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21 July 2016
Writing a great Literature Review
TIPS AND TRICKS FOR WRITING AN OUTSTANDING LITERATURE
REVIEW FOR YOUR MASTERS OF RESEARCH
Dr Jennifer Rowland – Learning Skills Advisor, Dean HDR Office
What are you delivering?
A thesis of approximately 20,000 words• Forward Pages
• Introduction
• Method
• Results
• Discussion
• References
Must be written in English and reach a satisfactory standard of literary presentation
*Variations in requirements may be evident between faculties.
http://www.hdr.mq.edu.au/information_for/current/candidates/thesis_preparation 3
DEPARTMENT SPECIFIC, THESIS
Thesis Format – PhD, MPhil and MRes
http://www.hdr.mq.edu.au/information_for/current_candidates/thesis_preparation#presentation
cvc
v
Double or 1.5
spaced text Double-sided
printing
Medium-weight
paper
High-quality
printing (laser)
BIN
DIN
G E
DG
E
3.5cm margin
on binding
edge 1.5cm
margin
cv
cv 1.5cm
margin
LITERATURE REVIEW
CONCLUSIONS/FUTURE DIRECTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES
ABSTRACT/SUMMARY
AIMS OF STUDY
MATERIALS/METHOD
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
LITERATURE REVIEW
CONCLUSIONS/FUTURE DIRECTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES
TITLE PAGE
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
ABSTRACT/SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AIMS OF STUDY
ABBREVIATIONS
APPENDICES
MATERIALS/METHOD
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
The Literature Review
• Set up a Document Map outlining the sections
• Note the main areas that you want to review
• Structure out what you want to write
• Then begin to enter the main content for each section
• Ensure that you don’t copy and paste material from articles you are reviewing
8
STRUCTURE
WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?
Early 17th century from Latin
Plagiarius 'kidnapper‘
(from plagium 'a kidnapping', from Greek plagion) + -ism.
Oxford Dictionary Online, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/
“The practice of taking someone else’s work or
ideas and passing them off as one’s own.”
Plagiarism
1: Quoting without acknowledging the source
2: Borrowing ideas, concepts, results and
conclusions. Passing them off as your own
without acknowledging.
3: Summarizing and paraphrasing another’s work
without acknowledging source
Dean HDR Office | Learning Skills Team | Research Office12
WHAT DOES IT CONSTITUTE?
Plagiarism
1: Quoting without acknowledging the source
2: Borrowing ideas, concepts, results and
conclusions. Passing them off as your own
without acknowledging
3: Summarizing and paraphrasing another’s work
without acknowledging source
Dean HDR Office | Learning Skills Team | Research Office 13
WHAT DOES IT CONSTITUTE?
REFERENCING
SOURCE
IS KEY
Hofman, 2014
Acknowledging Source
You don’t need to reference common knowledge
Dean HDR Office | Learning Skills Team | Research Office 14
HOW CAN YOU ACHIEVE THIS?
Humpback whales migrate along the coast of Australia each year.
Hofman, 2014
You do need to reference:
- Information that is not generally known
- Ideas that interpret facts
Australian east-coast humpback whale migration has changed with
global warming (10).
Acknowledging Source
Dean HDR Office | Learning Skills Team | Research Office 15
HOW CAN YOU ACHIEVE THIS?
Hofmann, 2014
You do need to reference:
- Information that is not generally known
- Ideas that interpret facts
You do need to cite:
- Information and interpretation of others’ work
While low expression of this receptor is common in stem cells, high
expression has been linked to reduced pluripotency (21).
While low expression of this receptor is common in stem cells, high
expression has been linked to reduced pluripotency (Jones et al., 2014).
Acknowledging Source
16
You do need to reference/cite:
- Information that is not generally known
- Ideas that interpret facts
- Information and interpretation of others’ work
“Know that imitation and borrowing themselves are not plagiarism. Drawing
on other people’s ideas is perfectly reasonable and in fact unavoidable when
you write academic documents- but you must acknowledge the source”
Angelika H. Hofmann
Hofmann, 2014
Quotation
18
QUOTING THE EXACT WORDS OF OTHERS
You do need to quote:
- When you are using the exact words of others
“Know that imitation and borrowing themselves are not plagiarism. Drawing
on other people’s ideas is perfectly reasonable and in fact unavoidable when
you write academic documents- but you must acknowledge the source”
Angelika H. Hofmann
• Limit this to 2-3 lines within a paragraph
• If longer, you need to make a block quote
Hofmann, 2014
Quotation
19
QUOTING THE EXACT WORDS OF OTHERS
This is probably best described by a Harvard group recently as “the best possible chance of
potentiating injury repair in the clinic” (Jones et al., 2015). Nonetheless, several other approaches are
being pursued concurrently, principally focused on viral delivery (Johns et al., 2015).
__________________________________________________________________________________
Many authors have described the potential of ES cells in therapeutic applications, particularly related to
burn treatment. This is probably best summarised by Jones and colleagues (2006), who described this
approach as
“the best possible chance of potentiating injury repair in the clinic. It is currently under
development in our group and has shown promising results. We anticipate conducting
experiments in clinical trials in the near future, as the mouse trials have shown exceptional
outcomes”. Jones et al., 2006
As this work is underway, a number of other groups are turning to viral delivery approaches to
specifically target cell-cycle regulators (Johns et al., 2015)..
Quotation
20
QUOTING THE EXACT WORDS OF OTHERS
This is probably best described by a Harvard group recently as “the best possible chance of
potentiating injury repair in the clinic” (Jones et al., 2015). Nonetheless, several other approaches
are being pursued concurrently, principally focused on viral delivery (Johns et al., 2015).
__________________________________________________________________________________
Many authors have described the potential of ES cells in therapeutic applications, particularly related to
burn treatment. This is probably best summarised by Jones and colleagues (2006), who described this
approach as
“the best possible chance of potentiating injury repair in the clinic. It is currently under
development in our group and has shown promising results. We anticipate conducting
experiments in clinical trials in the near future, as the mouse trials have shown
exceptional outcomes”. (Jones et al., 2006)
As this work is underway, a number of other groups are turning to viral delivery approaches to
specifically target cell-cycle regulators (Johns et al., 2015)..
Paraphrasing
22
REPHRASING IDEAS
Delivering the information in your own flow of ideas
- When you include some information, but not all the details of the original
- Must reference the original
• Write notes in bullet points
• Take notes without source visible
• Write the information you wish to reference in your own voice
• Ensure you reference
DON’T JUST USE SYNONYMS or CHANGE WORDS
Summarising
25
REPHRASING IDEAS
1
Johns et al., reported
that these proteins are
expressed in muscle
cells (1).
Read paper, turn over, summarise the ideas in your text.
Grouping Information
26
REPHRASING IDEAS
This protein has been
reported to be
expressed in several
cell types, including:
muscle (1); skin (2);
immune cells (3-5); and
glia (6).
4
5
6
1
2
3
Summarising
27
SUMMARISING THE MATERIAL
• Reference EVERYTHING
• Quote where required
• Paraphrase
• Summarise
29
#1 General Rule for Academic Writing
K.I.S.S
“Keep it Short and Simple” or “Keep it Simple, Stupid”
CLARITY, READABILITY, and NON-AMBIGUITY
MAKE EVERY WORD COUNT
30
• Never Translate
• Accept total responsibility for being clear
• The worst sin is ambiguity
• Edit carefully
• Trust your ear
• English is not logical
General AdviceFOR NON-NATIVE WRITERS
Process Write
32
EDIT YOUR MATERIAL
After you noted down everything in your own words, then you can process the information.
- improves the style
- reduces plagiarism
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Edit
sentences Edit out
useless
words
Edit passive
to active
voice
Improve
Verb ChoiceAdapt to
formal
language
Strengthen
negatives
Ensure verb/subject
agreement
End Focus
Check tense
Employ Key Words
34
CLARIFICATION
When referring to previously-mentioned items with “this / these / such,” offer more than just the pronoun:
This…
These…
It…
This molecule…
These two methods…
Such a program…→
Ambiguous Specific
becomes
Include Signposting Connectives
35
GUIDING THE READER
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Include Signposting Connectives
36
GUIDING THE READER
Signposts, or connectives, tell readers how to receive new information.
“First … second … third . . . ,” “On the other hand . . . .” “Considering this from another angle . . . .” “Similar to the last point is . . . .”
See Linking Words
Edit Sentences
37
EDIT YOUR MATERIAL
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Edit
sentences
Edit Sentences
38
EDIT YOUR MATERIAL
Avoid short, choppy, sentences. Link some together, embed others.
Consider splitting longer run-on sentences to two separate sentences
→becomes
X costs a lot. You
can’t get it there
often.
Short and choppyX is expensive and is seldom available there.
Because X is expensive, it is seldom available there.
X, being expensive there, is seldom available
(situation) → (result) = end-focus
Elegant (linked and embedded)
Use shorter sentences for strong statements. “Every mouse died”
Remove redundant words
39
Cut out every word that performs no task
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Edit
sentences Edit out
useless
words
Remove redundant words
40
Cut out every word that performs no task
There is/are X.
X exists.
X occurs.
X appears.
X arises.
X emerges
→becomes
All
Active
Voice
Avoid repeating FACTS. Planned repetition of WORDS helps linkage.
Confusion results from synonym-use. Make yourself clear by choosing one term.
o Do not indulge in overuse of a synonym dictionary (thesaurus).
EG: Method / methodology / procedure / system
Convert Passive to Active Voice
41
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Edit
sentences Edit out
useless
words
Edit passive
to active
voice
Convert Passive to Active Voice
42
Avoid ending sentences with passive verbs
To X, Y was added Y was added to X →becomes
In Methods, passives can go in the middle of the sentence
Passive constructions can usually include
“by” someone or something.
Convert Passive to Active Voice
43
Change some passive verbs into adjectives
X could be seen.
X was always used.
All two-year-old children were studied.
X was evident/apparent/visible.
X always proved useful.
All children studied were age two.
(Note end-focus in each)
→becomes
Convert Passive to Active Voice
44
Change the verb itself
Patients were operated on.
Sixty were used as controls.
Each participant was given X.
.
Patients underwent surgery.
Sixty served as controls.
Each participant received X.
(Note end-focus in each)
→becomes
Convert Passive to Active Voice
45
Omit useless passive constructions
It has been found that X causes Y
(Jones, 2001).
We found that Y was produced by X.
.
Jones (2001) found that X causes Y.
X causes Y (Jones, 2001). *
Y results from X. X leads to Y.
X produced Y. Y was a product of X.
→becomes
* K.I.S.S.
Convert Passive to Active Voice
46
Use the inanimate agent
a non-human/non-living thing performing an action.
Table 3 shows . . . .
Figure 5 illustrates . . . .
Our results indicate . . . .
Our hypothesis predicts X.
Opinions among us vary.
Upgrade Verbs
47
USE MORE PRECISE VERBS
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Edit
sentences Edit out
useless
words
Edit passive
to active
voice
Improve
Verb
Choice
Upgrade Verbs
48
USE MORE PRECISE VERBS
Be
See
Have
Get
Exist
Observe
Assess
Measure
Determine
Possess
Assess
Confirm
Characterize
→becomes
For elegance and formality, specify meanings of “get” (“receive?” “become?” “understand?”).
Upgrade most rough-draft common verbs to become more precise verbs
Formalize the language
49
CHANGE FROM COLLOQUIAL
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Edit
sentences Edit out
useless
words
Edit passive
to active
voice
Improve
Verb ChoiceAdapt to
formal
language
Formalize the language
50
CHANGE FROM COLLOQUIAL
if
like
a lot of, lots of, plenty
big
whether (or not)
such as
many, several, large
great
→becomes
Change colloquial phrases to more formal ones
Avoid “so” - It was SO fast = HOW FAST?
Avoid “too” at the end of a sentence -He died, too = He also died.
Strengthen Negatives
51
“NOT” IS A WEAK WORD
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Edit
sentences Edit out
useless
words
Edit passive
to active
voice
Improve
Verb ChoiceAdapt to
formal
language
Strengthen
negatives
Strengthen Negatives
52
“NOT” IS A WEAK WORD
• Substitute negatives
• Substitute negative prefixes
• Change to negative verbs or use negative adjectives
Remove NOT in three ways
Strengthen Negatives
53
“NOT” IS A WEAK WORD
Substitute Negatives
→becomes
Note: Beginning a sentence with a negative is powerful
No
None
Never
Strong
negatives
There was not any X.
Not one patient survived.
They had not seen X before.
Weak
No X existed / appeared.
None of the patients survived.
Never had they seen X before.
Stronger
Strengthen Negatives
54
“NOT” IS A WEAK WORD
Substitute with negative prefixes
→becomes
un-
in-
im-
non-
dis-
Strong
negatives
The cause is not known.
The text was not coherent.
The task was not possible.
Results were not significant.
This drug isn’t made anymore.
Weak
The cause is / remains unknown.
The text was incoherent.
The task was impossible.
Results were non-significant.
This drug has been discontinued.
Stronger
Strengthen Negatives
55
NOT” IS A WEAK WORD
Change to negative verbs or use negative adjectives
→becomes
fail
lack
absent
insufficient
incomplete
Strong negatives
The plan did not work.
The solution didn’t have X.
X was not in the samples.
Controls didn’t have enough X.
The test was not finished.
Weak
The plan failed (to succeed).
The solution lacked X.
In the samples, X was absent.
Controls had insufficient X.
The test was incomplete.
Stronger
Match Verbs with Subjects
56
DO VERBS AGREE WITH THEIR SUBJECT IN NUMBER?
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Edit
sentences Edit out
useless
words
Edit passive
to active
voice
Improve
Verb ChoiceAdapt to
formal
language
Strengthen
negatives
Ensure
verb/subject
agreement
Match Verbs with Subjects
57
DO VERBS AGREE WITH THEIR SUBJECT IN NUMBER?
1. Locate every verb (Good sentences have only one or two.)
2. Scan to the left to find its subject (often located far away).
“The actual trigger for these changes in rules that appear to promote the
latest strategy meetings for these departments is/are surprising.”
SUBJECT AND VERB SHOULD BE NEAR EACH
OTHER TO MINIMISE CONFUSION
End Focus
58
MAKE YOUR TEXT FLOW
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Edit
sentences Edit out
useless
words
Edit passive
to active
voice
Improve
Verb ChoiceAdapt to
formal
language
Strengthen
negatives
Ensure
verb/subject
agreement
End Focus
End Focus
59
MAKE YOUR TEXT FLOW
The beginning of a sentence should present its background information.
The end of a sentence is most important: the fresh, new information.
In any sentence, find the most vital word or two—a key adjective, substantive, or a numerical value of interest. Put a period/full stop after it; it ends the sentence.
Be sure that each sentence ends with words that lead you to the next point, • creates intra-sentence linkage• makes the next sentence almost predictable (=flow).
End Focus
60
MAKE YOUR TEXT FLOW
NEWBACKGROUND NEWBACKGROUND
NEWBACKGROUND NEWBACKGROUND
NEWBACKGROUND
Use this technique to string sentences together.
Eventually they will build paragraphs, which form the basis of your scientific writing
End Focus
61
EXERCISE
A to D’s first and second sentences show end-focus with linkage (each italicized). Choose, from
among sentences 1 to 6, the best-linking third sentence for each:
.
A. Australia has the world’s highest incidence of type 1 diabetes. This disabling disease and its treatment
constitute a drain on the state's finances. (continue)
B. The world’s highest incidence of type 1 diabetes occurs in Australia. Australian diabetes researchers now
discover some of the field’s most interesting new data. (continue)
C. Regarding type 1 diabetes, Australia’s annual incidence is the world’s highest.
Its figure for 2008 was 60/100,000. (continue)
D. Australia has the highest incidence of type 1 diabetes in the world. One nation’s
mean incidence in 2008 was actually below 1/100 000, which means that Australia’s
was 60-fold greater, though no one knows why. (continue)
End Focus
62
EXERCISE
1. One important area of investigation is diabetes-associated nephritis.
2. Is sugar consumption unusually high, or is this rate mainly related to genetics?
3. Australia must continue to battle this key medical problem, despite research costs.
4. The Australian government covers medical care and supports those unable to work.
5. Such an incidence requires funding of the country’s top researchers.
6. Patients' longevity is increasing, but what about their quality of life?
Tense
63
ENSURE TENSE USE IS APPROPRIATE
Rough
Draft
Employ
Key
Words
Include
Signposting
Connectives
Edit
sentences Edit out
useless
words
Edit passive
to active
voice
Improve
Verb ChoiceAdapt to
formal
language
Strengthen
negatives
Ensure
verb/subject
agreement
End Focus
Check tense
Tense
64
ENSURE TENSE USE IS APPROPRIATE
Present tense, active voice: “he finds.” Passive: “it is found” (by X)
Past tense, active: “he found.” Passive: “it was found” (by X)
Present perfect active: “she has found.” Passive: “it has been found” (by X)
Past perfect active: “she had found.” Passive: “it had been found” (by X)
Active and passive are the two types of voice.
Tenses are unrelated to voice; tense indicates time.
Tense
65
ENSURE TENSE USE IS APPROPRIATE
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PERFECT FORMS
• These different forms are used throughout different sections of any thesis or
journal article
• More detail on their usage requires more time to address
Final Structural Concerns
66
REVISITING STRUCTURE
NEWBACKGROUND NEWBACKGROUND
NEWBACKGROUND NEWBACKGROUND
NEWBACKGROUND
Each paragraph should have a main focus, you should clarify this at the start.
Final Structural Concerns
67
REVISITING STRUCTURE
NEWBACKGROUND
NEWBACKGROUND
NEWBACKGROUND NEWBACKGROUND
NEWBACKGROUND
Each paragraph should have a main focus, you should clarify this at the start.
TOPIC SENTENCE
TOPIC SENTENCES at the start of paragraph
• clarify what the paragraph is about
• introduce the topic
Final Structural Concerns
68
REVISITING STRUCTURE
NEWBACKGROUND
NEWBACKGROUND
NEWBACKGROUND NEWBACKGROUND
NEWBACKGROUND
Each paragraph should have a clear outcome, that explains the information discussed.
TOPIC SENTENCE
FINAL SENTENCES at the end of paragraph
• clarify what the paragraph introduced
• summarize the topic
FINAL SENTENCE
Summary
69
TIPS AND TRICKS
• Process
Writing
• Structure of the Thesis • Avoiding Plagiarism• Basic Rules of Writing
• Structuring
Paragraphs
Thanks to Carol Norris at the University of Helsinki for many of these concepts/content, http://www.helsinki.fi/kksc/language.services/AcadWrit.pdf
70
Dr Jennifer RowlandScience, Engineering, and
Medicine Learning Skills Advisor
Dean HDR Office
Email: jen.rowland@mq.edu.au
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