Roman empire

The Empire

Augustus

Rome’s first emperor

Detail from the

Cuirass

The symbolic figures on the breastplate

represent the following:

• At the top, Dawn riding her chariot,

bringing in a new day under the protective

mantle of the sky god.

•In the center, Tiberius, Augustus’

successor, accepts the return of captured

Roman army standards from a barbarian

prince.

•At the bottom, Mother Earth offers a horn

of plenty.

After the Battle of Actium

Octavian had:

Vast military force + Egypt’s wealth

Cooperation: Italy wanted to end civil war

Republican practices weakened

People were ready for able ruler

Octavian and the Senate

Fresh memories of Julius Caesar’s fate

Needed to work WITH the Senate

If Senate opposes ruler: danger!

Senate support helps gain public support

Octavian’s Rise to Power

Augustus as Imperator

principate = the rule of a Roman emperor

Augustan principate = Augustus’ regime

princeps = “first citizen”

Ruler’s unofficial title; means he founded the regime

imperator = “emperor”

Pacifying the Senate: January 13, 27

B.C.

Octavian offered to relinquish his power, provinces

Senate begged him to reconsider

Kept proconsular power in Spain, Gaul, Syria

Also kept consulship in Rome

Senate governed other provinces (this pacified Senate)

Octavian’s Real Power

Commanded 20 of Rome’s 26 legions

Senate gave semi-religious title “Augustus”

Implies veneration, majesty, holiness

Became Rome’s first emperor

23 B.C.: Resigns consulship, given two

powers

imperium maius

Greater proconsular power than any other proconsul

Could exercise imperium within Rome

tribunician power

Could conduct public business in assemblies, Senate

Power of veto with sacrosanctity (no punishment)

Augustan Reforms

Established a constitutional monarchy

Lessened distinction between:

Romans & Italians; Senators & equestrians

More equestrians and Italians entered Senate

Reforming the Senate

Senate took on majority of assemblies’ work

Purged Senate; fixed number of senators: 600

Recruited wealthy men of good character

Had to serve as lesser magistrate first

Controlled elections

Always treated Senate with respect, honor

Caring for the People of

Rome Divided city into wards with

elected officials

Rickety wooden housing burned, collapsed

First public fire department + first police force

Controlled reasonable grain distribution to poor

Created organizations to provide water

Rome’s Fire

Department

The underground remains of

an ancient Roman fire station

Time of Roman Prosperity &

Stability

Wealth of Egypt

More commerce and industry

Vast program of public works

Veterans resettled on farms

Stable government

Octavian’s Stable Government

Chose governors

Removed incompetent leaders

Good administrators ruled longer

Greater local autonomy:

Aristocrats ruled provincial cities; tribal leaders ruled outer regions

A Tribute to Augustus

Augustus sits on a curule

chair, denotes high office

The inscription means “He

restored the laws and rights of

the Roman people”.

An Unstable Northern Frontier

Hermann

Goal: pacify friendly tribes + find defensible frontiers

9 A.D. revolt: German tribal leader (Hermann)

Ambushed, destroyed three Roman legions

Older Augustus, abandoned campaign

Border defense became ongoing problem

Following Marius’ Lead

Invested money, effort to build up Roman

army

All Roman soldiers had same weapons,

training

Made legion better organized, more efficient

Changes to the Army

Roman soldiers had professional status

Enlistment for 20 years (mostly Italians)

Pay was relatively good

Bonuses + pension upon retirement

Money OR plot of land

Dressed to Kill

Foot soldier equipped like a human tank:

Metal armor protected chest, abdomen

Metal greaves protected legs

Helmet

Shield

Heavy leather belt with metal fittings

Tunic underneath protected skin

Roman Armor and Helmet

Armor made of metal strips,

held together by leather

Centurions and other officers wore crests on their helmets,

so that their men could see them

and follow them into battle.

Greaves and Cingulum

Metal greaves protected the

legs from enemy blades.

The cingulim was a soldier's badge of office, worn with

the tunic at all times.

Sandals and Weapons

Military sandals were as important as armor, because the legions won wars by fast

marches as much as by battle. These boots were strong and well-ventilated. Patterns of iron hobnails were especially designed to

take weight and withstand miles of marching.

The pugio or dagger was worn on the left, and a gladius, or short sword, on the right. The sword was a terrible stabbing weapon, short enough to wield easily in the crush of battle. It was horribly effective against the

Gauls, who were not armored.

Ready for Battle

Weapons of War

pilum = iron-tipped spear; punched through shield, bent after use

gladius = short, two-edged sword; for hand-to-hand combat

shield used as a weapon (“bulldozer” broke up formations)

crossbow = shot arrows (sometimes flaming)

catapult = hurled stones, flaming “bombs” over walls

A One-Time Weapon

The pilum bent upon impact

so that the enemy could not

pick it up and use it again.

A Roman Gladius

The term “gladiator” comes from glaidius.

The Roman Shield

The Ballista

After moving in catapults,

portable towers, and siege

engines, the legions’ attack

began with a relentless

barrage of spears, rocks,

and burning rags.

Then, legionaries climbed the

siege towers and rushed across

ramps into the burning city.

The Roman Catapult

The Portable Siege Tower

The Roman Siege Engine

Besieging the Enemy

Organization

Roman army: best equipped — best

organized

Every man had specific job

Orders flowed through a chain of command

Roman Officers

Legatus = “governor”: commanded legions in his province

Centurion = led century of 80 to 100 men

Signifier = carried the legion’s emblem

Tesserarius = gave legionaries password to enter camp

Tribune = commanded a cohort (about 600 men)

The Chain of Command

The Legatus A Centurion and a Legionary

Other Soldiers

The Signifier The Tesserarius

The Roman Navy

Second Punic War: found abandoned Carthaginian ship

Became model for Roman ships

Built a fleet of 160 vessels

Romans added secret weapon — the “corvus”

The Corvus

This ramp had a sharp point

on the end to smash down on

an enemy ship, enabling

soldiers to board and attack.

The corvus also punched

holes in enemy ships to hold

them in place.

A Soldier’s Life: Hard and

Tough

Legionaries served for 20 years or more

Marched to the ends of the known world

Carried necessary tools + supplies

Built roads, forts, camps along the way

Strength and Endurance

Soldier carried 90 pounds: weapons, tools,

equipment

Marched up to 20 miles each day

The Best Weapons?

Might be the pick and spade

Built fortified camps overnight

Beseiged cities

Could survive in enemy territory longer than enemy

Roman legionary and his marching

pack

“All roads lead to Rome”

Soldiers usually set up camp and immediately began to

construct roads that could help them get to Rome quickly.

Good roads insured access to food and other supplies.

Some of these ancient roads are still in use today.

Via Appia

An Ancient Roman Road

The Frontier Army: 300,000 men

Army permanently based in provinces

Brought Roman culture: spread language, customs

Married local women; settled down in area

Attracted merchants; established new Roman towns, cities

Many provincials became Roman citizens

Auxiliary Troops

Recruited from provinces (not professionals)

Fought alongside legionaries

P aid less than professionals

Equipment, training not as good

Some were excellent horsemen, archers

If they survived, they received Roman citizenship

Praetorian Guards

Emperor’s bodyguards

Wore special uniforms

Well paid

Only armed soldiers allowed within city of Rome

Became very powerful

Contributions of the Roman

Army

Conquered distant lands

Brought vast riches to Rome

Spread Roman culture

Kept peace throughout the empire

Built roads that expanded trade

Repairing the Damage

The family of Augustus,

depicted on a relief from the Ara Pacis

Civil war, political strife hurt Roman tradition

Goal: restore traditional values of family, religion

Introduced laws curbing adultery and divorce

Encouraged early marriage

Encouraged birth of legitimate children

Setting an Example

Lived in relative simplicity

Austere behavior in his own household

Banished daughter, Julia, for immorality

Julia’s Exile

Augustus’ only daughter was banished to one of the Pandataria Islands.

The islands are called the Pontine Islands today.

Uniting Romans through Religion

Built temples, revived cults

Reorganized priestly colleges

Banned worship of newly introduced foreign gods

Writers, like Virgil, pointed out descent from Venus

Deified AFTER death, state cult to worship him

Preserving Tradition

Court built by Augustus Roman Temple of Augustus

in Croatia

Role of the High Priest

Augustus assumed the role of high priest.

He led efforts to restore traditional values and religious practices.

Augustus: Rome’s

pontifex maximus

High priest

Made sacrifices to gods

at important festivals

Pax Romana: “Roman

Peace”

Initiated with the Augustine principate

Time of political stability and great prosperity

Lasted for nearly 200 years

Ruling the World

Rome ruled Mediterranean + much of western Europe

Empire highly organized, centrally controlled

Network of roads linked territories to Rome

Well-trained Roman legions defended trouble spots

Common Traits

Citizens of the empire shared the following:

Common laws

Common culture

Common language (Latin)

The Late Republic

Cicero

Famous orations delivered in courts, Senate

Wrote treatises on rhetoric, ethics, and politics

Put Greek philosophies into Latin terminology

Cicero’s Beliefs

World is governed by divine law ANDnatural law

Human reason can perceive divine AND natural law

Human institutions reflect divine AND natural law

Law, custom, tradition produce stability and liberty

Cicero’s Death

Attacked Mark Antony in speeches (The Philippics)

Named after Demosthenes’ speeches against Philip II

Mark Antony ordered his death

Too ill to escape; bundled into litter by slaves

Tracked down, killed; head, hands cut off, displayed on Rostra in the Forum

Antony’s wife repeatedly jabbed Cicero’s tongue with hairpin as revenge against his power of speech

History

Sallust

Wrote about Jugurthine

War and Catiline

conspiracy

Sympathetic to Julius

Caesar

Critical of Senate

Style similar to Thucydides

Julius Caesar, the Historian

Wrote treatises on Gallic

and civil wars

Military narratives written

from Caesar’s point of view

Persuasive in style

Law

Changes in Roman Law

Originally developed by court, case by case

Contact with Greeks + others forced change

Edicts of praetors had increasing importance

praetor = commander of the army or a magistrate

Terms

jus gentium = “law of peoples”

Body of Roman law that dealt with foreigners

jus naturale = “natural law”

Stoic concept of a world ruled by divine reason

Poetry

Purpose

Greeks believed purpose of poetry was to:

Entertain and teach

Romans adopted this idea but included:

Historical and moral instruction

Lucretius

Wrote De Rerum Natura

Means On the Nature of the

World

Took scientific and

philosophical approach

Wanted to save society

from fear and superstition

Catullus

Wrote for pleasure; personal poems; some autobiographical

Allusions to mythology; topics: love’s joy/pain

Poetry criticized Julius Caesar

No moral lessons; nothing about history, politics

A Golden Age

Literature reflected new type of society

Poets had patrons (like Maecenas)

Patrons gave poets time, security to write

Poets dependent on patrons; limited expressive freedoms

Poetry often promoted Augustus as ideal ruler

Virgil (Vergil)

Most important Augustan poet

Roman equivalent of Homer

Eclogues, Bucolics: short poems celebrating country life

Georgics:

Modeled after Hesiod’s Works and Days

Virgil’s Aeneid

His greatest work

Rome’s national epic

Aeneas personifies ideal Roman qualities:

Duty and responsibility

Patriotism

Horace: Another Important

Poet Joined army after Julius Caesar’s

assassination

Served under Brutus; fought at Philippi

Octavian gave him amnesty after the war

Returned to Italy, estate confiscated

Worked as Treasury official; Maecenas = his patron

The Quotable Horace

Responsible for famous Latin phrases:

Carpe diem:

○ “Seize the day”

Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori:

○ “It is sweet and honorable to die for your country.”

Propertius

Some considered his

poetry subversive,

immoral

Famous for elegies

His dead characters

speak to loved ones

Ovid’s Poetry

Love and sex; seducing women

Ars Amatoria = The Art of Love

Abandoned women

Mythological transformations: Metamorphoses

Angered Augustus because of immoral topics; banished

History during the Augustan

Age

Livy

Wrote The History of Rome; moral purpose

Focus: legendary origin of Rome until 9 B.C.

History as example of good/bad behavior

Glorified Rome’s greatness

Wanted moral lessons to advance Roman society

Architecture and Sculpture

Beautifying Rome & Glorifying

Augustus

Augustus ordered construction of new buildings:

Theaters, baths, basilicas, temples

Roman Forum (rebuilt); built his own Forum

Influenced by Greek classical style

Aimed at serenity and ideals

Ara Pacis or “Altar of Peace”

The greatest monument of the age

Shows a procession in which Augustus and his family appear to move forward, followed by magistrates, Senate, and Roman people

The Forum

Market square with public buildings around it

People gathered here for business, to gossip

Around the public square:

Shops, “fast food” stalls, monuments, statues

Temples to gods – and famous Romans (emperors)

The Forum

Artist’s rendering, showing what the Forum would have looked like

during Augustus’ reign.

Ruins from the Roman Forum

Ancient Graffiti

Samples of graffiti found on walls in Pompeii

Aufidius was here.

Marcus loves Spendusa.

I am amazed, O wall, that you have not collapsed and fallen, since you must bear the tedious stupidities of so many scrawlers.

On April 19 I baked bread.

Let anyone who invites me to dinner prosper.

Roman Graffiti

Graffiti from the

Roman Colosseum at Arles

Photo by Robert Brown

Ancient Pompeii graffito

caricature of a politician

Ancient Roman Basilicas

On one side of the forum

was the basilica.

The basilica was used as:

Town hall

Court of law

Public meeting place

14 - 180 A.D.

The Emperors

For 500 years, imperator had absolute power

Beginning with Augustus, 79 men ruled Rome

Few ruled and died peacefully

A Dangerous Time

Men who took power by force often died at the hands of the same soldiers they once commanded.

Ambitious sons killed their fathers, and brothers murdered brothers to earn the right to be hailed emperor of Rome.

Expanding the Borders

Augustus warned successors not to expand empire

Most didn’t listen

Wanted glory of conquest + more wealth

For 100+ years, emperors expanded Rome’s borders

Coinage

Most citizens never saw emperors, except on coins

Emperor’s face on every official coin

Roman leaders showed power by issuing coins

Financial problems = emperors decreased coins’ value

Coins = thinner, lighter; paid for more soldiers

The Julio-Claudian Dynasty

The Julio-Claudian Dynasty

Tiberius

Gaius (Caligula)

Claudius

Nero

Year of the Four Emperors

Tiberius

Tiberius

Octavian’s step-son

Married Augustus' daughter; adopted by Augustus

Became a Julian; took name Tiberius Julius Caesar

Considered one of Rome's greatest generals

Campaigns laid foundations for northern frontier

A Somber Ruler

Became dark, reclusive

Never wanted to be emperor

After son’s death, rule declined, ended in terror

Consul (Sejanus) plotted overthrow; caught, executed

Tiberius hunted and killed all political opponents

The historian Tacitus describes

the last years of Tiberius’ reign

Executions were now a stimulus to his fury, and he ordered the

death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity

with Sejanus. There lay, singly or in heaps, the unnumbered dead, of

every age and sex, the illustrious with the obscure. Kinsfolk and

friends were not allowed to be near them, to weep over them, or even

to gaze on them too long. Spies were set round them, who noted the

sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses, till they

were dragged to the Tiber, where, floating or driven on the bank, none

extinguished the sense of human fellowship, and, with the growth of

cruelty, pity was thrust aside.

Tiberius’ Final Days

Eventually exiled himself from Rome

Left Rome in hands of unscrupulous men

Tacitus records that crowd rejoiced at news of Tiberius’ death — only to become suddenly silent when they heard that he had recovered.

The crowd rejoiced again at the news that Caligula and Macro had smothered him.

Caligula

Gaius (Caligula)

Father’s soldiers called him “Little Boots”

Given nickname as a child

Dressed in uniform, little sword, shield, boots

Became brutal as an adult

Tiberius once called him a “viper”

An Insane Ruler

“Conquered” ocean; ordered troops to collect seashells

Demanded worship

Statues: replaced gods’ heads with his head

Kept favorite horse in marble stable

Tried to make his horse a consul

A Cruel Emperor

Ordered his enemies’

murder — by slow

torture

His own guards finally

murdered him

Claudius

Claudius: The Reluctant

Emperor Lame, stammering, forced to

take throne

Praetorian Guard dragged him from behind curtain

Made him emperor

He surrounded himself with able advisers

Expanded empire’s wealth, power

Nero

Nero

Last of Julius Caesar’s relatives to rule

His mother convinced Claudius to adopt Nero

Seemed harmless

Entered singing contests, athletic competitions —always “won”

A Vengeful Son

Mother forbade relationship with former slave

Tried three times to poison mother

Made ceiling above bed fall; didn’t die

Put mother on boat that fell apart at sea; swam to shore

Eventually had mother, wives, stepbrother killed

Nero: Insanity

Probably started fire in 64 A.D.; blamed Christians

Destroyed 10 of city’s 14 districts

During fire, sang about fall of Troy

Built “Golden House” on burned land

“At last, I can begin to live as a human being.”

Nero

Declared himself a god

Had towering bronze statue of himself erected

Very unpopular

Fled Rome

Committed suicide as soldiers neared

69 A.D.: Year of the Four

Emperors

In one year, four different emperors assumed

power in quick succession as different Roman

armies took turns placing their commanders on

the throne.

The Flavian Dynasty

The Flavian Dynasty

Vespasian

Titus

Domitian

Vespasian

Founded Flavian dynasty

First emperor not from old Roman nobility

Italian middle class; lived simply; respected army general

Strengthened empire’s borders

Granted citizenship to many people in provinces

Masada

For 100+ years, Jews had rejected Roman domination:

Refused to obey emperor

Denied Roman gods, continued their religious traditions

Jews captured desert fortress: Masada; butchered Roman garrison

Vespasian outraged; besiegedJews

Masada

960 rebels fought for three years; resisted siege

73 A.D., Roman troops built huge earthen ramp

Night before attack, Jews committed suicide

Only two women + five children, hidden in wells, survived.

Vespasian’s Greatest Contribution

Many grand building

projects

Began Colosseum in

Rome

Colosseum constructed

on land that had been

part of Nero’s palace

The Colosseum

Proper name: FlavianAmphitheater

Very large: 160 ft. in height

Seated up to 60,000 spectators

People came to watch “sports”:

Beast hunts, public executions, gladiator fights

Structure and Design of the Colosseum

Arena (Latin for “sand”)

Sand covered fighting area to soak up blood

Flooded for mock sea battles

80 entrance arches, all numbered except four main entrances

Free tickets given out early in morning

Each ticket numbered, matched arch; enter through arch

Masts or “sails” sheltered crowd from sun

Underground Passages

Once covered by wooden floor

Prisoners, animals kept in cages there

Scenery also stored there

Mechanisms used to hoist people, animals to surface

Exotic animals imported from distant lands

Seating in Four Tiers

Emperor sat in front row; senators sat in front of first tier, same level as emperor

Only men allowed in first two tiers; women sat above men, separated by wall

Behind women, against outer wall: standing room for slaves

The building can be evacuated in ten minutes.

Battles

Several pairs of gladiators fought at same time

One battle staged in Rome on orders from Trajan lasted for 117 days.

More than 10,000 gladiators took part.

Gladiators

Convicts, slaves (men, women) trained as gladiators

Equipped as warriors (like Samnites, Thracians)

Armed with fishing gear

Fought each other and wild animals

Musicians played bronze horns and water organs in background

Gladiators

Retiarius

“The Net Man

Unlike other gladiators, who wore some protective armor, the retiarius carried only a

weighted net, a Neptune’s trident used by tuna fishermen, and a short sword.

Murmillo

“Fish man”

Wore a helmet decorated

with a fish symbol

Often pitted against the retiarius

Gladiators

Hoplomachus

Was the most heavily armed gladiator

Had leg and arm coverings,

a huge helmet,

a spear, and a bowl-shaped shield

Secutor

The “Pursuer”

Armed with a sword,

shield and manica (“arm guard)

Gladiators

Samnite Thracian

Two female gladiators

Honor and Death

The contestants shouted, “We who are about to die, salute you!” as they filed past the imperial stand during the opening parades.

Wounded gladiators could appeal for mercy, but jeers from the crowd and the thumbs-down signal from the emperor brought death.

Victorious gladiators were treated as stars and could win their freedom.

Vespasian’s Dying Thoughts

Had two sons to continue

in his footsteps

Died peacefully

On deathbed, ridiculed

practice of deifying

emperors, saying, “Alas, I

think I am becoming a

god.”

Titus

Titus

Vespasian’s son

Remained awhile in

Palestine after

Vespasian’s victory

Captured Jerusalem for

the empire

The Arch of Titus

In 70 A.D., Titus conquered the province of Judea,

took the city of Jerusalem, and destroyed its holy Temple.

The Arch of Titus, still standing in Rome, celebrated this victory over the Jews.

Pompeii

The eruption of Mt. Vesuvius buried Pompeii and Herculaneum near the beginning of Titus’s reign

The Romans thought this was a

bad omen for Titus.

Completing the Colosseum

Dedicated the

Colosseum

Titus died two years

after taking power

Poisoned by

ambitious younger

brother, Domitian

Domitian

Domitian: Vespasian’s Son

Strengthened economy by reevaluating Roman coinage

Expanded border defenses

Massive building program; restored damaged city of Rome

Expanded Empire as far as Scotland

Assassinated by court officials

The “Five Good Emperors”

The “Five Good Emperors”

Nerva

Trajan

Hadrian

Antoninus Pius

Marcus Aurelius

A Unique Plan for

Succession Domitian had no close relatives to succeed him

Senate put Nerva on the throne

None had sons, so they followed Nerva’s example

Adopted an able senator, establishing him as successor

Nearly a century of peaceful succession, competent rule

Nerva

Nerva: First of “Five Good

Emperors” Wise, moderate ruler, good

intentions — but weak

Vowed to restore liberties curtailed during Domitian’s reign

Financial difficulties + little authority over army

Ruled only fifteen months; died of natural causes

Trajan

Trajan

Simple man

One of Rome’s most talented military leaders

During his rule, empire grew to largest extent

Empire stretched from Britain to Africa, east to Persia

Senate later told new emperors: “May you be more successful than Augustus, better than Trajan.”

Trajan’s Column

Trajan’s Column still stands in Rome today.

It celebrates the emperor’s victories in Dacia and Parthia.

The column is almost 130 feet tall.

Hadrian

Hadrian

Ruled during happiest period of Roman Empire

Respected soldier, spent much time with armies

Traveled throughout empire; decided empire too large

Reorganized government, legal system

Built fortifications as defense against barbarians

Hadrian’s Wall

Hadrian was most famous for his stone wall

that stretches across northern Britain.

Antoninus Pius

Antoninus Pius

Earned name:

After compelling Senate to deify Hadrian

Or, by saving senators Hadrian sentenced to death in later years

Built temples, theaters, mausoleums; promoted arts, sciences

Bestowed honors, rewards uponteachers of rhetoric, philosophy

Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius

Last of “five good

emperors”

Famous scholar and writer

Wanted to read, write

memoirs, called Meditations

Famous Stoic philosopher

Protecting Roman Borders

Established, maintained peacethroughout Empire

Most of reign along borders, fighting barbarians

Raised taxes to pay for more soldiers

Became increasingly unpopular

Helped during famines, emergencies; sold personal possessions

Marcus Aurelius: Persecutor

Mercilessly persecuted Christians

Believed that they challenged imperial authority

Died from plague; thousands of Romans died

Commodus

Commodus

Vicious son of Marcus Aurelius

One of Rome’s cruelest rulers

Thought he was a great gladiator

His own troops plotted against him

Was strangled by wrestler named Narcissus

Septimius Severus

Septimius Severus: A Famous

Soldier

Born in Roman family that lived in Africa

Marched on Rome after Commodus’ murder

To calm fears, switched from uniform to civilian clothes before entering Rome

Reorganized military, raised soldiers’ pay, executed enemies

Died in Britain during military expedition

The Arch of Septimius Severus

Dedicated in 203 A.D., this arch celebrated military victories

and the tenth anniversary of Septimius Severus’s reign.

Dying Wishes

On his deathbed, Septimius Severus

ordered his sons to live in peace, keep the

soldiers happy by raising their pay, and

despise the rest of the world.

Instead, the brothers hated each other.

Diocletian

Diocletian

Army general

Army proclaimed him emperor in 284 A.D.

Divided Roman Empire

tetrarchy = rule of Empire by four men with power divided territorially

The Tetrarchy: Peaceful Succession

Two co-emperors shared title of Augustus

Diocletian = senior Augustus

Two given subordinate title ofCaesar

Successors to half of the Empire

Loyalty enhanced by marriages to Augusti’s daughters

Dividing the Empire

Each tetrarch was supreme in his sphere

Tetrarchs chose capital where they ruled

No one chose Rome

Diocletian’s Reign

Reformed army; no leader to become too powerful

Constructed monumental baths, but visited Rome only once

Passed Edict on Maximum Prices

Unsuccessful price controls to curb inflation

Moved capitals away from Rome, East highlighted

Diocletian’s Persecution of

Christians

Lasted from 303–311

Empire's last, largest, bloodiest persecution of Christianity

Did not destroy Empire's Christian community

After 324, Christianity became the Empire's preferred religion

First Christian emperor: Constantine

Galerius

Galerius

One of four tetrarchs; served with Diocletian

First named Caesar; later, promoted to Augusti

Extended Roman Empire into Persia

Probably encouraged Diocletian to persecute Christians

May have burned Imperial Palace, blaming Christians

Succession

First emperor to abdicate throne voluntarily

Retired , compelled co-emperor to do same

Plan for smooth succession failed

In 310: five Augusti, no Caesars

Constantine defeated opponent, made himself emperor

Valerian

Valerian

Captured by Sassanids; insulted

“Human footstool” when Shapurmounted his horse

Offered huge ransom; forced to swallow molten gold

Flayed alive; stuffed with straw, temple “trophy”

Eventually, skin was given cremation and burial

Constantine

Constantine the Great

Also called:

Constantine I

Saint Constantine (by Orthodox + Byzantine Catholics)

First Christian Roman emperor

Reversed Diocletian’s persecutions

The Edict of Milan: 313 A.D.

Proclaimed religious

toleration throughout

Roman Empire

Removed penalties for

professing Christianity

Reforms of Constantine the

Great

Reunited empire divided by Diocletian

Wanted to restore Rome’s power

Carried forward most of Diocletian’s policies

But supported Christianity

Constantine’s Conversion

Adopted mother Helena was a Christian

Christian in youth (Helena’s influence)? Gradually? Later?

Maintained pagan title Pontifex Maximus until death

Over 40 when he declared himself “Christian”

Wrote Christians: “owed successes to God alone”

Constantine’s Support of

Christianity

Supported Church ($) + privileges for clergy (tax exemptions)

Promoted Christians to high ranking offices

Returned property confiscated during Diocletian’s Great Persecution

325 A.D.: Council of Nicaea

First Ecumenical Council; dealt with Arianheresy

Constantine’s Building Projects

St. Peter’s Basilica

Built basilicas

Most famous building projects:

Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Old Saint Peter's Basilica

Constantinople

The Hagia Sophia

Constantinople

Moved empire’s capital to Constantinople

Formerly ancient Greek colony of Byzantium

Became new imperial residence

Capital of Byzantine Empire 1,000+ years

The Walls of Constantinople

Important Terms

Religious Terms

catholic = majority opinion, considered to be universal

Example: “catholic belief”

orthodox = holding the right opinion

Example: “orthodox doctrines”

Controversies

Controversy about Christian

Doctrine

Occurred during 4th century A.D., focusing on:

Jesus’ divinity

His relationship to God the Father

The nature of the Trinity

325 A.D. = Constantine I gathered Christian bishops at Nicaea

Response from the Council of

Nicaea

Three points:

1. Jesus, the Son, is equal to the Father

2. Jesus is one with the Father

3. Jesus is of the same substance as the

Father

The council condemned Arian teaching

Arianism

Teachings of priest, named Arius, who said:

1. Jesus was a created being (therefore, not eternal)

2. Jesus is inferior to God the Father

3. Father and Son from similar substance but not identical

4. Jesus neither fully man nor fully God (something in between)

Heresy

Orthodox Christians

consider Arianism a

heresy because the

teaching denies the

biblical truth that the

Father, Son, and Holy

Spirit are co-equal and

co-existent.

The Nicene CreedI believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things

visible and invisible.

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father

before all worlds; God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God; begotten, not

made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made.

Who, for us men and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by

the Holy Spirit of the virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us

under Pontius Pilate; He suffered and was buried; and the third day He rose again,

according to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of

the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead;

whose kingdom shall have no end.

And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life; who proceeds from the Father

and the Son; who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified;

who spoke by the prophets.

And I believe one holy catholic and apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the

remission of sins; and I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world

to come. Amen.

Julian the Apostate

Julian the Apostate

Apostate = one who abandons, renounces religious beliefs

Last non-Christian Roman Emperor

Tried to stop growing power of Christianity

Revived traditional Roman religious practices

Rejected Christianity in favor of Neoplatonism

A Military Leader

No military education

Yet, was an able military

commander

Important victory in Gaul

Led Roman army against

Sassanids (Persian Empire)

Valentinian

Valentinian I

Often called "last great western emperor"

Brother = Emperor Valens

Able soldier, good administrator

Interested in welfare of lower classes (father’s)

Sometimes chose unwise people to advise him

Efforts to Improve Rome

Founded schools

Provided medical care for Rome’s poor

1 doctor for each Roman district (14)

Christian but tolerated paganism

Forbad certain rituals/sacrifices; banned magic practice

Opposed civil/church abuses (e.g., clergy’s increasing worldliness)

Mixed Reviews

Terrible temper

A.H.M. Jones writes that "he

was of a violent and brutal

temper, and not only

uncultivated himself, but

hostile to cultivated persons”

Ammianus says “he hated

the well-dressed and

educated and wealthy and

well-born”

Co-Emperor with Valens

Wanted help to govern large, troublesome Empire

Appointed brother Valens as co-emperor

Two Augusti travelled together; divided personnel

Valentinian ruled West; Valens ruled East

Valens

Valens

Ruled Eastern part of the Empire

Sometimes called Last True Roman

Some religious persecution; was an Arian

Killed in Battle of Adrianople, fighting Goths

Marked beginning of Western Roman Empire’s fall

Theodosius

Theodosius

Born in Spain

Reunited Eastern + Western parts of Empire

Last emperor of both Eastern and Western Empire

After death, two parts split permanently

Made Christianity Empire’s official state religion

Another Heresy

Manichaeism

Founder: Mani (Persian, third century A.D.)

Light + darkness, good + evil, constantly warring

Good = spiritual, evil = material

Body = prison of evil – contains some good

“Father of Goodness” sent Mani to free humanity, gain salvation

Man must seek “light,” abandon physical desires

Anarchy

Period of Anarchy

Bribery + murder became path to power

Less than 50 years = 20 emperors ruled

All owed power to military, not Senate

Imperial throne not safe

Troops who chose emperors often murdered them

Slavery

Slavery in the Roman Empire

Many slaves wore a bronze disc, like this one. It looked something like a dog tag.

One tag said: “Hold me, in case I run away, and return me to my master Viventius on the

estate of Callistus.”

About 100 A.D.: wealthy

family might have had as

many as 500 slaves

Slaves had few rights

Could be branded on

forehead or leg as

owner’s property

Administration in the Early Empire

Common religious practices

Emperors deified after death, imperial cult established

More people given citizenship, shared Roman culture/traditions

Latin = spread to western provinces

Romanitas = “Roman-ness”

Local Municipalities

Towns governed by local council

Magistrates elected from local aristocracy

Members of council given Roman citizenship

Helped spread Roman law, culture

Created loyalty among influential people

Foreign Policy

Trajan = first to take sustained offensive

Success led to establishment of new provinces

Wealth from gold mines + increased trade

Desire to keep barbarians at bay

Expanded territory harder to defend

Decline of Slave Labor and Rise of

Coloni

Extended territory = need for more products

Some small farms, but more large estates

Managed by absentee owner, grew cash crops

Tenant farmers (coloni) replaced slave labor

Workers tied to land

The Villa

Large, country estate

• Supplied vast amounts of grain, fruit, vegetables

• Oxen used to plough fields

• Grain harvested with sickle; flour ground by hand

Mosaics, painted walls: ornate scenes of Roman life

Wall Décor

Mosaics of a hunting scenes

Other scenes might include images of grain and farming or religious celebrations

Elaborate Art

Roman Villa - Butser Ancient Farm,

shows Prehistoric and Roman building

techniques and farming.

Piazza Armerina

Roman Villa of Casale (4th century)

Mosaic with the labours of Hercules – Detail

Hadrian’s Villa

• Parts still stand today.

• Stood on hilltop, with Rome in distance

• Had pavilions, pools, terraces, banquet halls, theaters, libraries.

• Around the villa were beautiful parks

• Didn’t spend much time there; died four years after completed

Inside a Roman House

Designed to look inward

Rooms surrounded atrium + garden; few windows

atrium: courtyard with pool to collect rainwater

triclinium: dining room (three tables = nine guests)

Front rooms usually bedrooms or shops/workshops

Inside a Roman House

The Atrium The Triclinium

Furniture

Clothes in cupboards or wooden chests, not closets/dressers

Wooden or metal stools, no chairs; had couches

Dining tables low; evening meal lying on couches

Wooden beds, slats or ropes supported mattress, pillows

Pillows stuffed with wool or straw

Roman Furniture

Silver Claw-Foot

Roman Stool

Roman couch and footstool

A More Simple Country Life

Many farms small, run by retired soldiers

Raised cows, chickens, geese, pigs; kept bees

Grew olives, vegetables, grain

Typical Meals Breakfast: bread, honey, olives

Lunch: eggs or cold meats and fruit

Dinner (cena): main meal

Shellfish or salad, followed by roast meat (pork, veal, chicken, goose) + vegetables

Dessert of fruit or honey cakes

Banquets:

Songbirds, flamingo’s tongue, custard made from calves’ brains and rose hips

Food heavily spiced; often served with fish sauce called garum.

Wine usually mixed with water; sometimes flavored with honey or spices

A Typical Roman Feast

A food stall in Pompeii

Guests started the meal with wine, olives, hot sausages, plums, and pomegranate seeds — or other tasty appetizers, like sea hedgehogs, fresh oysters and mussels, peacock brain or eyeballs, lark tongues, or boar’s ribs.

The dinner itself might consist of sows’ udder, boar’s head, fish-pasties, duck, hare, or roasted fowl.

Dessert was usually some type of sweet pastry.

Trends

More independent and influential

Some became wealthy through inheritance

Some well educated

Some conducted literary salons

Some decided not to have children at all

Livia

Augustus’ wife

Great influence during his

reign

He honored her with title

“Augusta” in his will

City Life

Insulae = “islands” = apartments

Fresh water through aqueducts to:

Fountains, public baths, homes; used gravity

Arches:

Etruscan invention, Roman use = quick construction

Concrete

Invented by Greeks, developed by Romans

Insulae

The streets divided the buildings into “island-type” blocks.

The term eventually came to mean

the apartment house itself.

Roman Aqueducts — with Arches!

Le Pont du Gard is a Roman aqueduct in the south of France

A painting shows the complex interlinking system of ancient

Roman aqueducts.

Literature

The Silver Age

Between Augustus’ death and Marcus Aurelius rule

High quality work; inferior to Augustan Age

Gloomy, negative, pessimistic; more criticism and satire

Stoic in nature

Hostility to growing power + excesses of emperors

Types of Literature

Historical writing:

Focus: remote periods (Do not anger emperors!)

Poetry

Not much written; all safe topics

Romances

Written in Greek; “escapist”

Architecture

Main Contributions

The great public bath

The free-standing amphitheater

Advances in engineering:

Arch

Concrete

Architectural Wonders

Colosseum: built by Flavian emperors

Pantheon: begun by Agrippa; rebuilt by Hadrian

Aqueducts and Bridges

The Circus Maximus

The Pantheon

The Pantheon has Greek influences,

but its rotunda of brick-faced concrete,

its domed ceiling, and its arches are distinctly Roman.

Interior of the Pantheon

In Rome

Changes in Society

Troubles

Abuses of power, from emperor to magistrates

Decline in population

Cost of government rising

Expensive wars along the borders

Efforts to keep the military happy

Juvenal’s Perspective

Roman poet, wrote satires

Said common people

cared little for freedom

Wanted “bread and circuses”

(food and entertainment)

The Good News

“Christianity emerged, spread, survived, and

ultimately conquered the Roman Empire in

spite of its origin among poor people from an

unimportant and remote province of the empire.”

(The Western Heritage 174)

Jesus

The Historical Case for Jesus of

Nazareth

Oldest Gospel = Mark; Last Gospel = John

Born in Judaea during Augustus’ rule

Taught in tradition of prophets

Motives › actions; spiritual kingdom › politics

Called “Christ,” means “Messiah”

Jesus the Christ

Fulfilled Old Testament prophecies

Rejected by Jews

Crucified by Romans

Buried in tomb of Joseph of Arimathea

Raised on the third day

The Gospel

Scripture says that

Jesus took our sin on

Himself and thus, took

the full force of God’s

wrath on our behalf.

Jesus of Nazareth

Stained glass window:

Jesus teachingThe Streets of Nazareth

Death and Resurrection

Golgotha,

also called “the skull,”

where Jesus was crucified

The tomb of

Joseph of Arimathea

The Reality of the Resurrection

Guarded by Roman soldiers (death penalty)

Large stone at entrance

Many eye witnessesconfirmed resurrection

No ghost:

Ate fish; told Thomas: “Touch wounds”

Followers and Critics

Many followers were poor, needed hope

Most religious leaders suspicious (most to

lose)

Romans feared revolution, political rebellion

Josephus, the Jewish Historian

Jewish general and historian

Led revolt against Roman rule in Judea

When revolt was crushed, joined Romans

Wrote detailed account of Roman military skill

Provided eye-witness account about Jesus (not Christian)

The Apostle Paul

Paul of Tarsus (“Saul”)

Pharisee

Jews with strictest adherence to Mosaic law

Persecuted Christians

Held cloaks at Stephen’s stoning, imprisoned Christians

Converted on road to Damascus

The Road to Damascus

Paul’s Influence and

Leadership

Wrote 13 letters (epistles) to Christian churches

Explained doctrinal truths

Stressed faith in Jesus (not works based)

Said that Jesus will return someday

Became a missionary to Gentiles

The Early Church

Organization of Believers

Christians originally met in homes

Prayed, sang hymns, read Gospels

Marked by agape (“unconditional love”)

Shared what they had

Lord’s Supper (Eucharist)

A True Community

Poor people attracted to Christianity: “hope”

Later, wealthier people became Christians

Societal divisions not important among Christians:

Paul said, “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus.”

(Galatians 3:28)

Leadership in the Churches

Little organization at first

Leadership:

Presbyters = “elders”

Deacons = “those who

serve”

Episkopoi = “bishops,

overseers”

Authority of the Bishops

Authority over churches in cities, towns, country

Elected by congregation

Led worship

Supervised funds

Sacred Writings

By end of second century A.D.:

Orthodox canon was compiled

Included:

○ Old Testament, Gospels, Paul’s

Epistles

Creeds also important

What did it mean to be called a

Christian?

Originally:

Confess that Jesus is Lord

○ God’s Son, died for sin,

resurrected

Be baptized

Take Communion (Eucharist)

What did it mean to be called a

Christian?

By the end of the second century:

Jesus is Lord, baptism, Eucharist

PLUS:

○ Accept creeds

○ Accept authority of holy writings, bishops

Persecution

Roman Reaction to

Christians Romans saw Christians as sect; legal

protection

Romans soon saw differences in Christians:

Denied pagan gods; no emperor worship

“Isolated,” met in homes; network of churches

Misunderstood “love feasts” + Eucharist

Persecution

Claudius expelled them from Rome

Nero blamed them for fire in Rome

Eventually, “the name alone” was a crime

Trajan urged “moderation”—Christians acquitted: “Denounce Christ”

Diocletian initiated “Great Persecution”

Polycarp

A Christian bishop martyred for his faith

Rome as a Center of the Early

Church

Empire’s capital, center of communication

Jerusalem destroyed in 135 A.D.

Many Christians living in Rome

Peter and Paul = martyred in Rome

Peter = first bishop of Rome

Barbarian Invasions

Trouble in the East

Parthians

Broke free of Hellenistic kings

Established new kingdom, based on

Persian Empire

Sassanians

Seized control from Parthians

Took emperor Valerian prisoner;

he died in captivity

German tribes in the West and

North

Hunters, not farmers

Much drinking and fighting

Organized by clan and tribe

King surrounded by warriors, called “comitatus”

The Goths

Most aggressive of the Germanic tribes

Came from around Baltic Sea (southern

Russia)

Eastern Goths = Ostrogoths

Western Goths = Visigoths

Visigoths

Huns forced Visigoths

out of homeland

Visigoths asked for

permission to enter

Empire

Permission granted

Christianized, became

Roman allies

Broken Promises

Visigoths retained weapons; plundered Balkan provinces

Romans’ cruel treatment

“Trade your children for dogs” (ate dogs)

Valens attacked Goths and died

Theodosius gave land, autonomy; enrolled in army

The Franks and Alemanni

Other Germanic peoples in the west

Failing to secure Roman borders

Numerous and simultaneous attacks

Roman army not at its best

Training declined

Plague reduced number of soldiers

Recruited soldiers from slaves, gladiators,

barbarians, criminals

Economic Difficulties

Inflation

Coinage not worth as much

Higher taxes

Increased pay for soldiers

Shortage of Workers

Small, family-owned farms nearly wiped

out

Fewer crops produced

Piracy, robbers, poor roads = all

hampered trade

Changes in the Social Order

Senate filled with men who had served in

the army

New titles (class distinctions) developed

Honestiores

Senators, equestrians, municipal

aristocracy, soldiers

Had privileged position; lighter

punishments

Humiliores

Lower classes

Tied to land

Tied to jobs

Civil Disorder

Assassination of Commodus brought civil war

Later rulers gained power through military force

Yet, military primarily composed of mercenaries

Many from least civilized provinces

Others were Germans

The Fourth Century and Imperial

Reorganization

Diocletian introduced tetrarchy;

emperor became remote figure

Subjects prostrated selves, kissed

robe’s hem

Emperor addressed as dominus

(“lord”)

Right to rule seen as divine right

Use of secret police and spies

The Rural West

Cities began to shrink

Emphasis on farms, villas

Upper classes moved to the country

Only institution that provided unity: the

Church

The Byzantine East

Constantinople = center of culture and trade

Cities grew, commitment to Roman law

Christianity flourished; Eastern art became influential

Became the “New Rome”

Byzantines called themselves “Romans”

The Great Schism

A division between the East and the West

Preservation of Classical

Literature Works by classical authors reproduced (many

copies)

From perishable papyrus rolls to bound volumes

Divided long works into shorter versions

Like Livy’s History of Rome

Wrote commentaries; compiled grammar books

Christian Writers

Apologetics (a defense of the faith)

Poetry and Prose

Sermons

Hymns

Biblical commentaries

Jerome

Produced version of the

Bible in Latin

Called the Vulgate

Became the Bible used

by Catholic Church

Eusebius of Caesarea

Wrote idealized

biography of Constantine

Wrote Ecclesiastical

History

His most important

contribution

Presents a Christian view

of history

Saint Augustine

Bishop of Hippo in North Africa

Born at Carthage; trained as rhetoric teacher

Father pagan, mother Christian

Explored heresies before conversion

Skepticism, Neoplatonism, Manichaeism

Saint Augustine’s Work

Wrote two important books:

Confessions

City of God

Impacted the Church then

and now