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Urinary Bladder
Location & relations
• Located in the ant pelvis
• Rests on anterior part of pelvic floor, behind the symphysis pubis and below the peritoneum
Bladder anatomy Size & shape varies with amount of urine
Hollow muscular organ, urine reservoir
PARTS OF BLADDER Body with a fundus or base Bladder neck Apex A superior surface Two inferolateral sufaces
Superior surface
Related to Peritoneum of utero-vesical pouch, uterus and bowel
Base of the bladder
Related with thesupravaginal cervix &the anterior fornix.
Inferolateral surface
Related with the space of Retzius.
Bladder neck
Rests on superior layer of the urogenital diaphragm
Bladder bed
Angles of the Bladder
• Apex - continuous with the obliterated urachus
• Neck - most inferior part, related to the superior pelvic fascia
• 2 Lateral angles where the ureters enter the bladder
Trigone of the Bladder
Triangular area marked by three openings
Two ureteral orifices Urethral opening
uterus
cervix
vagin
a
vagina
Bladder trigone
Female Urethra
• 3 to 4 cm long• External urethral orifice – between vaginal orifice and
clitoris• Internal urethral sphincter– detrussor muscle, thickened
smooth muscle, involuntary control
• External urethral sphincter– skeletal muscle, voluntary
control
Histology of bladder
Blood Supply
Superior VA Arises from the proximal part of ant div of Int I A Divides into numerous br & supply dome of bladder
Middle VA Br of SVA Supplies the base of bladder
Inferior VA Arises from middle rectal or vaginal artery Base & the Trigone
Vesical arteries
Venous drainage of bladder
Vesical venous plexus
Internal Iliac veins
Internal vertebral venous plexus
Lymphatic supply
• Superior part - external iliac lymph nodes
• Inferior part - internal iliac lymph nodes
• Bladder neck - sacral or common iliac lymph nodes
MicturitionResults from a complex interplay of sympathetic , parasympathetis & higher centre
Micturition reflex
Filling of urinary bladder → stretch receptors → sensory impulse via pelvic nerve to S2 – S4 → Parasympathetic impulse via pelvic nerve → Contraction of detrusor muscle & relaxation of internal sphincter → urine in urethra stimulates stretch receptors → sensory impulse via pelvic nerve to S2 – S4 → inhibition of somatic fibers in pudendal nerve → relaxation of external sphincter → results in urination
Micturition reflex
Sympathetic (through hypogastric nerve) stimulation of beta receptors on detrusor muscle causes relaxation & of alpha receptors on internal sphincter causes constriction of sphincter, hence sympathetic stimulation causes filling & referred to as nerve of filling.
Higher brain centers of Micturition
• Facilitatory & inhibitory centers in brain stem especially pons
• Centers located in cerebral cortex is normally inhibitory but can become excitatory
• For voluntary urination, cortical centers can facilitate the sacral micturition centers to help initiate a micturition reflex & at the same time inhibit the external urinary sphincter.
Voluntary Control of Micturition
• Micturition center in pons receives stretch signals and integrates cortical input (voluntary control)
• Sends signal for stimulation of detrussor and relaxes internal urethral sphincter
• To delay urination impulses sent through pudendal nerve to external urethral sphincter keep it contracted until you wish to urinate
• Valsalva maneuver – aids in expulsion of urine by pressure on bladder– can also activate micturition reflex voluntarily
BLADDER INJURIES
Risk factors
Distorted pelvic anatomyPrevious Cesarean sectionsPrevious gynecologic surgeriesExtensive pelvic adhesion ( Severe endometriosis, PID etc)Large myomas Pelvic malignanciesExtensive surgical dissection (e.g, RH, Retropubic procedure)
BLADDER INJURY
More frequent than Ureteral Injuries
Rate - 1-1.8%
BLADDER INJURIES
Mechanism of Bladder injury
Perforation of bladder dome during Veress needle/trocar insertion
Incidental cystotomy during development of bladder flap & VVS in routine/radical Hysterectomy Adhesiolysis or dissection with endoscopic scissors with or without electrosurgery
Bladder injury in a case with previous C-section
Bladder injury during TLH for Big fibroid (20 weeks)
Diagnosis of bladder injuries
Unlike ureteral injuries, almost all the bladder injuries are diagnosed intra-operatively
Signs of intra-operative bladder injuries
• Visualization of the Foley catheter bulb• Distention of urine collection bag with CO2 (Pneumaturia)• Urine drainage from accessory trocar site• Intraperitoneal leakage of Methylene Blue• Haematuria• Suprapubic bruising• Abdominal wall or pelvic mass• Cystoscopy – size & location
Intraoperative bladder injury identification by Methylene blue test
Post-operative identification of Bladder injury
Bladder injury is suspected in the presence of: • Haematuria
• Leakage of urine per vagina ( fistula)
• Fever, flank pain, ileus, abdominal distension
• Sepsis
CystoscopyCystogramPad testIVPDiagnostic laparoscopy
POST-OPERATIVE
Post-operative Diagnosis
VVF
Cystogram showing VVF
Sequelae of Undiagnosed Injuries
• Voiding dysfunction
• Detrusor instability
• Bladder stone formation with recurrent UTI
• Uro-genital fistula formation
• Renal damage
Management
Depends on : Size & location
• Small cystotomy (<10 mm) - Closure followed by drainage for 5-7 days
• Larger injuries - Laparoscopic or open repair
Intra-operative bladder injury
Laparoscopic Bladder injury repair
Cystoscopy - Exclude injury to trigone - Check proximity of the defect to the ureter
Remove necrotic tissue, adhesions or areas ofendometriosis before actual repair
Laparoscopic repair of small intraoperative bladder injury
Laparoscopic Bladder suturing• Interrupted or continuous absorbable sutures through full thickness of bladder wall
• Polyglactin or Polydioxanone , no 3-0
• Single layer closure is sufficient
• Repair should include mucosa, muscularis & serosa
• Peritoneal imbrication or omental graft placement between suture lines may decrease risk of fistula formation
Post-operative PeriodBladder drainage with large caliber urethral orsuprapubic catheter 5-7 days - simple fundal laceration 14 days - closer to trigone or vaginal vault - significant thermal damage Retrograde cystogram to confirm healing
Vesico-vaginal fistula• Delayed bladder injury presents as a VVF• Abnormal connection b/w bladder and vagina• Seen in first 7-10 days post operatively
Incidence 0.3-2%
Abdominal hysterectomy- 83%
Vaginal-8%
Urological surgeries-6.9%
Radiation-4%
Obstetric- 6.5%
Demographic variation
Obstetric injuries are most common cause ofVVF in developing countries whereas in developedcountries, gynecological surgical injuries are the commonest cause of VVF.
What causes fistula ?
• Direct trauma • Tissue devacularisation during dissection• Inadvertent suture placement• Infection- > tissue necrosis• Overdistention of bladder post operatively
Risk factors
• Previous surgery• h/o sepsis• Endometriosis• Malignancy• Adhesions with bladder and uterus or cervix• Anatomical distortion within pelvis• Radiation
Clinical features
Depend on site and size of fistula
• Vaginal leakage • Recurrent cystitis• Pyelonephritis• Unexplained pyrexia• Hematuria• Pain: flank, vaginal or supra pubic• Abnormal urinary stream • Irritation of vagina and perineum• Foul odour
Type of fistula
Simple - Tissue healthy, good vaginal access
Complicated – large (> 5cms) scarring Impaired access Involvement of ureteric orifices
classification of urogenital fistulas
• Urethral• Bladder neck• Sub symphysial• Midvaginal• Juxtacervical/vault• Vesicouterine• Vesicocervical
Presentation
• Continuous urinary incontinence• Limited sensation of bladder fullness• Infrequent voiding
Timings of presentation
5-14 days post-operatively
Investigations
• Dye test• Cysto urethroscopy• IVP• Retrograde pyelogram• Vaginal fluid collection to see conc. of urea• Urine analysis and culture
Basic principles for fistulae repair
• Ensure that there is no cellulitis, edema, or infection at the fistula site prior to closing the fistula
• Excision of avascular scar tissue • Wide mobilisation of bladder• Tension free layer closure of bladder and
vagina• Good hemostasis with bladder drainage• Using transplanted blood supply
Techniques of repair
• Conservative• Abdominal approach• Vaginal approach• Laparoscopic • Combined • Electrocautery• Fibrin glue• Using interposition flaps or grafts
Various approaches Vaginal Flap splitting Latzko’s procedure Abdominal O’conor technique Modified O’Conor Laparoscopic transperitoneal repair
Vaginal vs abdominal approach
Vaginal
• In simple fistula• When easy access to
anterior vaginal wall e.g, trigonal fistula• Less morbiditiy• Shorter operative time• Minimal blood loss• Quicker recovery
Abdominal
• Inadequate vaginal exposure• For complicated fistula• Recurrent fistula• Failure of vaginal repair• Multiple fistula• Larger fistula• Associated pelvic pathology• In close proximity to ureter
Timings of repair
• If diagnosed within 48 hrs post operatively – immediate repair
Early repair 1-3 months Late repair 2-4 months
Pre operative care
• Urinary or vaginal infection- treated• Early attempts to divert urinary stream• Catheter drainage( spontaneous healing in 7 %)• Care for perineal skin
Flap splitting technique
• Adequate exposure made. • Fistula tract excised with a scalpel • The entire tract is dissected• The layers of the bladder wall and vagina
adequately delineated and mobilized• The bladder mucosa closed with interrupted 4-
0 synthetic absorbable suture• A second layer, the bladder muscle, is closed
with 2-0 synthetic absorbable suture.
Flap splitting technique
Flap splitting technique
Flap splitting technique
• Vaginal incision closed separately
• The bulbocavernosus muscle transplant ±
• The bladder filled with 200 mL of methylene blue to ascertain fistula closure.
• Catheter for 3 wks
Latzko’s repairPrerequisites - Adequate preoperative vaginal vault length - Fistula located at vaginal apex
Success rate - 89% at first attempt
Latzko’s repair• Obliterates upper vagina for 2-3 cm around the
fistula ( partial colpocleisis)• An elliptical portion of vaginal epithelium is
stripped in all directions around fistula tract• Pubovesical fascia closed in two layers• Vaginal epithelium closed in interrupted sutures• Posterior vaginal wall becomes the posterior
bladder wall
Latzko’s repair
Abdominal repair
Operative technique • Cystoscopy• Ureteral stenting• Vesicovaginal fistula catheterisation• Transperitoneal laparoscopic approach
O’conor technique
Abdominal repair video
Post operative care
• Supra pubic drain for distal fistula• Urethral catheterization• Adequate hydration
Interposition grafting
• Brings in new blood supply to the area• Supports fistula repair site• Creates additional layer• Fill the dead space
Tissues used..
• Martius graft- ( bulbocavernous muscle used)• Gracilis muscle• Omental pedicle graft• Peritoneal flap graft (paravesical area)
Complications of Fistula Repair
• Post Operative Failure• Recurrent Fistula Formation• Injury to Ureter, Bowel, or Intestines• Vaginal Shortening
Prevention of bladder injuries • Routine drainage of bladder prior to trocar insertion
• Identify the boundaries of the bladder (fill with 200-300 ml NS)
• Meticulous & careful sharp dissection in the presence of• adhesion, endometriosis or previous LSCS
• Be careful with the use of cautery & while suturing the vault
• Be intrafascial in approach
CYSTOSCOPY at the end
Thank You
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