music have varying meanings across
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varying meanings across cultures.
Failure to recognize the meaning assigned to a symbol can cause serious problems!
Meaning of numbers, colours and other symbols, in different cultures – Part 1
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Meaning of numbers, colours and other symbols, in different cultures - Part 2
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Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communications
RelationshipsRelationshipsHow quickly and easily do cultures form relationships and make friends?
•Americans tend to form relationships
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•Americans tend to form relationships and friends quickly and easily.
•Chinese relationships are much more complex. Under the concept of guanxi, an individual can draw upon personal connections/relationships to secure resources or advantages when doing business as well as in the course of social life.
Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communications
AgreementsAgreementsHow does a culture ensure business obligations are honored? How are
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honored? How are disagreements resolved?
Some cultures rely on a legal system; others rely on relationships, friendships, kinship, local moral principles, or informal customs to guide business conduct.
Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communications
ThingsThingsThe cultural meaning of things leads to purchase patterns that one would not otherwise predict.
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not otherwise predict.
The differing meanings that cultures attach to things, including products, make gift-giving a particularly difficult task.
For example, what type of gift is appropriate and when does receipt of a gift “require” a gift in return?
Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communications
EtiquetteEtiquetteMeishi is an important aspect of Japanese business etiquette…”a man without a Meishi has no identity in Japan.” What is Meishi? It is the exchange of business cards!
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exchange of business cards!
Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communications
EtiquetteEtiquetteThe generally accepted ways of behaving in social situations.
Behaviors considered rude or obnoxious in one
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Behaviors considered rude or obnoxious in one culture may be quite acceptable in another!
Normal voice tone, pitch, and speed of speech differ between cultures and languages, as do the use of gestures.
Etiquette
• Eye contact with business clients • Touching a customer on the arm or
shoulder• Contact between males
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• Contact between males
Developing a cross-cultural marketing strategy
Seven questions:1. Is it a homogenous culture?2. What needs will the product fill?3. Can enough afford the product?4. What values are relevant to this product?
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4. What values are relevant to this product?5. What are the distribution, political and legal
structures?6. How can the firm communicate about the
product?7. What are the ethical implications?