Biofuels For Thought

Biofuels for Thought:Historical, Modern, and Future Perspectives

Welcome• 2009 Kellogg

Biological Station ROKS Students

• Semester theme: Biofuels

• Our final project for our Integrated Social Sciences Class

Our Goals for this Evening

• To present the topic of biofuels in a neutral and informative way.

• To change the current discourse on biofuels• To facilitate dialogue amongst attendees and create

meaningful social networks centered around biofuels

• To totally 4 point this presentation. Hey Geoff! (*Hint hint*)

Past

Present

Future

•What are Biofuels?•A Brief History•Media Case Study

I will discuss:

Biofuels in a NutshellAli David

ROKS Final ProjectDecember 2009

Bi-o-fu-el [bahy-oh-fyoo-uhl] /baɪoʊ,fyuəl/

-noun“Any fuel standard derived from an organic substance, including but not excluded to starches harvested from agricultural systems, waste from confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs), and residues from processing timber.”

Definition taken from Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary

Animal Vegetable Not Rock

Biofuels come from a variety of sources and in many different forms

•Corn•Switchgrass•Miscanthus•Algae

•Used Cooking Oil•Manure•Whey•Forest Residues

•Ethanol•Biodiesel•Biobutanol•Biomass Pellets

•Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG)

How much of our energy currently comes from biofuels?

Chart taken from Energy Information Administration Website on 11/23/09: http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/alternate/page/renew_energy_consump/figure1.html

The Million Dollar Question:

Why are we preferentially using biofuels for our energy needs

more than other forms of renewable energy?

Biofuels have the same variety of applications as fossil fuels

Based on statement given by Fred Mays of the Energy Information Administration

Wind, Water, Solar, and other Renewable Sources

Electricity

Biofuels Electricity, Gas, and Oil for Combustion Engines

Why are we in this current situation?

• Production and use of biofuels have increased dramatically worldwide

• Scientific community divided on many core issues

• Public is either uninformed, apathetic, or highly skeptical

Looks like it’s time for…

A Brief History of Biofuels

The origins of Biofuels: An early struggle

• Camphene as an alternative whale oil in lamps

• $2.00/gallon tax placed on all alcohol (adjusted for inflation = $42.64)

• Kerosene replaced Camphene as a cheaper fuel source

1850s-1900s

Information from Solomon, B. D., Barnes, J. R., Halvorsen K. E. (2007). “Grain and cellulosic ethanol: History, economics, and energy policy”. Biomass and Bioenergy, 31(6), 416-425

Reemergence and the Farm Chemurgic Movement

• Alcohol tax was repealed in 1906

• Early combustion engines designed to run on both gasoline and alcohol

• Farm Chemurgic Movement: Industrial Applications for surplus crops

1900s – 1930s

Information from Solomon, B. D., Barnes, J. R., Halvorsen K. E. (2007). “Grain and cellulosic ethanol: History, economics, and energy policy”. Biomass and Bioenergy, 31(6), 416-425

Why didn’t biofuels succeed back then?

• Mechanization = Less Flexibility

• New Deal programs favored conventional crops

• Proliferation of leaded gasoline as an alternative to alcohol

1900s – 1930s

Information from Solomon, B. D., Barnes, J. R., Halvorsen K. E. (2007). “Grain and cellulosic ethanol: History, economics, and energy policy”. Biomass and Bioenergy, 31(6), 416-425

40 years of expanding infrastructure…1930s – 1970s

While industry grew at an unprecedented rate in the United States, it was entirely powered by fossil fuel. Little progress or emphasis was placed on biofuel

Foreign oil becomes a liability

• 1970s oil embargo, formation of OPEC

• Nixon introduces “Project Independence” in 1974

• Other concerns for negative health and environmental effects associated with gasoline

1970s –2000s

Information from Solomon, B. D., Barnes, J. R., Halvorsen K. E. (2007). “Grain and cellulosic ethanol: History, economics, and energy policy”. Biomass and Bioenergy, 31(6), 416-425

How did biofuels make a comeback?

• Research performed in the ’70s and ’80s

• New Regulations introduced in the ’90s: Clean Air Act, Energy Policy Act, EPACT Act

• Renewed interest in rural development and energy security

1970s –2000s

Information from DiPardo, J. “Outlook for biomass ethanol production and demand.” Energy Information Administration website. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/ftproot/features/biomass.pdf

The Great Ethanol “Boom”

• Flex-fuel cars introduced into the market

• 1.6 billion gallons of ethanol in 2000, to 9 billion in 2009

• US is now the world’s leading producer of biofuels

2000s-Now

Information taken from Automotive News Data Center http://www.autonews.com/section/datacenterAnd the Renewable Fuels Association Website http://www.ethanolrfa.org/industry/statistics/#A

New practices bring new problems

• Ethanol boom may have gone “bust”

• Researchers now question environmental effects of ethanol production

• Media/blogosphere focused on negative consequences for developing nations

2000s-Now

Information from the National Biodiesel Board, Science Magazine, Twitter.com, and Wordpress.orgWyner, W. T. (2008).“The US Ethanol and Biofuels Boom: Its Origins, Current Status, and Future Prospects” BioScience, 58(7), 646-653.

Sidenote: Political Cartoonists aren’t very creative

Why are these misleading?

The sharp rise in global food prices has many contributing factors other than the expansion of biofuel production:

• A rapidly growing population worldwide

• Widespread Crop failures• People in developing countries

consuming more meat• High prices of oil raise costs of

production and shippingInformation taken from International Food Policy Research Institute Website http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/bp001.pdf

Ultimately, decreasing or halting the production of biofuels will not reduce

rates of global hunger in a significant way.

In Summary…

I. Biofuels come from many different sources and in many forms

II. We preferentially use biofuel since it has similar applications to fossil fuels

III. Biofuels have been in our history for 150 years

IV. Media has not accurately presented core arguments about biofuels, especially those concerning famine and food prices

On to the present…

Past

Present

Future

• What is corn ethanol?• Current usage & policy• Pros & Cons

I will discuss:

Sara Cole - ROKS Fall 2009Kellogg Biological Station

Corn and Beyond:Biofuels in the World Today

Contents

Some of the things we will cover today:

Why are we interested in biofuels? Ethanol vs. fossil fuels What are the current energy goals of the

US? What kinds of biofuels are we already using? Unique learning opportunities through

research

Quote:

The fuel problem is rapidly getting more serious… It has been found that a mixture of 25% each of gasoline with 50% ethanol works very satisfactorily in our present motors; those proportions correspond fairly well with the output of various ingredients that may be anticipated. This may prove to be the solution of the fuel problem.“New Fuels” from Scientific

American

Quote:

The fuel problem is rapidly getting more serious… It has been found that a mixture of 25% each of gasoline with 50% ethanol works very satisfactorily in our present motors; those proportions correspond fairly well with the output of various ingredients that may be anticipated. This may prove to be the solution of the fuel problem.“New Fuels” from Scientific

American

Published on April 13,1918!We have been searching for

renewablefuel sources for almost 100 years!

Why biofuels?

There are many reasons why we are interested in biofuels:

To reduce our dependence on fossil fuels To reduce reliance on foreign oil To lower emissions of greenhouse gases To bring business to rural economies

Richland, Michigan

Why biofuels?

There are many reasons why we are interested in biofuels:

To reduce our dependence on fossil fuels

To reduce reliance on foreign oil To lower emissions of greenhouse gases

To bring business to rural economies Human Dimensions

Energy Independence

Human Health

Stimulates the local Economy

Richland, Michigan

Sustainability

A Clear Need for Alternative Fuel

Fossil Fuels

Standard emissions from a car powered by gasoline:

Carbon dioxide Nitrous oxide

Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Hydrocarbons

Environmental Issues

Union of Concerned Scientists - “The Hidden Cost of Fossil Fuels”http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/technology_and_impacts/impacts/the-hidden-cost-of-fossil.html

Fossil Fuels

Standard emissions from a car powered by gasoline:

Carbon dioxide

Nitrous oxide

Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Hydrocarbons

Environmental Issues

Contribute to acid rain; causes

Reacts with nitrogen oxides to form smog

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Heat-trapping gases warm the atmosphere

Union of Concerned Scientists - “The Hidden Cost of Fossil Fuels”http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/technology_and_impacts/impacts/the-hidden-cost-of-fossil.html

lung irritation, bronchitis, pneumonia

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Fossil Fuels Environmental Issues

Union of Concerned Scientists - “The Hidden Cost of Fossil Fuels”http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/technology_and_impacts/impacts/the-hidden-cost-of-fossil.html

Carbon dioxideNitrogen oxides Sulfur oxides

Carbon monoxideMethane

Dust, soot, smoke

Ethanol Environmental Issues

Union of Concerned Scientists - “The Hidden Cost of Fossil Fuels”University of Nebraska - Lincoln

Emissions = 35% Oxygen (O2) Ethanol does not contain toxic gasoline components such as benzene, a carcinogen.

Ethanol is non-toxic, water soluble, and quickly biodegradable.

Ethanol is a cleaner burning fuel!

Ethanol Environmental Issues

Union of Concerned Scientists - “The Hidden Cost of Fossil Fuels”University of Nebraska - Lincoln

How much land will it take to grow that many crops?

What happens in cases of water scarcity? Farmers will benefit – but will consumers? How will other countries be affected if

companies begin to grow their crops abroad?

Instead of making a 100% switch to biofuel, it might be better to have it be one of many alternative sources.

... But it is not without social and environmental concerns:

Fossil Fuels

Most vehicles in the US run on gasoline, which requires crude oil to be made. Where does our oil come from?

From within the United States:

From a different country:

Energy Information Administrationhttp://www.eia.doe.gov

Political Issues

Fossil Fuels

Most vehicles in the US run on gasoline, which requires crude oil to be made. Where does our oil come from?

From within the United States:

35%

From a different country:

Energy Information Administrationhttp://www.eia.doe.gov

Political Issues

Fossil Fuels

Most vehicles in the US run on gasoline, which requires crude oil to be made. Where does our oil come from?

From within the United States:

35%

From a different country:

65%

Energy Information Administrationhttp://www.eia.doe.gov

Political Issues

Fossil Fuels Political Issues

Fossil Fuels Political Issues

Current Energy Policy

The US Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007

http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/otheranalysis/aeo_2008analysispapers/eisa.html

Improving Fuel Economy Reducing Oil Dependence

Current Energy Policy

The US Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007

For greater energy independence and securityTo increase production of clean renewable fuelsTo promote research on and deploy greenhouse gas capture storage options

To increase the efficiency of products, buildings, and vehicles

To protect consumers

Goals:

http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/otheranalysis/aeo_2008analysispapers/eisa.html

Current Energy Policy

Will you be affected?

Major Provisions:• Requires the production of 36 billion

gallons of ethanol per year by 2022

• Higher car & fuel efficiency standards of 35 MPG for all cars and trucks by 2020

• A new car & fuel efficiency program for manufacturers and manufacturer’s fleets

http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/otheranalysis/aeo_2008analysispapers/eisa.html

Current Energy Policy

Will you be affected?

Major Provisions:• Requires the production of 36 billion

gallons of ethanol per year by 2022

• Higher car & fuel efficiency standards of 35 MPG for all cars and trucks by 2020

• A new car & fuel efficiency program for manufacturers and manufacturer’s fleets

http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/otheranalysis/aeo_2008analysispapers/eisa.html

Maybe if you are buying a car, or if fuel prices go up and it becomes too expensive to drive on gasoline

Current Energy Policy

Will you be affected?

Major Provisions:• Requires the production of 36 billion

gallons of ethanol per year by 2022

• Higher car & fuel efficiency standards of 35 MPG for all cars and trucks by 2020

• A new car & fuel efficiency program for manufacturers and manufacturer’s fleets

15 billion from corn ethanol

http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/otheranalysis/aeo_2008analysispapers/eisa.html

Maybe if you are buying a car, or if fuel prices go up and it becomes too expensive to drive on gasoline

Biofuels already in use today…

A blend of 15% gasoline and 85% ethanol

About 15% less expensive than gasoline at most gas stations

85% is made from plant matter; renewable source but also 6-20% less fuel efficient (less MPG)

What is E-85?Biofuels Today

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/flexible_fuel.html

Flex-Fuel Vehicles can fill up with E-85 or gas

Who can use E-85?

Make Model Engine Gas MGP E-85 MPG

Chevrolet Impala 3.5L V-6 29 21

Ford F-150 5.4L V-8 18 13

Dodge Grand Caravan 3.3L V-8 17 11

http://www.greencar.com/articles/top-new-flex-fueled-autos-2008.php

* Highway MPG

Biofuels Today

Flex-Fuel Vehicles can fill up with E-85 or gas

Already 8 million on the road today!

Who can use E-85?

Make Model Engine Gas MGP E-85 MPG

Chevrolet Impala 3.5L V-6 29 21

Ford F-150 5.4L V-8 18 13

Dodge Grand Caravan 3.3L V-8 17 11

http://www.greencar.com/articles/top-new-flex-fueled-autos-2008.php

* Highway MPG

Biofuels Today

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Ethanol comes mostly from starch and sugar-based crops: corn, wheat, sorghum

These crops contain simple sugars, which are processed into fuel through fermentation

90% of ethanol in the United States currently comes from

How is ethanol made?

Sorghum

corn

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What land do you use?

Current technology requires 75-112 million hectares of land to reach our energy goals– 180 M ha in current agriculture fields– 240 M ha in range and grasslands– 15 M ha in Crop Reserve Program

ROKS 2009 ZOL355 Biofuels Lecture

http://ecosystems.mbl.edu/news/eco_news_12_03_07.html

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What about other countries?

Brazilhttp://ecosystems.mbl.edu/news/eco_news_12_03_07.html# http://sugarcaneblog.com/2008/10/03/brazil%E2%80%99s-land-reform-biggest-culprit-for-amazon-deforestation/ http://leslietaylor.net/gallery/animals/mammals.htm

Dr. Carlos Eduardo Cerri & Students trace gas emissions from cleared land in Mato Grosso, Brazil

Clearing forests for crops= threats to habitat, biodiversity

The southwestern Brazilian Amazon is one of the world’s largest agricultural frontiers. Native vegetation and pastures are rapidly being converted to heavily mechanized row-crop agriculture, including soybean and corn.

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What about other countries?

Indonesia

Palm Oil is #1 biofuel in Indonesia, but growing it is accompanied by a number of problems

Map: http://www.trfic.msu.edu/products/seasia_products/LUCC/LUCC.html http://intercontinentalcry.org/state-of-the-forest-indonesias-battle-to-save-its-rainforests/ http://www.whatsthatbug.com/2009/03/16/massive-cicada-from-borneo/

“Indonesia’s Biodiversity Will Be Gone Within 30 Years”

?

E-85 stations around the US

Kellogg Biological Station

.

E-85 stations in Gull Lake area

Closest ethanol plant (today)

The Andersons - Albion, Michigan

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Biofuels: Current Education

The GK-12 Program A great opportunity for local K-12 schools to participate in biofuels research at Kellogg Biological Station! K-12 students use real data and crop fields to learn

science – “Inquiry Based” science Emphasis on outdoor education Hosts teacher workshops, research opportunities Eleven school systems currently participate in this

program Funded by the National Science Foundation GK-12

(Graduate Fellows in K-12 Education) Program and MSP (Math Science Partnership) Program

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In sum:

We need an alternative fuel source Biofuels = renewable; provides energy

security; generally cleaner than oil Corn ethanol is the most common biofuel

today Corn ethanol is not perfect - be sensitive

to the environmental issues it presents New technology must be developed – fuel

from cellulosic or algal ethanol…?

Thank you!

Spinning Straw into Biofuel: Cellulosic EthanolNeva Anasovich – ROKS 2009

Kellogg Biological Station

Past

Present

Future

•What is cellulosic ethanol?•Production•Current Research

I will discuss:

What is cellulosic ethanol?

• A biofuel made from glucose (a simple sugar) which is derived from cellulose.

Cellulose is:• a major component of

all plant cell walls• the most abundant

biological material on earth

Sources of Cellulose for Ethanol Production

Cellulose is available from two major sources:

• Residues - Agricultural wastes such as corn

stover (non-edible parts of plants)- Industrial and municipal solid wastes

like paper pulp- Forest industrial wastes like sawdust• Dedicated crops- Energy crops such as switchgrass,

miscanthus, and hybrid poplars

How is it produced?

1. Harvested and delivered to biorefinery2. Pretreated thermally or chemically to

soften/partially break down 3. Broken down into simple sugars by

enzymes4. Fermented by microbes into ethanol5. Separated from water and other

components and purified through distillation

End result is chemically identical to grain ethanol

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Current Research at KBS!

http://lter.kbs.msu.edu/maps/images/KBS-GLBRC-Main-Site-lg.gif

Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center (GLBRC)The GLBRC, here at Kellogg Biological Station, is a leader in

studying the effects of candidate crops on the environment.– Seeks to answer questions such as:

- At what market price would farmers start to grow crops for cellulosic biofuels?

- How will cellulosic biofuel crops affect habitat for wildlife and beneficial insects, water conservation, and soil quality?

- How much cellulosic ethanol can be produced from various crops?

What are the advantages?• Cellulose is abundant--wide range of abundant

feedstocks• Agricultural wastes are a low cost feedstock• Usage of crop residues creates new source of

income for farmers from existing acreage• Lower fuel and carbon dioxide costs than grain

crops• Perennial energy crops prevent soil erosion and

increase soil fertility• Energy crops can be grown on land unsuitable for

food crops, thus solving the fuel vs. food debate

What is holding us back from using it?

• Difficult to break down and convert to ethanol

• Process is complex, and energy intensive• Viable technologies do not yet exist

What is necessary for its successful implementation?

• Development of technologies for producing cellulosic ethanol at a large, commercial scale

• Mandatory flex-fuel requirement for new vehicles

• Increased nation-wide ethanol pump stations

Past

Present

Future

•Algae as a biofuel•Facilities and Processes•The Future

I will discuss:

Pond scum and how it could one day fuel your transportation

A brief overview of algal biofuels

Chris WoelkROKS 2009

Algal Biofuels• What are algal

biofuels?

• What is produced?

• They are fuels that are derived from algae in oceans, lakes and ponds

• Algae are capable of producing carbohydrates such as starch, glycogen (sugars) and lipids (fats & oils)

What common types of algae are used?

• Most algae studied are Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Volvox carteri and the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum.

• Recent improvements in technology have allowed for the studying of other cyanobacteria, algae and diatoms.

Volvox carteri cell courtesy of Cambridge University

Inputs: What do you need to put in?• The utilization of algae

requires slightly less water than what is needed to grow corn

• 8-fold less water than rape seed cultivation on fertilized land

• 6-10 fold more than needed by unfertilized switchgrassMatt Cardy/Getty Images

Rapeseed plants growing on a farm near Tetbury, England.

Rape seed, corn and soybeans are among the sources for the current generation of biofuels.

More Specific Inputs

• The natural water source for algae is seawater which can also be substituted with nutrient-laden agricultural runoff, while terrestrial biofuel crops require freshwater

• The high concentrations of salt needed for algae could be obtained from the brine that is currently discarded during the desalination of seawater

Courtesy of Enegis LLC

Methods for growing algae

• Algae can be cultivated in several ways:– On an open-pond system where the algae can be

skimmed off the waters surface and then harvested– In a clear tube/tank (often referred to as a

bioreactor) with carbon dioxide (CO2)filtered into the reservoir as a nutrient source where, after sufficient growth, the biomass and secreted lipids can be harvested

Courtesy of Getty Images

Lipids

• Lipids contain twice the energy stored per carbon atom when compared to carbohydrates

• This translates into a twofold increase in fuel energy content

Courtesy of algaeforbiofuels.com

Benefits of Algal Biofuels

• Little to no land-space is necessary

• No need for freshwater• No fertilization• Algae can be cultivated

indoors• Fuel derived from algae

produces little to no emissions in comparison to gasoline

Image courtesy of agmrc.org

Implementation• Algae have been cultivated on a

commercial basis for decades now• They have been used in the production

of high value compounds for food, feed, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products

• Bioreactor designs need to be more affordable. They can be closed tubes, plates or bags made of plastics, glass or other transparent materials

• Currently there are no bioreactors in place that could be used practically for the mass production of algae

• Algae need only light, nutrients and carbon dioxide

• CO2 used for driving photosynthesis in algae can be taken from many CO2 emitting sources such as smoke stacks on powerplants

Example bioreactors

High density vertical bioreactor bags(Photo courtesy of Global Green Solutions)

Photo-bioreactor composed of horizontalClosed-growth chambers(Photo courtesy of Solix Biofuels, Inc.)

YouTube - Making fuel out of algae

Uses for algaeLipids (oils) less dense than algal biomassand water

(Courtesy of Solix Biofuels, Inc)

Uses for Algae

• Biocrude – untreated oil extracted from algal biomass, also produced from soy, palm and canola

• Green Diesel – renewable diesel produced by removing oxygen atoms from the biocrude

• Biodiesel – created by chemically converting lipids (fats/oils) so they can be blended with traditional diesel to make biodiesel at a lower cost than green diesel

• Bioethanol – produces ethanol that can be used in FlexFuel and E85 ready vehicles.

• Biobutanol – a different type of automotive fuel, it is 10% less dense than gasoline and can be used in place of regular unleaded fuels

Image courtesy of the New York Times

Additional Uses• Biojet – Jet fuel produced from biocrude,

equivalent to jet fuel and jet engines do not require modification to run on 100% biojet

• Co-products – comprised of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins, it is roughly 40% oil depending on the algal species being used– Lipids can be used in biofuel production

and to make fibers and polymers– Carbohydrates can be used to make

biodegradable plastics, polymers and coatings

– Proteins can be used for animal and fish feed or pesticides

Image courtesy of MSNBC depicts a Continental Airlines 737 that ran one engine on a 50:50 mixture of jet fuel and biojet

Image courtesy of Sapphire Energy depicting a hose containing a 91 octane fuel (Jet fuel) from algae

Costs• The current (2009) price of algal biomass

is currently traded for more than 5000€/ton (roughly $7500)

• This is due to the perceived nutritional value of biomass produced for animal feed and the small production scale

• Most algae produced is skimmed from open ponds which is expensive and inefficient

• High costs for classical photo-bioreactor designs

• As demand increases and technology improves these costs can be driven downImage courtesy of heatusa.com

Leading research facilities

• An aerial view of a open-pond algae farm being used by PetroAlgae

• A landscape view of PetroAlgae’s most recent field site in Melbourne, Florida

Global Green Solutions Inc.

• Known for converting waste biomass into low cost steam for industrial purposes and also to cogenerate electricity.

• It is also a leader in algae research for biofuel use

Image of the homepage for Global Green Solutions Inc. www.globalgreensolutionsinc.com

• Large scale and an efficient lab experiment

• Algae are grown in areas with lots of sunlight and at moderate temperatures

• To make profit, a business would need to have a significant amount of land to lay out growth chambers, or have engineers create a multilevel building that allows equal lighting to all bioreactors.

What makes them successful?

Courtesy of University of Dayton Research Institute

Places for improvement

• Algal growth depends mostly on the amount of light and quality of light that reaches chlorophyll within the cells of the algae

• The best bioreactors have the highest surface area and allow the most light in or contain an internal light source

• Utilize methods to reduce auxilary energy demands

• Long term research• Efficient mixing

Image courtesy of biofuelsdigest.com depicting a proposed Eco-Pod addition to Filene’s in Boston

What needs to happen for its successful implementation (improvements)?

• There needs to be technological developments to prevent contamination in open-air systems like ponds

• For closed systems a consistent, cheap source of sterile CO₂ needs to be found and implemented.

Image courtesy of ozones.com

GloballyBrazil (sugar cane, jatropha) Malaysia (canola

oil)Germany (rape seed) Indonesia (palm oil)United States (corn oil)

The European Commission confirmed a target of 10 percent biofuels; and, proposed that the fuels must be sustainable, not just renewable.

Biodiesel Pump in Europe

According to the Nikkei Business Daily (via Tradingmarkets.com), Japan’s Suzuki Motor Company will begin selling cars that run completely on 100% ethanol in the US and Brazil by 2010.

Suzuki

Special Thanks To…Gwen Pearson and Kay Gross, Staff at KBS

Geoff Habron, our professor

Steve Hamilton, Susann Sippel, And Aaron McCright, our other professors

Researchers at the LTER

Dennis Pennington from MSU Extension

Researchers at the GLBRC

The Staff of the Conference Center