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ContentsIntroductionTypes of FlavorsThermally Induced FlaovrsStability in Food SystemsEffects of processing and Strage
IntroductionThe perfume of a rose, the tang of an ocean breeze, the
aroma of a sizzling steak—tastes and smells, two of our senses by which we characterize the world around us. And yet, we can not adequately express, define, or explain our taste and smell sensations. We can record the sounds we hear, we can photograph the sights we see, but we cannot store and retrieve the flavor of a food or the scent of a flower except in and from our mind.”
— Irwin Hornstein and Roy Teranishi, USDA
ImportanceFlavor is one of the most important components responsible
for the overall sensory properties of taste and smell in any food products (e.g., soft drinks). Among the many organoleptic quality components, such as color, rheological properties or packaging, flavor takes a particular place through stimulating the odor and taste receptors when eating. Therefore, flavor plays an important role in consumer satisfaction, which will subsequently drive consumers’ acceptance and influences the continued consumption of foods. However, due to the volatility and delicate properties of volatile flavor compounds, they are unstable (Tan et al, 2014)
Flavor PerceptionGustatory, olfactory, and oral–somatosensory cues all
contribute directly to flavor perception
ISO 5492 1992:- Flavor as a “complex combination of the olfactory, gustatory and trigeminal sensations perceived during tasting.”
ISO 5492 2008 :- The flavor may be influenced by tactile, thermal, painful and/or kinesthetic effects
Multisensory perceptionAlthough, flavour is initially influenced by the receptors
in the eyes, nose, tongue and mouth lining, it is the brain which interprets the overall sensation occurring in the mouth (Taylor and Hort, 2004).
SmellAroma can be sensed orthonasally (i.e. sniffed through
the nostrils), or aroma compounds can reach the olfactory receptors via the throat after the mastication process, retronasally (Taylor and Hort, 2004).
TasteThe taste sensations of sweetness, sourness, bitterness,
saltiness and umami are detected by taste buds located in the oral cavity. These taste buds are found on the surface of the tongue in papillae. There are four types of papillae, namely fungiform, filliform, foliate and circumvallate papillae (Meillgaard et al., 2007).
TouchThe sense of touch is divided into three different groups,
those being somesthesis, kinesthesis and chemesthesis (Kemp et al., 2009). Somesthetic sensation percieves force and particle size (Meilgaard et al., 2007). Nerve fibres in muscles, tendons and joints sense tension and relaxation kinaesthetically, giving rise to the perception of the sensory attributes of hardness and heaviness (Kemp et al., 2009). Chemesthesis is the chemical sensitivity of the skin and mucous membranes, allowing for the perception of hot, burning, tingling, cooling or astringent sensations (Green, 2004). Although, some texture assessments are performed visually, the main evaluation occurs in the mouth (Cook et al., 2005; Van Vliet et al., 2009).
SoundSound is sensed by millions of tiny hair cells in the ear
that are stimulated by the vibrations from sound waves (Kemp et al., 2009). The noise emitted by a food during chewing or biting gives an indication of the texture of the product, e.g. the crispness of a lettuce leaf, the crunchiness of an apple (Verhagen and Engelen, 2006). Acoustic emissions require a crack speed of ~300-500m/s for foods to be perceived as crispy (Luyten and Van Vliet, 2006).
SightStudies over the last 70 years or so have provided
empirical support for the claim that the color of a food/drink can exert a powerful influence on people’s flavor identification responses (e.g., DuBose et al. 1980; Hall 1958; Kanig 1955; Levitan et al. 2008; Moir 1936; Oram et al. 1995; Shankar et al. 2009; Stillman 1993; Zampini et al. 2007, 2008).
Flavor Expectation based on ColorGreen - Lime (69%), apple (20%), melon (11%)Orange - Orange (91%), aniseed (5%), toffee (4%)Yellow - Lemon (89%), pear (5%), apple (4%), melon (2%)Blue - Spearmint (86%), raspberry (9%), cream soda (5%)Gray - Blackcurrant (53%), licorice (40%), cherry (4%),
aniseed (4%)Red - Strawberry (46%), raspberry (27%), cherry (27%)Colorless - Flavorless (51%), cream soda (16%), vanilla (15%),
aniseed (15%), spearmint (2%), melon (2%), pear (2%)
Zampini et al. (2007)
Flavour Sensation and Components
Anne ThierrySTLO, INRA RennesJohn HannonTeagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Cork
The uniqueness of many flavor substances appears to rely upon their ability to stimulate the olfactory organ. (Stanly and Yan, 2000)
ChemistryFlavor is caused by receptors in the mouth and nose
detecting chemicals found within food. These receptors respond by producing signals that are interpreted by the brain as sensations of taste and aroma. Certain taste and aroma combinations are characteristic of particular foods.
For example, a green apple tastes the way it does because the unique combination of chemicals found naturally within it are perceived by our mouths, noses and brains as the distinct blend of sweet and sour tastes and volatile aromas characteristic to the fruit.
Complex ChemistryOne natural flavor may contain hundreds or even
thousands of component substances, and some of these substances are present in minute quantities.
For example, one of the nine key aroma compounds found in pineapple is so potent that human subjects can detect it at only 6 ppt—the equivalent of a few grains of sugar in a 50m, 12 lane swimming pool.
History RecapAristotle postulated in 350 BCE that the two most
basic tastes were sweet and bitter.Ayurveda, (5000BCE) an ancient Indian healing
science, has its own tradition of basic tastes, comprising sweet, salty, sour, pungent, bitter & astringent.
Ancient Chinese regarded spiciness as a basic taste.
SourH+ ionsConcentration is proportional to taste intensity among
inorganic ionsOrganic ions are stronger than inorganic ions at same
concentration.Intensity of taste depends on the potential of the acidi.e. A weak acid taste as the same as a strong acid at same
concentration.Ex : Acetic acid, Citric acid, Tartaric acid , Lactic acid,
gamma amino butyric acid (decarboxylation of glutamic acid)
SaltNa + K, Ca & Mg salts of adipic, succinic, glutamic,
carbonic, lactic, hydrochloric, tartaric and citric acids.Monopotassium phosphate, adipic and glutamic acids
and potassium sulfate.Choline salt of acetic, carbonic, lactic, hydrochloric,
tartaric and citric acids.Potassium salt of guanylic and inosinic acidsSodium chloride is sweet at low (e.g., 0.020 M), but
salty at higher (0.050 M) concentrations.
SweetLactose, Glucose, Maltose, SuccroseGlycerolMannitol, Maltitol, XylitolKetones (after excercise)SaccharineAspartame
BitterPhenolic compound Cinnamic acidTannins to Green TeaGlycocidic compoundsNicotine to Pan Beetle MixCaffeine to CoffeeAlkali metalsInnorganic salts of Mg, Ca, NH4+ to hard water
UmmamiGlutamateGlutamic acidSpecific ribonucleotidesSalts of glutamic acidSalts of glutamate
MSGKGCaG
EstersGeranyl acetate – RoseMethyl acetate – sweet nail polishMethyl propionate – Rum likeMethyl butyrate – pine appleEthyl acetate – wineEthyl butyrate – OrangeIsoamyl acetate – BananaPentyl butyrate – PearPentyl pentanoate - apple
Linear terpenesCompound Note Occurrence
Geraniol Rose/Flowery Lemon
Nerol Flowery Lemongrass
Citral Lemon Orange, Lime
Linalool Floral, sweet, woody Tea
Nerolidol Fresh bark Ginger
Cyclic compoundsName Note Occurrence
Limoene Orange Orange, Lemon
Camphor Camphor Camphor laurel
Menthol Menthol Mentha
Carvone Caraway, Spearmint Caraway
Terpineol Lilac Lilac, Cajuput
AromaticName Note Occurrence
Benzaldehyde Almond Almond
Eugenol Clove Clove
Cinnamaldehyde Cinnnamon Cassia, Cinnamon
Ethyl maltol Cooked fruit, Caramalized
Cooked Fruits
Vanillin Vanilla Vanilla
Anethole Anise Sweet basil
Anisole Anise Anise
Thymol Thyme Thyme
AmineName Note Occurrence
Trimethyl amine Fishy aroma Milk
Putrecine Rotting flesh Rotting flesh
Pyridine Fishy Fish
Indole Fecal Flowery Fecal Jasmine
Skatole Fecal Feces
Functional GroupAlcohol – Furaneol, Menthol, cis-HehanolAldehydes – Acetaldehyde, Cinamaldehyde,
CuminaldehydeEsters – Frutone, Ethyl methylphenylglycidateKetones - Oct-1-en-3-one (blood, metallic,
mushroom-like)Lactones - gamma-Decalactone intense peach flavor
gamma-Nonalactone coconut odorThiols - Allyl thiol (2-propenethiol; allyl mercaptan;
CH2=CHCH2SH) (garlic volatiles and garlic breath
Natural FlavoringsThe term natural flavor or natural flavoring means the
essential oil, oleoresin, essence or extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose significant function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional. (FDA)
Natural Flavoring“Natural flavours” and “Natural Flavouring substances”
means flavour preparations and single substance respectively, acceptable for human consumption, obtained exclusively by physical processes from vegetables, sometimes animal raw materials, either in their natural state or processed for human consumption.
Nature Identical“nature-identical flavoring substances” means
substances chemically isolated from aromatic raw materials or obtained synthetically; they are chemically identical to substances present in natural products intended for human consumption, either processed or not. (FSSAI)
// Nature identical in EU but Artificial in US+
Artificial FlavoringThe term artificial flavor or artificial flavoring means
any substance, the function of which is to impart flavor, which is not derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof. (FDA)
Artificial Flavoring“artificial Flavouring substances” means those
substances which have not been identified in natural products intended for human consumption either processed or not. (FSSAI)
SpicesThe term spice means any aromatic vegetable substance
in the whole, broken, or ground form, except for those substances which have been traditionally regarded as foods, such as onions, garlic and celery; whose significant function in food is seasoning rather than nutritional; that is true to name; and from which no portion of any volatile oil or other flavoring principle has been removed.(FDA)
Maillard BrowningWhen aldoses or ketoses are heated in solution with
amines, a variety of reactions ensue, producing numerous compounds, some of which are flavors, aromas, and dark-colored polymeric materials, but both reactants, disappear only slowly. The flavors, aromas, and colors may be either desirable or undersirable. They may be produced by frying, roasting, baking, or storage.
Introductionlong-term stability of flavor compounds in food product has
been a major concern in the food industry due to the complex interactions between key food ingredients (e.g., polysaccharides and proteins). (Tan et al 2014)
Flavor release is defined as a flavor compound transport process from the matrix to the vapor phase. Thus, a good knowledge of the physicochemical interactions occurring between flavor compounds and other major food components is required for the control of food flavoring and, more particularly, for understanding the phenomena involved in the release of aroma compounds in the mouth. In addition, the composition of the food matrix will determine the extent and type of flavor compounds it is inclined to bind.
Intro….The variations of food components in different food
matrices have contribute significantly to different interactions between the flavor compounds with other food components, which consequently influence the equilibrium headspace concentration of flavor compounds
InteractionsGum arabic, Xanthan gum – delayed flavour release(Miehosseini et al 2008)Fat content – Creamyness Smoothness Texture(Mao
et al, 2012 )Protein – Reversible and irreversible binding of
volatile compounds
InteractionsPhysical and Chemical Stability of FlavorEffects and Interactions of Lipids with Flavor
CompoundsEffects and Interactions of Carbohydrates with Flavor
CompoundsEffects and Interactions of Proteins with Flavor
Compounds
Physical and Chemical Stability of Flavor CompoundsMechanisms of flavor perceptionConcentration of flavor compounds in the receptorsFactors affecting partition and release of flavor
compounds in the mouthRate of volatilizationPhysical and chemical states of flavor compounds in
foodsBinding behavior of flavor compoundsFactors affecting partition coefficients
Effects and Interactions of Lipids with Flavor Compounds Increase flavor compounds adsorption and retention Decrease the partition coefficients Increase the flavor threshold concentrationCompounds Threshold Concentration (ppm)
Water OilOctanoic acid 5.8 350ã-decalactone 0.05 3.0Pentanal 0.07 0.3Hexanal 0.03 0.05
Effects and Interactions of Carbohydrates with Flavor CompoundsSoluble sugars increase the vapor pressures of volatile
compounds.Polysaccharides stabilize flavor compounds in foods during
processing due to entrapment, adsorption, reduced mass transport effects due to increased viscosity.
Cellulose adsorbs flavor compounds in intramolecular region.
Amylose forms inclusion complexes with aliphatic flavor compounds which fit inside the amylose helix.
The association constants with starch were 383, 930 and 2277 for limonene, methanol and decanal, respectively.
Effects and Interactions of Proteins with FlavorThe binding capacity of protein depends upon the
surface topography, porosity, and bulk density.Proteins bind aldehydes and ketones to differing
extents, indicating differences in intrinsic binding affinities, structural features of the protein, differences in available surface area.
Effects and Interactions of Proteins with FlavorThe Mechanisms of Flavor Compounds Interaction with
ProteinScatchard equation
v/[L] = nK-vK‘v’ is the number of moles of flavor compounds bound
per mole of protein.‘L’ is the molar concentration of flavor compounds.‘n’ is the total number of binding sites.‘K’ is the intrinsic binding constant.
Effects and Interactions of Proteins with FlavorKlotz equation
1/v = 1/n+1/nK[L]A plot of 1/v vs. 1/[L]Intercept = 1/n Slope = 1/nK
Stability of FlavorSeveral mechanisms are involved in interaction of flavor
compounds with food components.In lipid system, solubilization and rates of partitioning control the
interactions and partition coefficients, thus determine-s the rates of release.
In polysaccharide system, polysaccharides interact with flavor compounds by nonspecific adsorption and formation of inclusion compounds.
In protein system, protein involves adsorption, specific binding, entrapment, covalent binding and these mechanisms may account for the retention of flavor compounds.
Moisture affects diffusion and partition coefficients and macromolecular structures in the case of protein and polysaccharides and thereby affect the rate of release of flavor compound.
Thermal ProcessingIn-Container SterilizationRetortable pouchAseptic processing and Packaging
Rapid heating and CoolingPasteurization (LTLT, HTST,UHT)
Thermal ProcessingMaillard Reaction
FuranonesPyranonesPyrollesThiopenesHydroxyacetoneCycloteneDihydroxy acetoneHydroxy acetalGlyoxal
PyruvaldehydeGlycosaldehydeGlyceraldehydePyridinesPyrazinesOxazolesThiazolesPyrollesImidazoles
Thermal processingIncrease reaction kinetics and accelarates loss of
flavor compoundsCooked/Heated/Burnt and stale flavor of milk is due
to ketones formationButtery, milky, coconut like flavors in milk are due to
lactones formation from thermal breakdown of gamma and delta hydroxyacids
Thermal processingFuran derivatives formed when casein is undergoes
browning reaction with fructose at T>90oCAcetol and Acetonin gives off flavor to milk which has
been heated above 90oCChemical and rancid flavor increases in milk because
of increased amount of Butyric and hexanoic acids which is treated above 100oC
Hydrogen sulfide gives cooked flavor to milk and the intensity linearly corresponds to the intensity of heating.
Non Thermal ProcessingHigh Pressure ProcessingPulse Electric FieldPulsed X-Ray, Pulsed UVOhmic Heating, Radio Frequency, MicrowavePulsed LightOscillating Magnetic FieldsUltra FilterationIrradiation
IrradiationMeat
Roegg, bloody, fishy, brabecued corn, burnt, metalic, alcohol or acetic acid
Radiolysis of water into free radical species is the reasonGarlic
Diallyl disulfide reduced significantly (9<0.05) when treated with gamm radiation (wu et al, 1996)
GingerNo major changes in volatile concentration in gamma
irradiated gingerAfter 3 months decrease in a-zingiberene, B-bergamotene,
neral, geraneal and a-curcumene were significant (Wu and Yang 1984)
HIPEF40 kV/cm for 57 micro secondsReduces loss of flavor compounds during processing
compared to thermal pasteurization.
Compound 90oC – 30s 35kV/cm – 200 us
Limoene 15% 60%
Ethyl butyrate 26% 82%
Adapted from (Jia et al., 1996)
Destruction of Orange Flavor Compounds
HIPEFEx: Study shows that the PEF-processed tomato juice
retained more flavor compounds of trans-2-hexenal, 2-isobutylthiazole, cis-3-hexanol than thermally processed or unprocessed control tomato juice (P < 0.05).
PEF-processed juice had significantly lower non enzymatic browning and higher redness than thermally processed or control juice (P < 0.05). Sensory evaluations indicated that the flavor of PEF-processed juice was preferred to that of thermally processed juice (P < 0.01).
Effects of Packaging MaterialsResidual compounds InteractionsDiffusivity of volatile flavor compoundsSorption of flavor compounds by packaging material
Case: Orange Juice in Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE) Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Polyvinylidine Chloride (PVC) Ethyl vinyl alchol copolymers (EVOH)
ExperimentD-LimoeneAlpha-pineneEthyl butyrateOctanal
The sorption of these compounds were measured during storage.
ResultsLDPE sorbed greater Limoene and pinene than other
packages (P<0.5)PET sorbed 30% less limonene than LDPE (p<0.5)PVC sobed 50% less limoene and pinene sorption
than LDPE (p<0.5)Ethyl butyrate and octanal sorptions were not
different for all packaging materials (p<0.5)
TimeAll initial flavor compounds depletes with timeCertain Off-Flavor compounds increases with time
Lipid oxidation and rancid flavorWeibull and PLSR distribution models suitable for
predicting retention of flavor compounds with time of storage.
Stale flavor from casein is from formation of carbonyl compounds.Benzaldehyde
References1. A Taste For Flavour Characterization, Laboratory
Newshttp://www.labnews.co.uk/features/a-taste-for-flavour-characterisation
2. Andrew J. Taylor, Robert Linforth., Food Flavour Technology., John Wiley & Sons,2009.
3. Arie J. Haggen Smit., The Chemistry Of Flavour., Engineering and Science Monthly., 1949.
4. Arielle J. Johnson, Gregory D. Hirson, Susan E. Ebeler., Perceptual Characterization and Analysis of Aroma Mixtures Using Gas Chromatography Recomposition-Olfactometry., PLoS ONE. 2012
References6. Barbara d’Acampora Zellner , Paola Dugo, Giovanni
Dugo, Luigi Mondello, Gas chromatography–olfactometry in food flavour analysis, Journal of Chromatography A, Science Direct, 2007.
7. Bethany J. Hausch., Flavor Chemistry Of Lemon-Lime Carbonated Beverages., University Of Illinois, Urbana Campaign, 2010
8. Dr. David B. Min., Flavor Chemistry.,Ohio State University., Lecture., 2008
9. Factors affecting retention and release of flavour compounds in food carbohydrates., Naknean, P. and Meenune, M., International Food Research Journal, 2010.
References10. Fatma A. M. Hassan, Mona A. M. Abd El- Gawad, A. K. Enab.,
Flavour Compounds in Cheese (Review)., Research on Precision Instrument and Machinery., 2013.
11. Gary Reineccius., Sourcebook of Flavors.,Springer Science & Business Media, 1998. H.-D. Belitz · W. Grosch · P. Schieberle, Food Chemistry, Springer 2009
12. Identification of Potent Odorants in a Novel Nonalcoholic beverage Produced by Fermentation of Wort with Shiitake (Lentinula edodes)
13. Jida Zhang, Gang Cao, Yunhua Xia, Chengping Wen, Yongsheng Fan, Fast analysis of principal volatile compounds in crude and processed Atractylodes macrocephala by an automated static headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, Pharmaconosy Magazine, Vol 10, Isseue 39, 2014
References14. Jon G. Wilkes, Eric D. Conte, Yongkyoung Kim, Manuel Holcomb, John B.
Sutherland, Dwight W., Miller., Sample preparation for the analysis of flavors and off-flavors in foods, Journal of Chromatography A, Elsevier, 2000.
15. Katherine A Thompson Witrick., Characterization of aroma and flavor compounds present in lambic (gueuze) beer., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University., 2012
16. Kathrin Ohla, Ulrike Toepe, Johannes le Coutre, Julie Hudry., Visual-Gustatory Interaction: Orbitofrontal and Insular Cortices Mediate the Effect of High-Calorie Visual Food Cues on Taste Pleasantness., PLoS ONE 2012.
17. Małgorzata Biniecka, Sergio Caroli., Analytical Methods for the qualntification of volatile aromatic compounds., Trends in Analytical Chemistry., 2011.
References17. Malika Auvray and Charles Spence., The
multisensory perception of flavor., Conciousness and Cognition., Elsevier 2008.
18. Maria E.O. Mamede a, Gla´ucia M. Pastore; Study of methods for the extraction of volatile compounds from fermented grape must; Journal of Food Chemistry; 2005.
19. Mariaca R., Bosset J.o., Instrumental Analysis of volatils (flavour) compounds in milk and dairy products(a review)., Swiss federal dairy research station., 1997.
20.Michael Dennis Sharp, B.S.., Analysis of Vanilla Compounds in Vanilla Extracts and Model Vanilla Ice Cream Mixes Using Novel Technology., Ohio State University. 2009.
References21. Michael H. Tunick , Susan K. Iandola and Diane L. Van Hekken.,
Comparison of SPME Methods for Determining Volatile Compounds in Milk, Cheese, and Whey Powder., Foods., 2013.
22. Michael Moss, The Newyork Times, The Extraordinary Science of Addictive Junk Food, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/24/magazine/the-extraordinary-science-of-junk-food.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
23. Naknean, P. and Meenune, M., Factors affecting retention and release of flavour compounds in food carbohydrates., International Food Research Journal., 2010.
24. O.Bensebia , D.Barth, A.Dahmani Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Of Rosemary Comparison With Steam Distillation And Hydrodistillation., University Of Algeria. 2005
Thank you!!!Dr.K.Aparna, Assistance Professor – Dept of Food and
Nutrition,, PG&RC, PJTSAU.Socialist Democratic Secular Govt of India and ICCR,
For their courtesy of Sponsoring me to study here.PJTSAU, Central Library. For lending Books and
Internet fascilityMy Class Mates.You all for your kind attention
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