Human nature and behaviour
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- To develop an understanding about humannature and its influence
on behaviour Becoming more self-aware and have adeeper
understanding about othersTodays Objectives To develop an
appreciation for diversity
- What is personality? What makes us what we are? What are the
key elements of personality? Are there generic types or classes?We
will cover: Are there generic types or classes? Is this personality
good or bad? Is diversity a curse or a blessing? Application of
what we have learnt
- Self-awareness People are the most importantorganizational
resource Improving predictability and self-confidence Building
relationships Building relationships Effective utilization of human
resources Avoiding or managing conflicts Improving the quality of
life and workenvironment
- Have you ever faced a person whom youfailed to understand? Have
you ever been misunderstood (as aperson)?Reflection Have you ever
been frustrated by peoplewho looked, behaved, thought or felt
verydifferent than you? Have you ever looked down on someonewho
behaved, thought or felt differently?
- Every man is in certain respects like allother men, like some
other men, like noother manKluckhohn & MurrayPersonality
- Personality describes the character ofemotion, thought, and
behavior patternsunique to a person It is a particular pattern of
behaviour andthinking prevailing across time andPersonalitythinking
prevailing across time andsituations that differentiates one
personfrom another Personality is the sum total of ways inwhich an
individual react and interactswith others
- Personality is that which permits aprediction of what a person
will do in agiven situation It explains how each individual is
uniquePersonality Personality is one of the key determinantsof
human behaviour but there are alsoother factors of behaviour e.g.
situation,attitude, cognition, motivation, belief etc.
- Nature vs. NurtureHeredity and biology - genes, nervoussystem,
endocrine system and other systemsEnvironment and life
experiencesThe Development of PersonalityEnvironment and life
experiences Identical twins share the same templatebut have
different states Twins raised in different families haveoften
demonstrated similar tastes,choosing the same profession and
evenusing the same brands of products
- Some traits may be more strongly linkedto heredity than others
The initial few years are critical in theformation of
personalityThe Development of Personality Plaster vs. Plasticity
hypothesisSet like plasterChanges throughout adulthood
- Trait Theories personality is a set of
mentalstructures/systems, different for each individual,resulting
in characteristic responses to situations Humanist Theories
difficult to predictbehaviour lives are not scripted
personalitiesViews on Personalitybehaviour lives are not scripted
personalitiesare defined by their own different perceptions
andexperiences Behavioural Theories Personality is theconstantly
changing set of learned behaviour,influenced by reinforcements
- Human behaviour is influenced by:Personality traitsThe
situationThe interaction between personalityInteractionismThe
interaction between personalityand situation How one perceives or
defines a situation isa critical factor of behaviour
- Doctors report that the child would neverbe able to play any
physically exertingsport the child grows to be the fittestathlete
in the world How did the parents define the situation?CASE How did
the parents define the situation? How did the child define the
situation? How did it influence their behaviour?
- Locus of Control (internal/external)The degree to which people
believe they are incontrol of their own fate Self-Esteem - Feelings
of self-worth stemmingfrom the individuals positive or negative
beliefsOther Attributesfrom the individuals positive or negative
beliefsabout being valuable and capable Self-awareness - being
aware of oneself,including ones traits, feelings, behaviours
andlimitations Risk Taking - a persons willingness to takechances
or risks
- Before we examine various types ofpersonalities we should
remember:There is no right, wrong, good or badtypeEach type has
strengths and weaknessesIs this Personality Good or Bad?Each type
has strengths and weaknessesA personality may however be more
suitablefor a given role or situationPersonality traits may shift
over timeBehaviour/performance is not dependent onpersonality
alone
- The Big Five Cattells 16 Primary Factors Myers-Briggs Type
IndicatorPersonality Models
- The Big FiveNeuroticismAnxietyAngry
hostilityDepressionSelf-consciousnessImpulsivenessVulnerabilityExtraversionWarmth
& SociabilityAssertivenessActivityPositive
emotionsTalkativenessBoldnessSpontaneityOpennessFantasyAestheticsFeelingsActionsIdeasValuesSpontaneityAdventure
&
EnthusiasmAgreeablenessTrustStraightforwardnessAltruismComplianceModestyTender-mindednessConscientiousnessCompetenceOrderDutifulnessAchievement
strivingSelf-disciplineDeliberation (reflection)
- Cattells 16 Primary FactorsFactor Low HighWarmthReserved,
impersonal,cool, detached, formalWarm, outgoing, kindly,easygoing,
participating,likes peopleReasoningConcrete-thinking,
lessintelligentAbstract-thinking, moreintelligent, bright,
fastlearnerlearnerEmotionalStabilityReactive, emotionally
lessstable, easily upsetEmotionally stable,adaptive, mature,
facesreality, calmDominanceRespectful, humble,cooperative,
avoidsconflict, obedientDominant, assertive,aggressive,
competitive,stubborn, bossyLivelinessSerious, restrained,prudent,
thoughtful,silentLively, spontaneous,enthusiastic,
cheerful,expressive, impulsive
- Cattells 16 Primary FactorsFactor Low
HighRule-ConsciousnessExpedient,nonconforming,disregards
rulesRule-conscious, dutiful,conscientious,
moralistic,rule-boundSocial BoldnessShy, threat-sensitive,timid,
hesitant,intimidatedSocially bold,venturesome, thick-skinned,
uninhibitedintimidated skinned, uninhibitedSensitivityUtilitarian,
objective,unsentimental, tough-minded, roughSensitive,
aesthetic,sentimental, tender-minded, intuitive,
refinedVigilanceTrusting, accepting,unconditional, easyVigilant,
suspicious,skeptical,
distrustful,oppositionalAbstractednessGrounded,
practical,solution-oriented,steady, conventionalAbstracted,
imaginative,absent-minded, absorbedin ideas, impractical,
- Cattells 16 Primary FactorsFactor Low
HighPrivatenessStraightforward,genuine, open, naivePrivate,
tactful, non-disclosing, shrewd,
worldly,diplomaticApprehensionunworried, secure,complacent, free
ofguilt, confidentApprehensive, self-doubting, worried,
guilt-prone, insecure, self-guilt, confidentprone, insecure,
self-blamingOpenness toChangeTraditional, attached tofamiliar,
conservativeOpen to change,experimenting, liberal,analytical,
flexibleSelf-RelianceGroup-oriented,affiliative,
follower,dependentSelf-reliant, solitary,individualistic,
self-sufficient
- Cattells 16 Primary FactorsFactor Low
HighPerfectionismTolerates disorder,flexible,
careless,impulsivePerfectionist, organized,compulsive,
self-disciplinedTensionRelaxed, easy going,calm, lazy, patient,
lowdriveTense, high energy,impatient, frustrated, highdrive,
time-drivendrive drive, time-driven
- 4 ScalesExtraversion - IntroversionSensing IntuitionThinking
FeelingMyers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)Thinking FeelingJudging -
Perceiving 16 Types
- MBTI ScalesExtraversionOuter worldPeople/ThingsActiveBreadth of
InterestLive, then understandInteractionIntroversionInner
WorldThoughts/ConceptsReflectiveDepth of InterestUnderstand, then
liveConcentrationInteractionOutgoingConcentrationInwardly
directedSensingFactsDataDetailsReality basedActualityHere and
nowUtility/PurposeIntuitionMeaningsAssociationsPossibilitiesHunches/SpeculationsTheoreticalFutureFantasy
- MBTI
ScalesThinkingAnalysisObjectiveLogicImpersonalCritiqueReasonFeelingSympathySubjectiveHumanePersonalAppreciateValuesReasonCriteriaValuesCircumstancesJudgingOrganizedSettledPlannedDecisiveControl
own lifeSet
goalsSystematicPerceivingPendingFlexibleSpontaneousTentativeLet
life happenUndaunted by surpriseOpen to change
- MBTI 16 Personality TypesISTJSerious and quiet, interested in
securityand peaceful living. Extremely thorough,responsible, and
dependable. Well-developed powers of concentration.Usually
interested in supporting andpromoting traditions and
establishments.Well-organized and hard working, theywork steadily
towards identified goals.They can usually accomplish any
taskISTPQuiet and reserved, interested in how andwhy things work.
Excellent skills withmechanical things. Risk-takers who they
livefor the moment. Usually interested in andtalented at extreme
sports. Uncomplicated intheir desires. Loyal to their peers and to
theirinternal value systems, but not overlyconcerned with
respecting laws and rules ifthey get in the way of getting
somethingThey can usually accomplish any taskonce they have set
their mind to it.they get in the way of getting somethingdone.
Detached and analytical, they excel atfinding solutions to
practical problems.ISFJQuiet, kind, and conscientious. Can
bedepended on to follow through. Usuallyputs the needs of others
above their ownneeds. Stable and practical, they valuesecurity and
traditions. Well-developedsense of space and function. Rich
innerworld of observations about people.Extremely perceptive of
others feelings.Interested in serving others.ISFPQuiet, serious,
sensitive and kind. Do not likeconflict, and not likely to do
things which maygenerate conflict. Loyal and faithful.Extremely
well-developed senses, andaesthetic appreciation for beauty.
Notinterested in leading or controlling others.Flexible and
open-minded. Likely to beoriginal and creative. Enjoy the
presentmoment.
- MBTI 16 Personality TypesINFJQuietly forceful, original, and
sensitive.Tend to stick to things until they aredone. Extremely
intuitive about people,and concerned for their feelings.
Well-developed value systems which theystrictly adhere to.
Well-respected for theirperserverence in doing the right
thing.Likely to be individualistic, rather thanleading or
following.INFPQuiet, reflective, and idealistic. Interested
inserving humanity. Well-developed valuesystem, which they strive
to live inaccordance with. Extremely loyal. Adaptableand laid-back
unless a strongly-held value isthreatened. Usually talented
writers. Mentallyquick, and able to see possibilities. Interestedin
understanding and helping people.leading or
following.INTJIndependent, original, analytical, anddetermined.
Have an exceptional abilityto turn theories into solid plans of
action.Highly value knowledge, competence,and structure. Driven to
derive meaningfrom their visions. Long-range thinkers.Have very
high standards for theirperformance, and the performance ofothers.
Natural leaders, but will follow ifthey trust existing
leaders.INTPLogical, original, creative thinkers. Canbecome very
excited about theories andideas. Exceptionally capable and driven
toturn theories into clear understandings.Highly value knowledge,
competence andlogic. Quiet and reserved, hard to get to knowwell.
Individualistic, having no interest inleading or following
others.
- MBTI 16 Personality TypesESTPFriendly, adaptable,
action-oriented."Doers" who are focused on immediateresults. Living
in the here-and-now,theyre risk-takers who live
fast-pacedlifestyles. Impatient with longexplanations. Extremely
loyal to theirpeers, but not usually respectful of lawsand rules if
they get in the way of gettingthings done. Great people
skills.ESTJPractical, traditional, and organized. Likely tobe
athletic. Not interested in theory orabstraction unless they see
the practicalapplication. Have clear visions of the waythings
should be. Loyal and hard-working.Like to be in charge.
Exceptionally capable inorganizing and running activities.
"Goodcitizens" who value security and peacefulliving.things done.
Great people skills. living.ESFPPeople-oriented and fun-loving,
theymake things more fun for others by theirenjoyment. Living for
the moment, theylove new experiences. They dislike theoryand
impersonal analysis. Interested inserving others. Likely to be the
center ofattention in social situations. Well-developed common
sense and practicalability.ESFJWarm-hearted, popular, and
conscientious.Tend to put the needs of others over theirown needs.
Feel strong sense of responsibilityand duty. Value traditions and
security.Interested in serving others. Need positivereinforcement
to feel good about themselves.Well-developed sense of space and
function.
- MBTI 16 Personality TypesENFPEnthusiastic, idealistic, and
creative. Ableto do almost anything that intereststhem. Great
people skills. Need to live lifein accordance with their inner
values.Excited by new ideas, but bored withdetails. Open-minded and
flexible, with abroad range of interests and abilities.ENFJPopular
and sensitive, with outstandingpeople skills. Externally focused,
with realconcern for how others think and feel. Usuallydislike
being alone. They see everything fromthe human angle, and dislike
impersonalanalysis. Very effective at managing peopleissues, and
leading group discussions.Interested in serving others, and
probablyplace the needs of others over their ownplace the needs of
others over their ownneeds.ENTPCreative, resourceful, and
intellectuallyquick. Good at a broad range of things.Enjoy debating
issues, and may be into"one-up-manship". They get very excitedabout
new ideas and projects, but mayneglect the more routine aspects of
life.Generally outspoken and assertive. Theyenjoy people and are
stimulatingcompany. Excellent ability to understandconcepts and
apply logic to find solutions.ENTJAssertive and outspoken - they
are driven tolead. Excellent ability to understand
difficultorganizational problems and create solidsolutions.
Intelligent and well-informed, theyusually excel at public
speaking. They valueknowledge and competence, and usually
havelittle patience with inefficiency ordisorganization.
- Self-managementUnderstand strengths, weaknesses
andpreferencesPredict, plan and avoid failuresSelf-optimize, excel
and adaptApplicationSelf-optimize, excel and adapt Managing
relationshipsUnderstand strengths, weaknesses
andpreferencesPredict, plan and avoid conflict and failuresAdapt
and support
- Try to accommodate type mismatchRemember, type mismatch is
unavoidableRemember, 50% of the mismatch is caused byyou
ApplicationDo not blame the person for something s/hehasnt done Do
not forget that the perceived weaknesscould be a real advantage in
a differentsituation
- DiversityRecognizing differences as naturalAppreciating
diversityDeveloping complementary work teamsApplicationDeveloping
complementary work teamsExpertise and task assignmentCaution: other
components of behaviour +development of others Synergyn1 + n2 = k x
(n1 + n2)where k > 1
- For those traits that are not dominantAvoid over exposure and
over commitmentUnderstand the consequencesCognition
(thinking)Application: Other ConsiderationsCognition
(thinking)Self-monitoringPositive attitudeLearning and
practiceChanges in socio-technical environment
- Can you visualize someone who: would panic under stress, is a
frequent worrier orwould be intensely tense on slightest criticism
is very open to change, new idea or suggestion would do all it
takes to get the job done, on time,Exercise: Trait Recognition
would do all it takes to get the job done, on time,even if it
involves taking on enormous stress Enjoys parties and gatherings,
is talkative evenwith strangers, is adventurous and is
actionoriented Is very considerate and sympathetic, and workshard
to ensure that others feelings are not hurt
- Identify a trait that you perceive as aweakness, then think of
a situationwhere it could be utilized as a strengthExercise:
Undesirable Traits
- Awareness and recognition is the first steptowards change After
self-evaluating your personality,observe other available templates
and seehow that may help you in adapting into aAfterthoughtshow
that may help you in adapting into anew person or adopting a
differentresponse set If no traits are absolutely bad,
thenrecognize that differences, perspectivesand conflicts are
actually opportunities tobroaden our thinking and prospects
- While dealing with people, lose yourspectacle and put on their
glasses try tounderstand first before being understoodFinal
Word
- And the Educated PersonAnd the Educated Person
- What is Critical Thinking?Problem solvingAnalyzing
informationInterpreting informationRecognizing biasRecognizing
biasUnderstanding diverse points of viewApplying
informationLearning!
- Becoming a Fair-MindedCritical ThinkerOur ability to be
fair-minded is the result of cognitiveand socio-emotional
development. We must allrecognize that to be fair-minded we must
developtraits such as intellectual humility, intellectualtraits
such as intellectual humility, intellectualintegrity, intellectual
courage, intellectual autonomy,intellectual empathy, intellectual
perseverance, andconfidence in reason.
- Weak vs. Strong Critical ThinkingA weak-sense thinker is a
Sophist. The sophist is one whoseeks to win an argument regardless
of whether there areproblems in the thinking being used, regardless
of whetherrelevant viewpoints are being ignored. The objective is
towin.win.Strong-sense critical thinkers are not easily tricked by
slickargumentation, by sophistry, and intellectual trickery,
theyuse thinking in an ethical, reasonable manner. As strong-sense
thinkers, we question our own purposes, evidence,conclusions,
implications, and point of view with the samevigor that we question
those of others.
- Fair-Mindedness Requires:Intellectual humility: to develop
knowledge of theextent of ones ignorance, being aware of onesbiases
and prejudices as well as the limitations ofones viewpoint, and it
recognizes that one shouldones viewpoint, and it recognizes that
one shouldnot claim more than one actually knows.What do you do
when you are challenged on somethingyou think you know?Can you name
some of your false beliefs, illusions,prejudices, myths and
misconceptions?
- Fair-Mindedness Requires:Intellectual Courage: facing and
fairly addressingideas, beliefs or viewpoints even when this
ispainful, recognizing that ideas that societyconsiders dangerous
or absurd are sometimesrationally justified or simply a matter of
subjectiverationally justified or simply a matter of
subjectivetaste. To determine what makes sense to believe,one must
not passively and uncritically acceptwhat one has learned.Have you
ever questioned your beliefs and thenquestioned your identity?Have
you ever held to certain beliefs because of the fearof
rejection?
- Fair-Mindedness Requires:Intellectual empathy: to put oneself
imaginativelyin the place of others on a routine basis, so as
togenuinely understand them. It requires one toreconstruct the
viewpoints and reasoning of othersreconstruct the viewpoints and
reasoning of othersaccurately and to reason from
premises,assumptions, and ideas other than ones own.Whats it like
to have a disability?Whats it like to be
male/female/gay/lawyer/priest.?
- Fair-Mindedness Requires:Intellectual integrity: to be true to
ones owndisciplined thinking and holding oneself to the
samestandards that one expects others to meet. It meanspracticing
daily what one advocates for otherspracticing daily what one
advocates for others(walking the walk).Have you ever experienced
cognitive dissonance? This isbelieving one thing and doing
another.
- Fair-Mindedness Requires:Intellectual perseverance: the
disposition to work onesway through intellectual complexities
despitefrustrations inherent in the task. Some problems
arecomplicated and cannot be solved easily (toleratecomplicated and
cannot be solved easily (tolerateuncertainty).Have you ever tried
to understand something orsomeone and given up, or been invited to
give up?
- Fair-Mindedness Requires:Confidence in reason: based on the
belief thatones own higher interests and those ofhumankind at large
are best served by giving thefreest play to reason, by encouraging
people tocome to their own conclusions through the use ofcome to
their own conclusions through the use oftheir own rational
faculties. People can learn tothink for themselves, form insightful
viewpoints,draw reasonable conclusions, think clearly,accurately,
relevantly and logically and persuadeeach other by appeal to good
reason and soundevidence.Have you ever said oh, you just dont
understand andnever will?
- Intellectual Distrust of ReasonFaith in charismatic national
leadersFaith in charismatic cult leadersFaith in the father as the
traditional head of the householdFaith in institutional
authoritiesFaith in spiritual powersFaith in spiritual powersFaith
in some social groupFaith in some political ideologyFaith in
intuitionFaith in ones unanalyzed emotionsFaith in ones gut
impulsesFaith in fateFaith in social or legal institutionsFaith in
folkways or moresFaith in ones own unanalyzed experiencesFaith in
people who have social status
- Fair-Mindedness Requires:Intellectual autonomy: thinking for
oneself whileadhering to standards of rationality, thinkingthrough
issues using ones own thinking ratherthan uncritically accepting
the viewpoints ofthan uncritically accepting the viewpoints
ofothers. Independent thinkers are not willful,stubborn, or
unresponsive to the reasonablesuggestions of others.Have you ever
conformed to a belief that you later cameto reject?Have you ever
been rejected by your independentbeliefs?
- The First FourStages of DevelopmentStage One: The Unreflective
thinkerWe dont notice we are continually making assumptions,forming
concepts and opinions, drawing inferences, andthinking within
points of view.thinking within points of view.Our egocentric
tendencies at this stage play a dominantrole in our thinking.We
lack the skills and motivation to notice how self-centered and
prejudiced we are.
- The First FourStages of DevelopmentStage Two: The Challenged
ThinkerWe begin to notice that weMake questionable assumptionsUse
false, incomplete, or misleading informationMake inferences that do
not follow from the evidence we haveMake inferences that do not
follow from the evidence we haveFail to recognize important
implications in our thoughtFail to recognize problems we haveForm
faulty conceptsReason with prejudiced points of viewThink
egocentrically and irrationallyWe begin to become aware that our
thinking is shapingour lives.
- The First FourStages of DevelopmentStage Three: The Beginning
ThinkerWe are beginning to:Analyze the logic of situations and
problemsExpress clear and precise questionsCheck information for
accuracy and relevanceCheck information for accuracy and
relevanceDistinguish between raw information and someones
interpretation of itRecognize assumptions guiding
inferencesIdentify prejudicial and biased beliefs, unjustifiable
conclusions,misused words, and missed implicationsNotice when our
viewpoint is biased by our selfish interestsThe purpose of the
autobiography (culture, time, place,raised, associations)What are
two traps that can derail the beginning thinker?
- The First FourStages of DevelopmentStage Four: The Practicing
ThinkerUsing wasted timeHandle a problem a day (at
least)Internalize intellectual standards (ADEADCAT)Internalize
intellectual standards (ADEADCAT)Keep an intellectual
journalPractice intellectual strategiesReshape your characterDeal
with your egoRedefine the way you see thingsGet in touch with your
emotionsAnalyze group influences on your life
- Self-UnderstandingThink of the most self-centered person you
know. Thismay be someone who is fundamentally selfish orarrogant.
Describe the persons behavior in detail.Based on the persons
behavior, how would youBased on the persons behavior, how would
youdescribe his or her thinking? What are their feelingsand
motivations? Do they use others to get what theywant?
- Fallacies of BeliefIts true because I believe it.Its true
because we believe it.Its true because I want to believe it.Its
true because I have always believed it.Its true because I have
always believed it.Its true because its in my selfish interests to
believe it.
- The Minds Three Distinctive FunctionsThinking: to create
meaningFeeling: monitor or evaluate meaningWanting: allocates
energy to action, in keepingwith our definition of what is
desirable andwith our definition of what is desirable
andpossibleFor every positive thought the mind believes, thereis a
corresponding emotion and value.Ask yourself: what is the thinking
that influencesme not to want to learn this? What is the value
oflearning it?
- The Three Functions of the MindThinking:Makes sense ofthe
worldJudgingFeeling: Tells ushow we aredoingHappySadWanting:
Drivesus to act as
wedoGoalsPerceivingAnalyzingClarifyingDeterminingComparingsynthesizingSadDepressedAnxiousStressedCalmWorriedexcitedDesiresPurposesagendasValuesmotives
- Learn Both Intellectually andEmotionallyIn order to learn and
remember something, it must bemeaningful to our lives and
therefore, must haveaffective connotation and a value attached to
it.How does one use motivation to put a different spin onHow does
one use motivation to put a different spin ona domain that has
previously been assumedunimportant and not valuable?
- The Parts of ThinkingReasoning: the mental process the mind
uses tomake sense of whatever we seek to understand.We draw
conclusions on the basis of reasons(decisions, interpretations,
inferences).(decisions, interpretations, inferences).Whenever we
think, we think for a purpose, withina point of view, based on
assumptions, leading toimplications and consequences. We use data,
facts,and experiences to make inferences and judgmentsbased on
concepts and theories to answer aquestion or solve a problem.
- Questions Implied by the UniversalStructures of ThoughtWhat is
my fundamental purpose (goals, desires, needs,values)?What is the
key question I am trying to answer?What information do I need to
answer my question?What information do I need to answer my
question?What is the most basic concept in the question?What
assumptions am I using in my reasoning?What is my point of view
with respect to the issue?What are my most fundamental inferences
or conclusions?What are the implications for my reasoning (if I
amcorrect)?
- ReasoningPurpose: Humans reason in line with their goals,
values,needs and desiresPoint of view: our thinking has a focus or
orientationConcepts: general categories or ideas by which
weinterpret, classify, or group the info we use in
thinkingConcepts: general categories or ideas by which weinterpret,
classify, or group the info we use in thinkingWe often face
questions we need to answer, problems weneed to solve, issues we
need to resolveInformation in our reasoning: facts, data or
experiences tosupport our conclusionsJack and Jill
- How the Parts ofThinking Fit TogetherOur purpose affects the
manner in which we ask questionsThe manner in which we ask
questions affects theinformation we gatherThe information we gather
affects the way we interpret itThe way we interpret information
affects the way weThe way we interpret information affects the way
weconceptualize itThe way we conceptualize information affects
theassumptions we makeThe assumptions we make affect the
implications thatfollow from our thinkingThe implications that
follow affect the way we see things our point of view
- Best ThinkersThink to some purposeTake command of
conceptsAssess informationInert information: memorized, but we dont
understandActivated ignorance: actively using false
informationActivated knowledge: actively using true
informationActivated knowledge: actively using true informationthat
leads us to more knowledgeDistinguish between information,
inferences andassumptionsThink through implicationsThink across
points of view
- Intellectual Standards and the Elementsof
ReasoningClarityAccuracyPrecisionRelevanceDepthPurpose, goal, end
in viewQuestion at issue or problem tobe solvedInformation, data,
facts,observations,
experiencesDepthBreadthLogicSignificanceFairnessobservations,
experiencesImplications and consequencesConcepts, theories,
definitions,axioms, laws, principles, modelsPoints of view, frames
ofreference, perspective,orientation
- Ask Questions that Lead toGood ThinkingThree kinds of
QuestionsQuestions of fact: require evidence and reasoning withina
system, a correct answer, lead to knowledgeQuestions of preference:
call for stating a subjectiveQuestions of preference: call for
stating a subjectivepreference, a subjective opinion, cannot be
assessedQuestions of judgment: require evidence and reasoningwithin
multiple systems, better and worse answers,require reasoned
judgment
- Questioning Your QuestionsQuestions of purpose force us to
define our taskQuestions of information force us to look at
oursources of information as well as the quality of
ourinformationinformationQuestions of interpretation force us to
examine howwe are organizing or giving meaning to informationand to
consider alternative ways of giving meaning
- Questioning Your QuestionsQuestions of assumption forces us to
examine what weare taking for grantedQuestions of implication force
us to follow where ourthinking is leading usthinking is leading
usQuestions of point of view force us to examine ourpoint of view
and to consider other relevant points ofviewQuestions of relevance
force us to differentiate whatdoes and what does not bear on a
question
- Questioning Your QuestionsQuestions of accuracy force us to
evaluate and testfor truth and correctnessQuestions of precision
force us to give details andbe specificQuestions of consistency
force us to examine ourQuestions of consistency force us to examine
ourthinking for contradictionsQuestions of logic force us to
consider how we areputting the whole of our thought together, to
makesure that it all adds up and makes sense within areasonable
system of some kind
- Socratic ThinkingProbing, analytic, synthetic, creative,
connection-forming thought construction of a logical system
ofunderstandings leading to insight a natural wayto develop and
test our understanding of content ato develop and test our
understanding of content anatural way to give life to content
- Redefine Grades as Levels of Thinkingand LearningBest
Learners:Continually assess their learning against standards of
excellenceAre not dependent on instructors to tell them how well
they are doingTie each step of their learning process to a
self-reflective step of self-assessmentSeek to enter the
foundations of any subject and use that foundation toSeek to enter
the foundations of any subject and use that foundation tounderstand
everything else within the subjectSeek to identify the most basic
kinds of information used byprofessionals within the fieldDo not
memorize random bits of information, their learning isproblem or
question basedThey state a problem, assess for clarity, gather
information, check it forrelevance, form an interpretation and
check the interpretation to seewhat its based on and whether it is
adequate
- Developing Strategies for Self-AssessmentUsing profiles to
assess your performanceExemplary studentsHigh-performing
studentsMixed-quality studentsMixed-quality studentsLow-performing
studentsIncompetent students
- Exemplary Students (Grade of A)The exemplary student has
internalized the basicintellectual standards appropriate to the
assessment of hisor her own work in a subject and is highly skilled
at self-evaluation. They regularly:Raise important questions and
issuesRaise important questions and issuesAnalyze key questions and
problemsRecognize questionable assumptionsClarify key concepts
effectivelyUse language in keeping with educated usageIdentify
relevant competing points of viewDisplay sensitivity to important
implications and consequencesDemonstrate a commitment to reasoning
carefully from clearlystated premises in a subject
- High-Performing Students (Grade of B)HP in thinking through a
subject implies sound thinking within thedomain of a subject along
with the development of a range ofknowledge acquired through the
exercise of thinking skills andabilities. HP students on the whole
are clear, precise, and well-reasoned, but sometimes lack depth of
insight (especially opposingpoints of view). Basic terms and
distinctions are learned at a level thatimplies comprehension of
basic concepts and principles. HP studentspoints of view). Basic
terms and distinctions are learned at a level thatimplies
comprehension of basic concepts and principles. HP
studentsinternalize the basic intellectual standards appropriate to
theassessment of their thinking in a subject and demonstrate
competencein self-evaluation. They:Often raise questions and
issues, commonly analyze questions andproblems clearly and
precisely, recognize most questionable assumptions,clarify key
concepts well, typically use language in keeping with
educatedusage, commonly identify relevant competing points of view,
displaysensitivity to many important implications and consequences,
andfrequently demonstrate the beginnings of a commitment to
reasoningcarefully
- Mixed-Ability Students (Grade C)Thinking of mixed-ability
students impliesinconsistent/incomplete performance within the
domain ofa subject along with limited development of
knowledgeacquired through the exercise of thinking skills
andabilities. The MQ student often tries to use memorizationas a
substitute for understanding. The MQ student:abilities. The MQ
student often tries to use memorizationas a substitute for
understanding. The MQ student:Sometimes raises questions and
issues, sometimes analyzesquestions and problems clearly and
precisely, recognizes somequestionable assumptions, clarifies some
concepts competently,sometimes uses language in keeping with
educated usage,sometimes identifies relevant competing points of
view, sometimesdemonstrates a clear commitment to reasoning
carefully fromclearly stated premises in a subject, are
inconsistently sensitive toimportant implications and
consequences
- Low-Performing Students (Grade D/F)Low-performing students
reason poorly within the domainof a subject. They try to get
through courses by means ofrote recall, attempting regularly to
acquire knowledge bymemorization rather than through critical
thinking skillsor insights requisite to understanding course
content. LPor insights requisite to understanding course content.
LPstudents:Rarely raise questions and issues, superficially analyze
questionsand problems, do not recognize their assumptions, clarify
conceptsonly partially, rarely use language keeping with educated
usage,rarely identify relevant competing points of view, show
nounderstanding of the importance of a commitment to
reasoningcarefully from clearly stated premises in a subject and
areinsensitive to important implications and consequences
- Skilled LearnersTo be a skilled learner you have to be a
skilledthinker.You must take responsibility for your learning.You
plan your learning by becoming clear as toYou plan your learning by
becoming clear as towhat your goals are, what questions you have,
whatinformation you need to acquire, what conceptsyou need to
learn, what you need to focus on, andhow you need to understand
it.
- Learn to use information critically andethicallyThe ideal of
knowledge acquisitionTo the extent we are committed to the
development offair-mindedness, we are committed to knowledge
beingacquired and used to minimize human suffering, toacquired and
used to minimize human suffering, tomeet basic human needs, to
preserve rather than destroythe environment, to contribute to a
more just world, andto serve rational rather than irrational
ends.Disciplines seek knowledge not to benefit a select fewbut
rather to distribute benefits in the broadest andmost just
way.
- True Loyalty to a DisciplineTrue loyalty to a discipline is
born out of recognition of the disciplinespotential power for good
in the world. It is not a commitment topractices in the discipline
as it stands. It is not given by the intensitywith which one
defends the discipline. A person committed to thediscipline of
history recognizes the importance and the power ofhistorical
thinking in the world. For example, a history personrecognizes
that:historical thinking in the world. For example, a history
personrecognizes that:We are creators of historyWe are products of
historyNonetheless, we are not successfully teaching historical
thinkingHistory, as a written and taught, often reflects personal
and socialprejudicesAsk yourself two questions:am I coming to
recognize the power of the discipline as a form of thinking?Am I
coming to recognize the limitations of the discipline in the light
ofthis present state of development?
- The Gap Between Fact and IdealThe following two phenomena are
the root of much of themisuse of knowledge in the world:Human
fallibility: All knowledge is acquired, analyzed, and put touse in
the world by individuals who are subject to the pitfalls ofhuman
weakness, self-deception, and pathological states of mind(e.g.,
prejudice, egocentrism, sociocentrisim)(e.g., prejudice,
egocentrism, sociocentrisim)Vested interest: Human knowledge exists
in a world of power,status, and wealth, all of which significantly
influence whatinformation is acquired within any discipline, how it
is interpreted,and how it is used.It should follow that we should
be skeptical of anydescription of a human knowledge-constructing
enterprisethat characterizes itself as an approximation of an
ideal.Rather we should approach human disciplines as in somestate
of contradiction between an announced ideal andactual reality.
- The Ideal Compared to the RealThe first essential step is to
recognize the discipline as a powerful modeof thinking and setting
forth the ideal of the discipline. To set out theideal, ask
yourself if the discipline were striving to function in anoptimal
way in an optimal setting:What would the discipline look like?How
would it function?How would it function?How would it be
represented?How would it be taught?How would it be applied?Two
important insights:All knowledge in use in the world is subject to
the pitfalls of humanfallibility on the part of the individuals
using it.Knowledge exists in a world driven by the pursuit of
power, status,and wealth, each of which exacts its toll.
- ConclusionAs critical thinkers, we must be careful not to
assumethat things are actually the way they are represented tobe in
human life.To understand a field of knowledge we mustTo understand
a field of knowledge we mustunderstand it realistically.
- Learn to Use Information Critically andEthicallyMen, whose life
lies in the cultivation of one science,or the exercise of one
method of thought, have nomore rightto generalize upon the basis of
their ownpursuit but beyond its range, than the schoolboypursuit
but beyond its range, than the schoolboyJohn Henry Newman, The Idea
of a University, 1852
- Realistic UnderstandingIn this chapter we will focus our
analysis on onedomain, that of psychology, and on the alliedfields
of mental health. We begin with the premisethat the art of thinking
psychologically is apowerful form of thought, important to
humanwell-being and self-insight. We also begin with thewell-being
and self-insight. We also begin with thehypothesis that the benefit
from this powerfulmode of thought is diminished by the manner
inwhich it is sometimes taught and used bypsychologists and by
those trained bypsychologists in the fields of mental health.
- Realistic UnderstandingWe need to examine all information with
fullawareness that, though virtually all theinformation we are
presented with is presented tous as true as something known and not
justbelievedit may well be false or mere half-truth.believedit may
well be false or mere half-truth.Politicians dont say, Everything I
am about to tell you inthis speech is intended to get myself
elected to a position ofpower and influencenot to reveal the full
truth aboutwhat is really happening. I will therefore hide, to the
bestof my ability, everything that puts me or my party in a
badlight.
- Realistic UnderstandingOur minds do not have a built-in warning
system to alert us to what wehave already taken in uncritically
from our parents, our peers, themedia.We reemphasize the theme that
we are ethically responsible for themanner in which we take in and
use informationmanner in which we take in and use informationIf we
want to understand a field of knowledge, we must understand
itrealistically, that it is an imperfect construction. If we want
tounderstand our learning of a field of knowledge, we must
realisticallyunderstand the imperfections of our learning, that
even at best weimperfectly learn what we learnWe have chosen
psychology: because human good and harm seemespecially germane to
its practice, and because there seems to be anespecially large gap
between the ideal promised by psychology and therealities of its
actual practice.
- Be a Critic, Not a CynicA cynic views all knowledge as
baseless, such an absolutenegation of knowledge cannot be justified
for it is, in effect,an arrogant claim to know the status of all
knowledge-thatthere is nothing we can claim to know
absolutely.there is nothing we can claim to know absolutely.The
spirit of critical thinking is intellectual humility. It isbased on
evidence that each of us must assembleindividually, and it requires
heightened awareness of howfrequently humans make mistakes.We can
access that evidence if we overcome our egocentricdefensiveness. We
must examine each claim to knowledgeone by one, evaluating each on
its merits.
- Recognize the MentalNature of KnowledgeHuman knowledge exists
as knowledge in thehuman mind, and as an imperfect learner, we
areeminently fallible. We must get into the habit ofevaluating what
we come to think and believe.evaluating what we come to think and
believe.Further, all minds, without exception arepossessed by
prejudices, vested interests, fears,insecurities, and social
ideology.Paradoxically, whenever knowledge exists, somedegree of
ignorance also exists in somerelationship to it.
- Develop Awareness of the Harm fromMisuse of
InformationIntelligent people with a lofty sense of
theirimportance, pursuing their vested interests, aremore dangerous
to the well-being of others thanare unintelligent people stumbling
along unskilledare unintelligent people stumbling along unskilledin
the art of deception and manipulation.The use of ethical knowledge
begins with arecognition of the limits of ones knowledge and ofthe
various influences that are likely to underminethe proper use of
that knowledge.
- Strategic ThinkingStrategic thinking has two phases:The
understanding of an important principle of mental functioning.Using
that understanding strategically to produce a mental change
inourselves.Understanding. The human mind has three interrelated
functions: thinking,feeling, and desiring or wanting. These
functions are interrelated andinterdependent.feeling, and desiring
or wanting. These functions are interrelated andinterdependent.The
Strategy. Whenever you find yourself having what may be
irrationalemotions or desires, figure out the thinking that
probably is generating thoseemotions and desires. Then develop
rational thinking with which to replace theirrational thinking you
are using in the situation.Explicitly state what the feelings and
desires are.Figure out the irrational thinking leading to it.Figure
out how to transform the irrational thinking into
rationalthinkingthing that makes sense in context.Whenever you feel
the negative emotion, repeat to yourself the rationalthoughts you
decided you needed to replace the irrational thoughts, untilyou
feel the rational emotions that accompany reasonable thinking.
- Components of strategic thinkingAn identifying component. You
must be able tofigure out when your thinking is irrational
orflawed.An intellectual component. You must activelyengage and
challenge the acts of your own mind.An intellectual component. You
must activelyengage and challenge the acts of your own mind.What is
actually going on in the situation as it stands?Your options for
action.A justifiable rationale for choosing one of the options.Ways
of reasoning with yourself when you are beingunreasonable, or ways
of reducing the power of yourirrational state of mind.
- Key idea #1Thoughts, feelings and desires are
interdependent.If, for example, I experience a degree of anger
thatI sense may be unreasonable, I should be able todetermine
whether the anger is or is not rational. Ishould be able to
evaluate the rationality of myshould be able to evaluate the
rationality of myanger by evaluating the thinking that gave rise
toit.Has someone truly wronged me, or am I misreading
thesituation?Was this wrong intentional or unintentional?Are there
ways to view the situation other than the way Iam viewing it?Am I
giving a fair hearing to these other ways?
- Key idea #2There is a logic to this, and you can figure it out.
(pg. 413).Questioning goals, purposes, and objectives. What is the
centralpurpose of this person? This group? Myself? I realize that
problems inthinking are often the result of a mistake at the level
of basic purpose.Questioning the way in which questions are framed,
problems areposed, issues are expressed.posed, issues are
expressed.Questioning information and sources of
information.Questioning interpretations or conclusions.Questioning
the assumptions being made.Questioning the concepts being
used.Questioning the points of view being considered.Questioning
implications.
- Key idea #3For thinking to be of high quality, we must
routinely assess it byapplying intellectual standards to our
thinking.Focusing on clarity in thinking. Can I state it
precisely?Focusing on precision in thinking. Am I providing enough
details?Focusing on accuracy in thinking. Am I certain that the
informationI am using is accurate?I am using is accurate?Focusing
on relevance in thinking. How does my point bear on theissue at
hand?Focusing on logicalness in thinking. Given the information I
havegathered, what is the most logical conclusion?Focusing on
breadth in thinking. I wonder whether I need toconsider another
viewpoint(s)?Focusing on depth in thinking. What complexities are
inherent inthis issue?Focusing on justification in thinking. Is the
purpose justified or is itunfair, self-contradictory, or
self-defeating given the facts?