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Brief overview of early
Korean history and
culture
Albert L. Park
Claremont McKenna College
Abstract Although people have inhabited East Asia since Paleolithic
times, it took many millennia for them to develop into distinct countries with unified identities.
Their development was a process marked by both autonomy and shared cultures. Each country has unique origins, culture, and social customs that distinguish it from its neighbors, but there also was extensive exchange of ideas, material goods, and technology.
Additionally, Korea has not just been a transmitter of culture between China and Japan, but has had an active role in the production and exchange of cultures within East Asia and beyond.
Rise of civilization on the
Korean peninsula
Paleolithic period Paleolithic period from ca. 50,000 BP – 8000 BCE
BP: Before present (as of 1950*)
Paleolithic
chipped stone tools
Paleolithic stone scraper
Neolithic culture (ca. 8000
BCE to 1500 BCE)
Shamanism Spirits dwell in mountains, trees, rocks, all natural
objects
Dead spirits are all around us
Spirits can help or harm humans
Shamans are intermediaries between the spiritual
realm and the human realm
Shamans use song and dance to invoke spirits
Early Shamanism Early settlers from the Siberian region brought
Shamanism with them, so there are similarities with
other forms of Siberian-based Shamanism
Early shamans were priests/priestesses, healers, and
diviners
Contemporary shaman ceremony (NY Times)
Neolithic sites in South Korea
Neolithic life Semi-subterranean pit dwellings
Comb-pattern pottery
Lived in groups of fewer than 20 homes
Hunting, fishing, gathering
Neolithic semi-subterranean pit dwellings
Comb-pattern pottery
Mythical origins Dangun Wanggeom (2333 BCE)
Father, Hwanung, was the son of the Lord of Heaven
A bear and tiger asked to be transformed into humans, cave for 100 days, garlic and wormwood
The tiger gave up after 21 days, but the bear became a woman
Hwanung became mortal and had a son, Dangun, with the bear
Scytho-Siberian bronze
culture
ca. 1500 BCE-300 BCE
Agriculture land inheritance
Social stratification
Cist grave with bronze artifacts
(Chopori, S Jeolla)
Northern-style tabletop dolmen (Ganghwa Island)
Sinitic iron culture ca. 300 BCE-300 CE
Continued use of bronze goods in burials
Greater stratification of society
Wood-chamber tomb containing iron and ceramic grave goods
(Tokcheon-ni, N Gyeongsang)
Agriculture From hunting/fishing/gathering to farming
Lineages arose as people settled into farming and land
became inheritable
Millet preceded rice agriculture
Agriculture as example of cultural and commercial
contacts in East Asia
Three Kingdoms period ca. 50 BCE to 668 CE
Goguryeo (37 BCE-668 CE)
Baekje (18 BCE-663 CE)
Gaya (47-562, confederated kingdom)
Silla (57 BCE–936 CE)
Goguryeo (37 BCE-668 CE) Largest land area of 3 kingdoms
Northernmost of 3 kingdoms
Bordered “barbarians” to north
In shifting alliances with Silla and Baekje
Baekje (18 BCE-663 CE) Southwestern region of peninsula
Closest ties with Japanese archipelago
Some migrated (willingly or otherwise) to Japan
Gaya (47-562) Confederated kingdom of 6 different states
Defeated in unification wars
Silla (57 BCE–936 CE) Longest lasting of 3 kingdoms
Defeated neighbors with help of Tang China and then ousted Tang China
History seen from Silla viewpoint because they were the victors
Bone Rank System
Hwabaek Council of Nobles
Hwarang (“flower youths”)
Queen Seondeok (r. 632-647)
Bone Rank System Hallowed Bones (also called Holy Bones) were eligible
for the throne but died out because of rigidity of system
True Bones became the highest rank after the Hallowed Bones died out
Head Ranks 6-1
Child took lower-ranking parent’s status regardless of gender
Strict sumptuary laws
Hwabaek Council of Nobles Balanced the power of the throne by representing the
aristocrats’ interests
They alone could declare war, approve adoption of
Buddhism as the official state religion
Hwarang (“flower youths”) Aristocratic youths who studied, trained, and socialized
together
Queen Seondeok (r. 632-647) Succeeded her father (last of male Hallowed Bones) to
the throne
Said to have been instrumental in laying foundation for
the unification of Silla
Silla flourished culturally and technologically under her
reign
Followed by cousin Queen Jindeok (r. 647-654)
Silla crown of 24K gold
Cheomseongdae observatory in former Silla capital
Three Kingdoms,
China, and Japan 6th and 7th grade standards (CA)
Silk Road
Buddhism
Confucianism
Syrian glass from Silla
period
Spread of culture and trade Aristocratic culture: classical Chinese was the common
written language in East Asia
Buddhism was not just transmitted through Korea; Korean monks were very active in producing and disseminating scholarship throughout Asia
Material culture and technology: metallurgy, silk production, textile manufacture, paper-making, Buddhism
Commercial trade: Chinese and Korean luxury goods, Japanese silver, copper, timber, steel swords
Unified Silla (668-936) Maritime trade: rise of powerful traders (wealth,
private army)
Later Three Kingdoms Later Goguryeo, founded in 901 by Kim Gungye (“the
ugly”)
Later Baekje, founded in 892 by Yi Gyeonhwon (“the
bad”)
Wang Geon took over Later Goguryeo in 918 (“the
good”)
Goryeo (918-1392) Wang Geon (King Taejo, r. 918-943)
Dynastic founder relied on support of local warlords
with private armies
Sought to cement relations with supporters, former Silla
royal family through marriage alliances (29 wives total)
Buddhism and Confucianism 7th grade standards
Civil service examinations (est. 968) on Chinese model
Role of Buddhism in lives of aristocrats and commoners
Comparisons to Catholic Church in medieval Europe
Aristocrats sent sons into the clergy
Aristocrats donated land, goods, slaves to temples which had
tax-exempt status
Goryeo Tripitaka (1087, 1251) as example of woodblock
printing (entirety of East Asian Buddhist canon at that time)
Goryeo Tripitaka, original woodblocks carved in 11th centurydestroyed by Mongols and re-carved in 13th century
set composed of 81,258 blocks
Military rule (1170-1270) and
feudalism 7th grade standards
1170 Military Coup: military officials revolted against civil officials’ abuses
Military monopoly over government
Military controlled the throne but did not usurp it for themselves
Military officials used power to gain more land and wealth
Rise of private armies
New power based not on lineage but on military power
Choe House rule (1196-1273) Choe Chungheon (1149-1219)
Brother Choe Chungsu
Son Choe U (aka Choe I)
Civil officials not completely abolished
Preserved royal house, did not marry with royal family
Elevated some household retainers and slaves
Feudal period ended after Mongol Invasions
Peasant rebellions
and slave revolts Peasant rebellions (1172-1217)
Uprisings in countryside as well as capital
Large-scale efforts to restructure social order, seize
political power
Economic causes
Political discontent
Breakdown in local government
Slave revolts (1196-1232)
Perceived unfair elevation of some slaves’ status
About mistreatment rather than immorality of slavery
Mongol rule (1270-1368) Complex hierarchies within tribute system
Goryeo king performed certain rites as Son of Heaven
(or Son of Heaven of East of the Sea)
Mongol invasions Genghis Khan (ca. 1162-1227) and grandson
Khubilai Khan (1215-1294)
First invasion in 1231 (6 in 30-year period)
Choe family moved capital to Ganghwa Island in 1232 till 1258
Peasants, lowborn, slaves fought back without military leaders
Mongols burned fields, decimated food supplies, slaughtered many
200,000 captives from 1254 invasion
Cultural treasures such as Tripitaka lost
King sued for peace with Mongols in 1270 and returned capital to Gaeseong
The Mongol empire Significant contributions to both European and Asian
cultures
Described by Marco Polo (1254-1324), who was in China 1275-1291
Advances in medicine, astronomy, science, engineering
Summer palace at Shangdu (Xanadu)
Roads, postal stations
Promotion of trade
Trade ship
Goryeo and the Mongol
empire Goryeo became “son-in-law” kingdom
Goryeo elites sought ties with Mongols
Many foreigners in Goryeo from queen dowager/crown
princess down
Goryeo kings made visits to Mongol court
Goryeo participated in 1274 and 1281 expeditions
against Japan
Heavy tribute demands by Mongols
Cosmopolitanism Mongol capital of Daidu (today’s Beijing) was center of
culture
Many Goryeo elites went to Daidu
Goryeo women who were consorts of elite Mongols
also spread Koryo culture in Daidu
Queen Noguk was King Gongmin’s Mongol wife
Empress Gi was a Goryeo woman who became
Mongol empress
Joseon (1392-1910) Yi Seonggye (King Taejo, r. 1392-1398) established
Choson
Gave Dynastic Foundation Merit Subject titles to loyal
supporters
King Sejong the Great
(r. 1418-1450)
Appointed top scholars to the Hall of Worthies
Phonetic Korean script (invented1443, promulgated
1446)
Print culture including moveable metal print (invented
1234, predating the Gutenberg Bible of 1454)
Histories, gazettes, geographies compiled
Development of astronomy, geography, technology
Yi Sunsin (1545-1598) Imjin Wars (Hideyoshi Invasions) led by Hideyoshi,
between 1592-1598 in their attempt to conquer Ming
China
Admiral Yi Sunsin is credited with leading turtle boats to
defend Joseon
Yi died in battle
Social status in Joseon Scholar-officials (yangban): civil officials higher than
military officials
Secondary status groups Technical officials, local functionaries, descendants of
illegitimate sons by concubines
Peasants/commoners Farmers valued for their hard work
Artisans
Merchants
Lowborn (outcasts, entertainers, despised
occupations)
Slaves
Neo-Confucianism
and women’s lives Women originally lived with their natal families after
marriage and had equal inheritance rights
With Confucianization of Joseon, women moved out of
their natal homes
Wedding ceremonies, contrary to Confucian ritual,
continued to take place at the bride’s home
As women moved out of their natal homes, their
inheritance was reduced to one-third of their brother’s,
and their responsibilities also reduced (from 3 years of
mourning to 1)
Sin Saimdang (1504-1551) 2nd of 5 daughters of prominent family
Madame Sin was a noted artist
Madame Sin’s mother left a will dividing up property
almost equally among 5 daughters, listing all her
property including slaves
Madame Sin’s third son (Yulgok Yi I) was named the
ritual heir
Sin
Saimdang,
mother of
Yulgok Yi I
Confucianization Lineage (and the patriline) became more important
from Joseon
Women’s roles were more dependent on their status as
mothers of sons
With the establishment of the Manchu Qing dynasty in
China (1644-1911), Joseon elites saw themselves as
the “last bastion of civilization” and further promote
Neo-Confucianism
Peace to the 19th century Relative peace and stability
Factionalism at court followed by policy of impartiality in
18th century
Rule by in-law families during reigns of young kings
Premodern Korea Korea has distinct origins
Korea developed autonomously but with significant
exchanges with its neighbors
Korea was not just the passive recipient/transmitter of
culture
Korea produced, contributed, and exchanged culture
with its neighbors and beyond
Korea has an important role in the historical
development of East Asia
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