Difference vs. Disorder: Language Development in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Populations

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Financial —

Ellen Kester is the founder and owner of Bilinguistics. Ellen Kester and Scott Prathreceive salaries from Bilinguistics. Bilinguistics receives royalties from product sales.

Nonfinancial — None

• Bilingualism and Language • Typical Language Development in Bilinguals▫ Form Syntax Morphology

▫ Content• Application to All Languages• Case Studies

Outline

Demographic Example: Texas Public Schools

48%

34%

14%4%

How do we qualify and work with a bilingual population when:

▫ The tests we use are not normed on this population.

▫ My gut feeling doesn’t match the test results.▫ I don’t know what goals are appropriate.

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Difference vs. Disorder

NORMAL ERRORS

SECOND-LANGUAGE INFLUENCE

ATYPICAL ERRORS

S Se Se SE Es Es E

Spanish

Engl

ishED BE

BS

SD

ED = English DominantBE = Bilingual EnglishBS = Bilingual SpanishSD = Spanish Dominant

Spanish

Engl

ishED BE

BS

SD

ED = English DominantBE = Bilingual EnglishBS = Bilingual SpanishSD = Spanish Dominant

Low Spanish

Proficiency

Spanish

Engl

ishED BE

BS

SD

ED = English DominantBE = Bilingual EnglishBS = Bilingual SpanishSD = Spanish Dominant

High English

Proficiency

Low English

Proficiency

Spanish

Engl

ishED BE

BS

SD

ED = English DominantBE = Bilingual EnglishBS = Bilingual SpanishSD = Spanish Dominant

Spanish

Engl

ishED BE

BS

SD

ED = English DominantBE = Bilingual EnglishBS = Bilingual SpanishSD = Spanish Dominant

Low English

Proficiency

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Conceptual

L1 Lexical L2 Lexical

(Kroll, Michael, Tokowicz, & Dufour, 2002; Kroll, van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010)

Conceptual

L1 Lexical L2 Lexical

(Kroll, Michael, Tokowicz, & Dufour, 2002; Kroll, van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010)

Conceptual

L1 Lexical L2 Lexical

(Kroll, Michael, Tokowicz, & Dufour, 2002; Kroll, van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010)

Conceptual

L1 Lexical L2 Lexical

(Kroll, Michael, Tokowicz, & Dufour, 2002; Kroll, van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010)

• Children tend to shift - L1 to L2▫ 8-10 year-olds were faster in English

but more accurate in Spanish.▫ 11-13-year-olds showed no clear

advantage in either language.▫ By 14-16 years of age children were

more accurate and faster in English.

• Consider:▫ Transitional programs▫ Dual language programs

Language Activity

Children code switch between languages because they don’t know

either language well.

FACTor

MYTH

Language Activity

Raising children with two languages will confuse them.

FACTor

MYTH

Language Activity

Parents should not use more than one language with their child.

FACTor

MYTH

Language Activity

Children with language impairment should not learn more than one

language at a time.

FACTor

MYTH

Differences Similarities

+ = Positive transfer

+ = Negative transfer

• 0-1 month – crying and vegetative sounds• 2-3 months – eye gaze• 6-9 months – joint attention• 9-12 months – using gestures• 12-15 months – following simple commands• 18 months – symbolic play, pretend play• 24 months – sequencing of activities• 36 months – episodic play

• Based on the Competition Model as applied to bilingual development (MacWhinney & Bates, 1989)

▫ Forward Transfer (L1 to L2) expected for ELLs

• The effects of Spanish on English can result in errors in:▫ Verb errors (especially unmarked present for past

tense)▫ Content word errors (more than general words)▫ Prepositions▫ Pronouns▫ Word order

05

101520253035

PK K 1st 2nd 3rd

Num

ber o

f Err

ors

Mean Errors Per Grade Spanish

SpnMorph

SpnSemantic

SpnSyntactic

SpnTotal

05

101520253035

PK K 1st 2nd 3rdNu

mbe

r of E

rror

s

Mean Errors Per Grade English

EngMorph

EngSemantic

EngSyntactic

EngTotal

Cross-linguistic Errors in Children with Typical Development

05

101520253035

PK K 1st 2nd 3rd

Num

ber o

f Err

ors

Mean Errors Per Grade Spanish

SpnMorph

SpnSemantic

SpnSyntactic

SpnTotal

05

101520253035

PK K 1st 2nd 3rdNu

mbe

r of E

rror

s

Mean Errors Per Grade English

EngMorph

EngSemantic

EngSyntactic

EngTotal

Cross-linguistic Errors in Children with Typical Development

Morphological Errors Spanish

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Plurals

Adj/Adv

Negati

onOthe

r

Verb:P

ast/P

resen

t

Verb:P

resen

t/Pas

tVerb

:Reg

/Irreg

Verb:U

nmark

edPres

/Past

Verb:P

erson

Verb:O

ther

Gende

r

PKK123

Morphological Errors English

012345678

Plurals

Adj/Adv

Negati

on

Other

Verb:Pas

t/Pres

ent

Verb:Pres

ent/P

ast

Verb:R

eg/Irr

eg

Verb:U

nmark

edPres

/Past

Verb:Pers

onVerb

:Othe

r

PKK1st2nd3rd

Bilingualism and Language: Form

Morphological Errors Spanish

012345678

Plurals

Adj/Adv

Negati

onOthe

r

Verb:P

ast/P

resen

t

Verb:P

resen

t/Pas

tVerb

:Reg

/Irreg

Verb:U

nmark

edPres

/Past

Verb:P

erson

Verb:O

ther

Gende

r

PKK123

Morphological Errors English

012345678

Plurals

Adj/Adv

Negati

on

Other

Verb:Pas

t/Pres

ent

Verb:Pres

ent/P

ast

Verb:R

eg/Irr

eg

Verb:U

nmark

edPres

/Past

Verb:Pers

onVerb

:Othe

r

PKK1st2nd3rd

Bilingualism and Language: Form

Morphological Errors Spanish

012345678

Plurals

Adj/Adv

Negati

onOthe

r

Verb:P

ast/P

resen

t

Verb:P

resen

t/Pas

tVerb

:Reg

/Irreg

Verb:U

nmark

edPres

/Past

Verb:P

erson

Verb:O

ther

Gende

r

PKK123

Morphological Errors English

012345678

Plurals

Adj/Adv

Negati

on

Other

Verb:Pas

t/Pres

ent

Verb:Pres

ent/P

ast

Verb:R

eg/Irr

eg

Verb:U

nmark

edPres

/Past

Verb:Pers

onVerb

:Othe

r

PKK1st2nd3rd

Bilingualism and Language: Form

Morphological Errors Spanish

012345678

Plurals

Adj/Adv

Negati

onOthe

r

Verb:Pas

t/Pres

ent

Verb:Pres

ent/P

ast

Verb:R

eg/Irr

eg

Verb:U

nmark

edPres

/Past

Verb:Pers

onVerb

:Othe

rGen

der

PKK123

Morphological Errors English

012345678

Plurals

Adj/Adv

Negati

on

Other

Verb:Pas

t/Pres

ent

Verb:Pres

ent/P

ast

Verb:R

eg/Irr

eg

Verb:U

nmark

edPres

/Past

Verb:Pers

onVerb

:Othe

r

PKK1st2nd3rd

Bilingualism and Language: Form

012345678

Syntax Errors English

PK

K

1st

2nd

3rd

012345678

Syntax Errors Spanish

PK

K

1st

2nd

3rd

Bilingualism and Language: Form

Verb Differences - Form

English (2 verb person forms) Spanish (5-6 verb person forms)

• I eat• You eat • He eats • We eat • Y’all eat• They eat

• Yo como • Tú comes• Él/Ella/Ud. come • Nosotros comemos • Vosotros coméis• Ellos comen

Most frequent Spanish-influenced English (SIE) verb error:Unmarked present tense for past tense

Pronouns - Form

• Spanish is called a Pro-Drop language because subjects/pronouns are usually dropped once the subject has been established.

• In English, pronouns are required.

Spanish English

Maria fue a la tienda.  (Ella) Compró pan.

Maria went to the store.  Shebought bread.

Multi-Purpose Verbs

Spanish phrases with multi‐purpose verbs

English Equivalents Spanish‐Influenced English

Tomar una decisión To make a decision Did you take a decision?*

Poner una cita To make an appointment Do you want to put an appointment?*

Tener hambre To be hungry Do you have hunger?*

Tener 4 años To be 4‐years old I have 4 years.*

•Verbs such as “do,” “make,” “put,” and “take” generally have one primary meaning and other less frequent uses.  • Subject to transfer of meaning from L1.  

Word Order - Form

English Spanish

• Strict Word Order• SVO▫ John threw the ball.

• Flexible• SVO, OSV, VOS▫ Juan tiró la pelota.▫ La pelota Juan tiró.▫ Tiró la pelota Juan.

Semantic Errors English

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Meanin

gXStor

y

Articles

Prepos

itions

Pronou

nsPron

ounN

oRefe

rent

Genera

l Word

Use

Word U

se

PKK1st2nd3rd

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Semantic Errors Spanish

PK

K

1st

2nd

3rd

Bilingualism and Language: Content

Semantic Errors English

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Meanin

gXStor

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Articles

Prepos

itions

Pronou

nsPron

ounN

oRefe

rent

Genera

l Word

Use

Word U

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PKK1st2nd3rd

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Semantic Errors Spanish

PK

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1st

2nd

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Bilingualism and Language: Content

Prepositions

Semantic Errors English

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Meanin

gXStor

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Articles

Prepos

itions

Pronou

nsPron

ounN

oRefe

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Genera

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Use

Word U

se

PKK1st2nd3rd

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Semantic Errors Spanish

PK

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1st

2nd

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Bilingualism and Language: Content

Pronoun Dropping

Semantic Errors English

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Meanin

gXStor

y

Articles

Prepos

itions

Pronou

nsPron

ounN

oRefe

rent

Genera

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Use

Word U

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PKK1st2nd3rd

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Semantic Errors Spanish

PK

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1st

2nd

3rd

Bilingualism and Language: Content

Word Use

English

• Satellite-framed▫ verb + preposition▫ e.g., To look for,▫ To get on

• Typically 1:1 correspondence of meaning▫ In▫ On ▫ Around

Spanish

• Verb-framed▫ Directional information in

the verb▫ e.g. Buscar (to look for)▫ Subir (to get/go up on)

• Not 1:1 correspondence of meaning▫ En = on, in▫ Por = for, by

Preposition Differences - Content

Frequent Spanish-influenced English (SIE) error:Preposition error or omission

Prepositions - ContentSpanish Prepositions English Equivalent Spanish‐influenced Eng

en “in” and “on” Put the food in the plate.*, Put the soup on the bowl.*

Pensar en  OR  Pensar de To think about or think of I think on him every day.*

Enojarse con/de Get mad at Get mad with/of*

Decidir de To decide on Decide ofwhat you want?*

Casarse con To marry or be married to Is he married with her?*

Enamorarse de To be in love with Is he in love of her?*

Consistir en To consist of What does your plan consist in?*

Buscar To look for I look my toy.*

Subir To go up, to get on I go the stairs.*

Click here to download this chart as a pdf.

Pronoun Differences• English▫ Pronouns are required▫ Once subject is

established a pronoun is used

▫ Related to the simple verb system

• Spanish▫ Pro-drop language▫ Once subject is

established, pronoun is dropped

▫ Related to the complex verb system

Frequent Spanish-influenced English (SIE) error:Pronoun without a reference

Content Errors• Spanish-influenced English may include use of

words close in meaning to the target ▫ “moose” for “deer”▫ “turtle” for “frog”▫ “rat” for “chipmunk”▫ “cone house of the bees” for “beehive”

• Typically do not use general, non-specific vocabulary (“this,” “thing”)

Frequent SIE error:Incorrect but related vocabulary

• Bilingual children develop early vocabulary at the same rate as monolingual children (Pearson, 1993).

• Early language milestones are similar (single words, lexical spurt, 2-word phrases) (Pearson and

Fernandez, 2001).• Conceptual scores are similar (Pearson, 1998).• Language exposure drives vocabulary

production (Pearson, Fernandez, Lewedeg, and Oller, 1997)

• For bilingual toddlers 30% of vocabulary are translation equivalents1

• Young school-age bilinguals produce same # of category items in Spanish and English BUT 70% are unique to one language2

• Task performance varies by language3

• 1 Pearson, Fernandez & Oller, 1995• 2 Peña, Bedore & Zlatic, 2002• 3 Peña, Bedore, & Rappazzo, 2003

Cumulative not ComparativeLanguage and Content of Intervention Select based on what is appropriate in each language and 

what is appropriate for child’s and family’s situation. For example:

Spanish•Gender•Verbs•Article+nouns•Food •Clothing•Household items

Both•People•Functions•Categorization•Part-Whole

English•Pronouns•Prepositions•Nouns•Colors•Numbers•Shapes

Peña & Kester, 2004

Code-switching

• A natural dynamic phenomenon that serves specific purposes in specific contexts.

• Used for a variety of functions▫ Emphasis▫ To gain a listener’s attention▫ To change speaking roles

• Draws on the resources of both codes at once• Rule-based• Indicative of socio-linguistic competency

00.5

11.5

22.5

PK K 1 2 3Aver

age

Occ

urre

nces

per

sa

mpl

e

Spanish Code-Switching/Borrowing

CS Word

CS Phrase

CS Sentence

CS Total

CS Borrow

Measures of Productivity & ComplexityOften used as measures of proficiencyLook very similar in English and Spanish

Mean Length of Utterances Spanish

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

PK K 1st 2nd 3rd

MLU MLU Words

MLU Morphemes

Mean Lenth of Utterances English

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

PK K 1st 2nd 3rd

MLU MLU Words

MLU Morphemes

Productivity Measures Spanish

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

PK K 1st 2nd 3rd

NDWTNW

Productivity Measures English

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

PK K 1st 2nd 3rd

NDWTNW

NDW: Number of Different Words

TNW: Number of Total Words

Spanish-Influenced EnglishLinguistic Element Spanish Syntax English Syntax Examples of SIE

Sentences Flexible Word Order Ridged Word Order “Juan me hit.” 

Modifiers Noun + Adjective Adjective + Noun The river big.

Questions No auxiliary Auxiliary “Where you went?” 

Pronouns Pronoun dropping Maintenance of pronouns

“Is hot today.” 

Negation Double Single “I no want nothing” 

Plurals Nouns & Adjectives marked 

Only nouns marked “The bigs trees”

Prepositions (syntax)

Verb‐framed Satellite‐framed To climb (on*) the bus.

Multi‐purpose verbs (semantics)

Often no Direct Translation

Often no Direct Translation

I put an appointment.

Verb system Complex (3rd

person unmarked, 5‐6 person forms/verb)

Simple (3rd person marked, 2 person forms/verb)

He look for the frog

Intervening with other languages of the world

Vietnamese

Romanian

HindiUrdu

Arabic

Other Common Languages

• “difference between ___________ and English Language”

Portuguese vs. English

• Grammar - Verb/Tense: Portuguese leads to such errors as…▫ Tense choice is a significant problem for…

• Grammar - Other: Portuguese word order is…• Vocabulary: Because of shared Latin roots…

Russian vs. English

• Grammar - Verb/Tense: Russian and English convey meaning through…

• learners often omit the auxiliary in questions or negatives: How you do that?▫ Tense choice is a significant problem for Russians

learning English…• Grammar - Other: Russian has no articles…

Language Outcomes

• Qualifies• DNQ

• DNQ• DNQ

Typical in both

languages

Typical in English,

not Spanish

Below normal

Limits in both

languages

Typical in Spanish,

not English

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Difference or Disorder? Understanding Speech and Language Patterns in Culturally and Linguistically 

Diverse Students

Rapidly identify speech‐language patterns related to second language acquisition to distinguish difference from disorder.

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