What makes social-ecological systems robust? - A case study of natural resources management in the...

International Symposium on Environmental Sociology in East Asia 2013, Hohai University, Nanjing, China

What makes social-ecological systems robust? - A case study of natural resources management in the Kitakami area of northern Japan

MIYAUCHI Taisuke, Ph.D.Environmental SociologyHokkaido Universitymiyauchi@let.hokudai.ac.jp

Social-ecological system

• A social-ecological system is a complex integration of nature and society, where the two interact in complicated ways.

• Studies on social-ecological systems have developed during the last decade. (Berkes et al. eds., 2003; Walke et al., 2004; Anderies et al., 2004; Folke et al.,

2005; Miyauchi ed., 2009)

• Although a social-ecological system is far more complicated as a whole, it can be analyzed by focusing on local systems. One can choose a sustainable area and analyze sustainability mechanism.

• One focal point of social-ecological systems is its robustness: What makes social-ecological systems robust?

Purpose

• Investigate what makes social-ecological systems robust, through a case study of natural resources management in the Kitakami area of northern Japan.

Kitakami

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Why the Kitakami area?

• The area has a variety of natural resources that local people have sustainably utilized.• Marine, forest, and river resources• Communities’ collective involvement

in resource management

Kitakami

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Area description of Kitakami, Miyagi, Japan

• 20 communities (villages)• Population: 3,718 (2010

census)• Population over 65 yrs: 30%• Main industries: fishing (142

engaged), agriculture (86), construction (305), and manufacturing (337)

Kitakami

1 km

Kitakami

Research method

Since 2004 • Qualitative research

• Conducted semi-structured interviews of 100+ people with a variety of occupations, ages, and sexes

• Collected historical and statistical material

Natural resources in Kitakami

Marine resources

fish (salmon), abalone, sea urchin, wakame (Undaria pinnatifida), kelp, seashore seaweeds, and aquaculture (wakame, kelp, and scallops)

Forest resources

wood for charcoal, firewood, pampas grass, and chestnuts

River resources

basket clams and reeds

Marine resources in Kitakami

Marine resources

fish (salmon), abalone, sea urchin, wakame (Undaria pinnatifida), kelp, seashore seaweeds, aquaculture (wakame, kelp, and scallop), etc.

Forest resources

wood for charcoal, firewood, pampas grass, chestnuts, etc.

River resources

basket clams, reeds

Marine resources and management bodies

Resource Management body Beneficiary

Abalone fishermen’s cooperative households

Fish (salmon) fishermen’s cooperative households

Sea urchinscommunity organization (Keiyakuko) households

Wakame and kelp collecting community organization (Keiyakuko)

community organizations and households

Aquaculture (wakame, kelp, and scallops) fishermen’s cooperative households

Seashoreseaweeds

community organization (Keiyakuko)

community organizations and households

(Source) field data

1 km

KitakamiFisherm

en’s cooperativ

e

Keiyakuko

KeiyakukoKeiyakuko

Keiyakuko

Keiyakuko

What is Keiyakuko （契約講）　 ?

• Traditional community organization in certain areas of northern Japan(Each community has a Keiyakuko.)• Autonomous governing system• Mutual aid system• Conducts traditional rituals• Owns communal property (e.g., forest land)• Owns resource usufruct rights• Handles resource management systems

Keiyakuko and resource management

• Keiyakuko is not only a resource management organization but also an integrated body.

• Management system works!• People think they should obey rules set by the

Keiyakuko, which covers various aspects of their livelihood.

Seashore seaweeds case

Five species of seashore seaweeds:Nori (Porphyra sp.), Funori (Gloiopeltis spp.), Hijiki (Sargassum fusiforme), Matsumo (Ceratophyllum demersum), and Tsunomata (Chondrus ocellatus)

Community rules on seashore seaweed

Community Rules on seashore seaweeds

KomuroKeiyakuko’s rules. All types are harvested by each household. Revenue goes to each household

OhmuroKeiyakuko’s rules with strict punishment. Collective harvesting on the first day of open season and individual harvesting beginning from the second day. The collective harvest revenue goes to the Keiyakuko.

Kodomari

Keiyakuko’s rules. One type of seaweed is collectively harvested, and its revenue goes to the Keiyakuko. The other types are collectively harvested on the first day of open season and individually harvested beginning from the second day.

Aikawa

Keiyakuko’s rules. Formerly, collective harvesting on the first and second days of open season and individual harvesting beginning from the third day. The collective harvest revenue went to the Keiyakuko. Currently, all individual harvesting.

KozashiKeiyakuko’s rules. Collective harvesting on the first day of open season and individual harvesting beginning from the second day. The collective harvest revenue goes to the Keiyakuko.

KotakiKeiyakuko’s rules. Each household harvests seaweed. Seaweed of one offshore rock island has open access.

Community rules on seashore seaweed

Community Rules on seashore seaweeds

KomuroKeiyakuko’s rules. All types are harvested by each household. Revenue goes to each household

OhmuroKeiyakuko’s rules with strict punishment. Collective harvesting on the first day of open season and individual harvesting beginning from the second day. The collective harvest revenue goes to the Keiyakuko.

Kodomari

Keiyakuko’s rules. One type of seaweed is collectively harvested, and its revenue goes to the Keiyakuko. The other types are collectively harvested on the first day of open season and individually harvested beginning from the second day.

Aikawa

Keiyakuko’s rules. Formerly, collective harvesting on the first and second days of open season and individual harvesting beginning from the third day. The collective harvest revenue went to the Keiyakuko. Currently, all individual harvesting.

KozashiKeiyakuko’s rules. Collective harvesting on the first day of open season and individual harvesting beginning from the second day. The collective harvest revenue goes to the Keiyakuko.

KotakiKeiyakuko’s rules. Each household harvests seaweed. Seaweed of one offshore rock island has open access.

• Diversity in how each community manages resources and how each species is managed

• Flexibility in each community’s situation• Flexibility in each year’s situation

Human-nature interaction in seashore seaweed collection

Human activities on seashore seaweed are observed to ensure sustainable production:

1. Locals extend rocks and install new rocks. “New rocks are productive for seaweed” （ S.T., 2010.3.21 ） “Installing new rocks are for more seaweed production. Seashore

seaweed used to be something like ‘rice’ for us locals.” （ E.E., 2009.8.5 ）

2. Locals sometimes sow seaweed seed by pouring water with seed.

3. Harvesting seaweed enables production for the next year.

“If you do not harvest it, other plants may grow and prevent seaweed growing.” （ E.E., 2009.8.5 ）

4. Locals leave the bottom part of seaweed to enable regrowth.

Human-nature interaction in seashore seaweed collection

Human activities on seashore seaweed are observed to ensure sustainable production:

1. Locals extend rocks and install new rocks. “New rocks are productive for seaweed” （ S.T., 2010.3.21 ） “Installing new rocks are for more seaweed production. Seashore

seaweed used to be something like ‘rice’ for us locals.” （ E.E., 2009.8.5 ）

2. Locals sometimes sow seaweed seed by pouring water with seed.

3. Harvesting seaweed enables production for the next year.

“If you do not harvest it, other plants may grow and prevent seaweed growing.” （ E.E., 2009.8.5 ）

4. Locals leave the bottom part of seaweed to enable regrowth.

Interaction between humans and nature is crucial to sustainability.

Findings from marine resources management

• What is crucial to local resource management?

1. Interaction between humans and nature

2. Existence of local management

3. Integrity of local management body

4. Multi-layered system

5. Diversity depending on resources and communities

6. Flexibility in management

Forest resources in Kitakami

Marine resources

fish (salmon etc.), abalone, sea urchin, wakame (Undaria pinnatifida), kelp, seashore seaweeds, aquaculture (wakame, kelp, and scallops), etc.

Forest resources

wood for charcoal, firewood, pampas grass, chestnuts, etc.

River resources

basket clams, reeds

Forest area:

charcoal-making, p

ampas grass, and chestnut

Reed bed

Charcoal-making

Charcoal-making until the1960s• One of the main income sources• Broadleaf trees are cut from the

following forests: State forests Private forests Community forests: Keiyakuko-owned

Rules in charcoal-making from state and community forests

• Government permits Keiyakuko to cut trees in the state forest. Permission is granted as per customary rights.

• Keiyakuko controls the rules for state community forests. Keiyakuko divides the area into each

household under the rules. Only Keiyakuko members can join. Keiyakuko decides where each member

can cut trees in the permitted forest.

Pampas grass (Miscanthus sinensis)

Pampas grass (Miscanthus sinensis)

• Pampas grass grew widely in forests until a large cedar forestation in the 1960s.

• People are free to use pampas grass even from the state forest.

Chestnut (Castanea crenata)

• Until the 1950s, chestnutswere gathered as food.

• The locals were free to gather chestnuts.

• However, there was a loose rule or norm as to the day on which to begin the harvest.

Forest production and management rules

Charcoal-making

Keiyakuko controlled with strict rules

Pampas grass (Miscanthus sinensis)

Free to collect

Chestnut (Castanea crenata)

Loose rule as to the day on which to begin the harvest

Findings from forest resource management

1. Despite ownership, community rights exist.

2. Collective rights and rules are crucial.

3. Rules are flexible depending on species.

River resources in Kitakami

Marine resources

Fish (salmon etc.), abalone, sea urchin, wakame (Undaria pinnatifida), kelp, Seashore seaweeds, aquaculture (wakame, kelp, and scallop), etc.

Forest resources

wood for charcoal, firewood, Pampas grass, chestnuts, etc.

River resources

Reeds, basket clams (Corbicula japonica)

Seashore ：

Seaweed harvesting, fishing,

and aquaculture

River:

Reed harvesting

Forest:

Wood, pampas

grass, and chestnut

Natural resources in Kitakami

１ km

reed bed

Reed bed 　 (10 km and 150 ha) (Phragmites australis)

Reed bed (Phragmites australis)

• Highly acclaimed landscape• “Rare and valuable”• Symbol of local nature

Reed bed as symbolic landscape of the area

Reeds’ value for biodiversity

• Many ecological studies have evaluated reeds.

(van der Putten, 1997; Suzuki et al., 1993; Fujii, 2001)

It purifies water. It provides a habitat for fish and

maintains biodiversity.

Reed harvesting

Contribution of human activities to biodiversity

• Many ecological studies have revealed that human involvement is crucial to the sustainability of the reed ecosystem. It prevents other species’ invasion. It promotes new bud growth. It preserves nutrition.

“River improvement project” andthe birth of the reed bed in Kitakami

Before the implementation of the river improvement project

Source: Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport

Research Area

Old Kiatami River

Kiatam

i River

“River improvement project” andthe birth of the reed bed in Kitakami

River improvement project: 1911–1931↓The reed bed appeared.

Source: Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport

Built a channel

widened the river

Research Area

New Kiatami River

Kiatam

i River

Before the implementation of the river improvement project (1915)

１ km

After the completion of the river improvement project (1936)

１ km

The reed bed appeared

reed bed

Source: Kitakami Choshi (The History of Kitakami-cho), 2005

Before the implementation of the river improvement project=> After the project

The reed bed at present

Reed bed

Reed bed

Reed bed with harvesting

Reed bed without harvesting

Human–nature interactionHuman activities have maintained the reed bed landscape.

After the completion of the river improvement project (1936)

１ ｋｍ

Conflicts over the right to harvest reeds in the 1930s

After the completion of the river improvement project (1936)

１ ｋｍ

Conflicts over the right to harvest reeds in the 1930s

A consensus was achieved, wherein each community had the right to harvest the reeds bordering its area.

Reed use and communities’ rights

• History of usage Initially, people from each community

harvested and sold the reeds.

Later, local entrepreneurs started harvesting and selling the reeds, and they paid a commission to the community (Keiyakuko).

Usage of reeds over the years

Usage of reeds over the years

Community members themselves

harvest and sell the reeds.

Local entrepreneurs harvest

and sell the reeds with

the community’s

permission.

Reed use and communities’ rights

• History of usage Initially, people from each community

harvested and sold the reeds.

Later, local entrepreneurs started harvesting and selling the reeds, and they paid a commission to the community (Keiyakuko).

• Rules The reeds are to be harvested during a

particular season. Income from the commission goes to the

Keiyakuko.

• The communities still hold the right to harvest the reeds.

Findings from reed management

• What is crucial for sustainable use of reeds?

1. Interaction between humans and nature

2. Consensus and setting up collective rules

3. Continuation of collective rights despite the change of usage

Conclusion:

What makes social-ecological systems robust and resilient?1. Interaction between humans and

nature

2. Collective rights and rules

3. Integrated community organizations

4. A multi-layered management system

5. Flexibility in management

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van der Putten, Wim H., 1997, "Die-back of Phragmitesaustralis in European wetlands: an overview of the European Research Programme on Reed Die-back and Progression (1993-1994)", Aquatic Botany, 59 (1997) 263-275

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March 11, 2011, Great East Japan Earthquake

A tsunami-stricken area

Casualties in Kitakami

Population before tsunami 3,718

Casualties (dead and missing) 265

Households before tsunami 1151

Houses destroyed 　 1096

Rebuilding process: e.g., workshop on relocation projectCollective natural

resource management system

Collective and successful rebuilding process

Community cohesion

Thank you.

MIYAUCHI Taisuke, Ph.D,

Hokkaido University

miyauchi@let.hokudai.ac.jp