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A talk given at Bremen on Colonial & Postcolonial Linguistics on 5 Sept 2013.
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Crossing Language Barriers: effects on the Great FaithsNicholas Ostler
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
My Tale
Great Faiths (aspire to be) universal,and are actively propagated.
Languages (as mother tongues) are largely fixed on populations
until complemented by a lingua franca.
Therefore
Great Faiths are actively converted into new languages.
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
My Question
Great Faiths are actively converted into new languages: so
What are the Effects of these conversions on the Content of the Great Faiths?
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Domain for Answers
What are the Effects of these conversions on the Content of the Great Faiths?
Domain for religious conversion not limited to the history of Colonialism, or even of Imperialism.
We shall consider here three cases:
1. Roman Catholicism into Nahuatl (Mexico C16-18)
2. Buddhism in Gandhari & Sanskrit (C. Asia C1-3)
3. Christianity into Greek & Latin (Rom. Emp. C1-4)
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Where to Look? – Features of a Faith
5/9/2013
LinguisticFixed
Creed, Scriptures, Liturgies, Catechism
Intercessive and Discursive Prayers, Homilies; Myths, Theology, Ethical codes
Community: who are the Faithful?
Material & symbolic Tombs, Temples; Images, Rites; Calendars,
Festivals
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Features of a Faith affected in practice...
5/9/2013
LinguisticFixed
Creed, Scriptures, Liturgies, Catechism
Intercessive and Discursive Prayers, Homilies; Myths, Theology, Ethical codes
Community: who are the Faithful?
Material & symbolic Tombs, Temples; Images, Rites; Calendars,
Festivals
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Roman Catholicism into Nahuatl
(Mexico C16-18)
5/9/2013
Juan Diego & the Virgin• Story set in 1531, a
decade after the Conquista by Hernán Cortés
• on the hill Tepeyac,noted shrine of goddess Tonantzin, outside Mexico City
• B.V.M. reveals nepapan xochitl, ‘diverse flowers’
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Roman Catholicism into Nahuatl
(Mexico C16-18)
5/9/2013
Tonantzin“Our Lady Mother”
identified with goddesses Cihua-coatl
“woman-serpent”Xochi-quetzal
“flower quetzal-bird”XQ’s cult had involved
flower offerings.
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Roman Catholicism into Nahuatl
(Mexico C16-18)
5/9/2013
published in 1649, by Luis Laso de la Vega; in perfect Nahuatl, apparently by native speaker(s)
with Miguel Sánchez (Imagen de la Virgen María, Madre de Dios de Guadalupe, 1648, led off a boom in devotion to the Virgin Mary: surge in images, chapels
in 1737 the Virgin of Guadalupe was proclaimed patroness of Mexico City; in 1746 her patronage accepted throughout kingdom of New Spain.
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Roman Catholicism into Nahuatl
(Mexico C16-18) This hagiography has effectively enhanced the
Scriptures for Nahuatl speakers.
Theology: Virgin Mary characterized as:
Tonantzin, “our Lady Mother“ Cenquizca Mahuiz-Ichpochtli “perfect wondrous
maiden” (i.e. Immaculate Virgin full of Grace), as well as Madre de Dios de Guadalupe
“Guadalupe”? interpreted as a divinely-inspired mis-hearing of coatla-xopeuh “serpent crushing”
Role of flowers: Mex. image (nepapan xochitl) into Spanish: Molina’s 1571 dictionary, rosa de castilla = Caxtillan xuchitl
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Roman Catholicism into Nahuatl
(Mexico C16)
Community
Includes Nahua through hypocoristic, endearing style:
"No-chpoch-tzin-é, no-xocoyohu-é, cihuapill-é, ma xi-mo-paquilti-tié, quen otimixtonalti? Cuix ticmohuelmachitia in mo-tlazo-nacayo-tzin, No-tecuiyo-é, No-pil-tzinzin-é?
“My little maiden, my youngest daughter, lady, please to be happy; how are you (lit. how did you blush) this morning? Does your beloved body feel well, my patron, my most noble one? ...”
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Buddhism through Gāndharī & Sanskrit
(C1-3)
5/9/2013
• The Kuṣāṇa Empire, spread from Bactria and Gandhara into India and Tarim Basin, hosted spread of Buddhism.
• Kuṣāṇa < Guishang (Chinese), a tribe of the Yue-zhi (Tokhwar), who controlled Bactria: their lingua franca was evidently not Bactrian, but Gāndharī Prakrit.
• Since 1994, massive discoveries of 77 Buddhist MS written in GP in Kharoṣṭhī alphabet
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Buddhism through Gāndharī & Sanskrit
(C1-3)
5/9/2013
• Since 1994, massive discoveries of 77 Buddhist MS written in GP in Kharoṣṭhī alphabet
• Re-writing the Buddhist scriptures, adding to the Tipiṭaka
• C2 emperor Kaniṣka held an influential synod, (in Kashmir), appointing Sanskrit poet Aśvaghoṣa for vibhāṣā: subsequent sutras in Sanskrit
• Revering the written word – an innovation for India
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Buddhism through Gāndharī & Sanskrit
(C1-3) The Lotus Sutra sings its own
praises as a physical book:
should there be one who receives and upholds, reads and recites, explains and teaches, or copies out The [Lotus] Sutra, be it even a single verse, looking upon the Sutra text with reverence as he would the Buddha himself, making various kinds of offerings of flowers, incense, beads, powdered incense, paste incense, burning incense, silk canopies, banners, clothing and music, or who even join his palms in reverence, O Medicine King, you should know that such a person has in the past already made offerings to tens of myriads of millions of Buddhas, in the presence of those Buddhas, accomplishing great vows…
Saddharmapuṇḍarika Sutra, chapter 105/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Buddhism through Gāndharī & Sanskrit
(C1-3) Languages curiously equivalent:
5/9/2013
English Pali Sanskrit Gandhari
dharma, law dhamma dharmaḥ dhama
the four noble truths cattāri ariya-saccāni catvāri ārya-satyāni catvari ariya-saca aṇ
suffering dukkha du khaḥ ṃ dukha
causation samudaya samudayaḥ samudaya
craving, desire ta hāṇ t āṛṣṇ ta aṣ�
ignorance avijjā avidyā avija
cessation nirodha nirodhaḥ nirosa
eightfold path a hangiko maggoṭṭ a hangika-mārgaṣṭ ḥ a ha giga magoṭ ṃ
arhat, adept arahanta arhan arahadi
nirvana, blowing out nibbāna nirvā aṇ ṃ niva aṇ
impermanence aniccatā anityatā anicada
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Buddhism through Gāndharī & Sanskrit
(C1-3) Languages curiously equivalent,
yet massive changes licensed in new sūtras:
Mahāyāna – “great vehicle” [Chinese mis-hearing of mahājñāna “great knowledge”?] prominence of śūnyatā “emptiness”, Buddha-
nature bodhisattva (Buddhas to be) and compassion upaya-kauśalyā “skilful means” – pragmatism multitude of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and
paradises new personnel to some extent identifable as
Persian, Greek, Indian deities
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Buddhism through Gāndharī & Sanskrit
(C1-3) Tantalizing Buddhist scriptures
difficult to date Sanskrit “originals” usually, only date from first translation into
Chinese usually, earliest Sanskrit MS post-dates this
But: possibility of new sūtras (in whatever lang.)
enabled new creed
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Buddhism through Gāndharī & Sanskrit
(C1-3)
5/9/2013
• Trapuṣa and Bhallika, two Kuṣāṇa merchants, were the Buddha’s first lay disciples (upāsaka).
• Merchants were likely the main bearers of Buddhist preaching around the Kuṣāṇa empire.
• Merchant influence may underlie Buddhist doctrine of accumulating (and transferable) puṇya (merit) to achieve spiritual goals.
• Mahāyāna descriptions of paradise emphasize the sapta-ratna (“7 Treasure”s) -gold, silver, pearls, lapis lazuli, crystal, white coral (or agate), and ruby - major trade goods.
• Gandhari Prakrit would also have been the major language for trade.
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Christianity into Greek & Latin (Roman Empire, C1-4)
Greek defines the community of early Christians Christ and his disciples lived in Aramaic, in the Jewish
heartland of Judaea. Paul found it politic to address religious crowds there tēi hebraïdi dialektōi τηι ἑβραιδι διαλεκτωι
But the faith was early packaged for overseas Jews, and very soon Gentiles (largely speakers of Greek). Eg. Paul’s travels in Anatolia, Greece and Rome.
Χριστιανοι (Kʰristianoi): “the ones dedicated to a Greek acceptance of the fulfilment of a Jewish promise” – Latin (-iani) added to Greek Χριστός Kʰristós, literal translation of the Hebrew יח� ש� .”Aramaic Meshiah) “the anointed one ,(Māšîaḥ) מ�
Luke:”the first to adopt the title (ca 50 AD) were believers in Antioch,” a Greek-speaking city on the edge of Syria.
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Christianity into Greek & Latin (Roman Empire, C1-4)
Effects of Greek on Christian creed Origen: ὁ θεος = The Father; θεος = Jesus παις θεου – son or servant of God? παρθενος – young/unmarried/virginal woman? Origen’s neologisms – θεανθρωπος, θεοτοκος
St John’s characterization of the λογος = SERMO (Tertullian, Cyprian) – conversation? = RATIO (Tertullian) – plan, proportion, measure, scheme? = VERBUM (Jerome) – word?
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Greek and Latin in the R.E.
with division into διοικησεις
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Christianity into Greek & Latin (Roman Empire, C1-4)
Christian Adoption of Latin C2: Scriptures translated informally (Vetus Latina) C3 mid: Church correspondence into Latin 293: Diocletian divides empire into dioceses 313: Constantine’s Edict of Milan: immunity 325: Council of Nicaea: unity of creed C4 (360-82): Church liturgy into Latin C4 (390s): Completion of Jerome’s Vulgate Bible
Theological effects consubstantialis effaces distinction ὁμο-/ὁμοιουσιος ?
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Christianity into Greek & Latin (Roman Empire, C1-4)
Christian Adoption of Latin Political effects on the Community
adoption of Church government in dioceses inter-penetration of civil and clerical governors sentimental adoption of pre-Christian terms
Pontifex Maximus = Bishop of Rome sacerdos = πρεσβυτερος ‘priest, elder’ sacer, sanctus = ἁγιος, ἁγνος
Church assumed ethos of the Roman Empire, replacing ethos of (Greek-speaking) sect Hellēn comes to mean “pagan”, “”unbelieving” (till C18) belief in Donatio Constantini (C8-12): Church successor to R.E.
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post
Effects of language conversions
on the Content of the Great Faiths
In order of Profundity
1. Change of Community A new (language) community becomes central
to the church, promoting other customs, identity.
2. Change of Scriptures is licensed If radical, this may lead to changes in creed.
3. Change of Creed may come about through imperfect translation
Only a minor effect, if at all.
5/9/2013
U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post 5/9/2013
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