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Chapter Four
Launching a Nation
The New Nation Ad interim gov’t set up in March 1836
David G. Burnet elected President Lorenzo de Zavala elected Vice-President
Constitution of 1836 Gov’t could solicit loans Issue promissory notes Negotiate treaties Develop a military (army/navy)
Challenges Finances Indians Infrastructure Constant fear of Mexican Invasion
Establishing a permanent government General election to establish permanent gov’t originally planned for
December, but Burnet approved elections in September 1836
The New Nation, 1836-1848
David G. Burnet Lorenzo de Zavala
Election of 1836 Sam Houston won the Presidency easily due to his popularity
after San Jacinto Won over Henry Smith and Stephen F. Austin
Mirabeau B. Lamar chosen as Vice-PresidentConstitution of 1836
Texans easily approved the constitution Mandate for annexation to the United States Marked the endorsement of U.S. institutions to be transplanted
to Texas Republicanism was a primary example Presidential Elections
Served three-year terms, except the first president (limited to two years)
Presidents could serve alternate terms, but could not succeed themselves
Establishing Permanent Government
Supporting Concepts Adherence to Anglo-American lifeways
English the primary language of Texas Religious toleration
Catholics were the exception Free enterprise
Economic competition without gov’t interference
Republican Government Sovereignty was based upon the masses
Taken wholesale from the United States Checks and balances
Three branches of gov’t Regularly scheduled elections
Sam Houston’s administration greatly supported these ideals Houston was a U.S. congressman and Gov. of Tennessee Lamar served in the Georgia legislature
Republicanism in Texas
Houston’s administrationMixture of political allies and opponents
Wanted to create national harmony by integrating prewar factionsDetermined to have his political enemies as close as possible
Diplomatic RecognitionOne of Houston’s immediate concerns
Needed financial aid from other countries Recognition equals credibility; wanted to be seen as a legitimate
nation separate of MexicoUnited States recognition
Annexation was the goal, but U.S. President Jackson feared northern opposition Abolitionists in the U.S. saw annexation of Texas as part of a slave power
conspiracy in the South Did not act on annexation during his presidency
1837, the U.S. becomes the first country to recognize the Republic of Texas
Sam Houston’s First Term
Sam Houston Mirabeau B. Lamar
Financial Difficulties$1.25 million debt from the war and provisional
gov’tGov’t could not pay public officials, military, or
its war debtGov’t attempted to impose taxes
Little revenue due to Texans facing economic difficulties and little cash
Congress authorized printing of promissory notesDepreciation weakened the currency
Sam Houston’s First Term
Budget CutsHouston targets defense spending for
reductionOnly kept 600 volunteer soldiers on active dutyOffered to pay others to return to the U.S. or gave
them 1,280 acres if they wished to stay in TexasIndian Campaigns
Avoided conflict whenever possible
Public DebtAt the end of Houston’s term, the debt was
close to $2 million
Sam Houston’s First Term
Legal BoundariesFirst Congress fixed the Republic’s boundary at
the Rio GrandeFrom its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico to its source
in the RockiesThen, northward to the 42nd parallel
Mexican municipios became county unitsDistrict Courts formed
Sam Houston’s First Term
Immigration and Land PolicyLegislation passed to encourage immigration
To raise revenueLand policy
Rewarded veteransAlso attempted to populate the entire region of the
RepublicHeads of families received 640 acres; single men
received 320 acresTexas officials wanted people to purchase public land to
help pay the debtHowever, few people could afford to buy real estate
Overall, the Texas gov’t apportioned roughly 37 million acres (1836-1841)
Sam Houston’s First Term
Military and DefenseCongress allocated funds for a small navy and local militias
Citizen soldiers replaced the volunteer army
The Texas RangersCreated in May 1837 by CongressMost of the founding Rangers were citizen soldiers from
local militiasVolunteered to complete a specific missionReturned to civilian life afterwards
Duplicated the “strike and pursue” tactics of the Tejano militiasProtected the frontier from Indian attacks on settlers
The Texas Rangers were considered a unique Texas invention
Sam Houston’s First Term
Texas Political Factions Political parties did not exist, but pro- or anti-Houston factions did
Lamar was aligned with the anti-Houston faction
Lamar’s Complaints Cherokee treaty
Denounced Houston for failing to eliminate Indian dangers on the western frontier; did not endorse the neutrality treaty
Foreign relations Houston had not gotten Mexico to acknowledge Texas’ independence Lamar did not want U.S. annexation
Envisioned Texas a great republican power some day Financial Issues
Blamed the budget deficit on Houston’s financial ineptness
Election of 1838 Lamar easily won as Houston’s faction did not have a suitable
candidate David G. Burnet was elected as Vice-President
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
Mirabeau B. Lamar David G. Burnet
Public DebtLamar campaigned that he would alleviate the
debt by securing a $5 million loanHe never secured it
He issued $3 million of noninterest-bearing promissory notesAlso issued legal tender known as Texas RedbacksNo reserves in the treasury; only public honor and
public land to back the currencyTexas money cheapened as a result
By 1841, one dollar of the Republic’s paper money was worth 12 to 15 cents in U.S. currency
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
3 Dollar Bill, 1838
5 Dollar Redback, 1839 (Front)
50 Dollar Redback, 1839 (Back)
Liberal Fiscal Policy Lamar spent extravagantly Money sources
Business licenses Limited available credit Taxes on slaves $457,380 loan from a bank in Philadelphia (1839)
Military budget Built up the navy Increased staffs of frontier garrisons Launched a costly campaign against the Indians
Campaigned against the Cherokees; Houston’s friend Chief Bowles killed Cost the Republic $2.5 million
Moved the Texas capitol Transferred the capitol from Houston to Austin (on the Colorado River) Another way to lash out against Sam Houston’s influence Founded the Texas State Library
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
Liberal Fiscal PolicyDebate over Lamar’s policy
Was it visionary or foolish?Some historians see it as a well-thought out plan to ensure
Texas’ survival until the U.S. annexed it in the mid-1840s
Foreign Relations with MexicoSent 3 separate agents to Mexico to enact a peace
settlementThey all failed
Lamar argued that the Rio Grande River was the western boundary of TexasHe attempted to buy the region between the Nueces River
and the Rio Grande (Lamar attempted to be diplomatic)Friction over this led to the Santa Fe Expedition
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
Santa Fe Expedition Lamar assumed that New Mexico would rather be Texans than
Mexican citizens Decided to send an expedition to Santa Fe to spread their influence and
goodwill Congress refused to fund the expedition in 1839 and 1840 Lamar took $89,000 from the Texas Treasury and send their
expedition on presidential orders 320 armed soldiers marched over 1,000 miles under the command of Hugh
McLeod Left in June 1841, finally got there in October 1841
As soon as the Texans arrived in Santa Fe, Mexican soldiers intercepted them and forced them to march to Mexico City
Many Texans died during the march Congress was furious when they found out
The legislature censured Lamar and almost impeached him However, his three year term was coming to a close and they did not want to
cause further friction
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
Recognition in EuropeLamar sent agents to Europe to petition for diplomatic
recognition and loansLamar was really trying to get the $5 million loan he promised
EnglandStrong abolitionist sentiment in England; wanted to keep Texas at
arm’s lengthAlso wanted to maintain cordial relations with MexicoConsented to only a trade agreement in 1838
FranceWanted to acquire new friend in North AmericaAlso liked the prospect of Texas independence from the U.S.France sent Count Alphonse de Saligny to inspect Texas
Favorable reviewFrance became the first European nation to recognize the
Republic in September 1839
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
Recognition in EuropeNetherlands
Acknowledge Texas’ independence in September 1840
England’s recognitionFinally recognized diplomatic relations in
November 1840Lamar’s $5 million loan
Though agents in Europe successful obtained trade agreements and international recognition, they were not able to secure Lamar’s loan
Economic issues in Europe prompted financial restraint
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
“The Father of Texas Education”Lamar’s view: “Cultivated mind is the guardian
genius of democracy and while guided and controlled by virtue, the noblest attribute of man. It is the only dictator that freemen acknowledge and the only security that freemen desire.
County Education AllocationsSet aside 4 leagues (17,714 acres) of land in each
county for primary schoolsHigher Education
50 leagues of land was allocated for the support of two universitiesLater became Texas A&M and the University of Texas
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
Education in the RepublicThough Lamar made progressive reform to improve
education, it largely remained rudimentaryUnpredictable weather, bad infrastructure, familial
duties, and Indian raids impeded the routine of learningEducational reforms such as those championed by
Horace Mann in the U.S. did not make it to TexasPublic education funded by tax payersNon-sectarian educational facilitiesWell-educated teachers
Most elite families sent their children to the U.S.Little literature was produced by citizens in the
Republic
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
Folk Literature in the RepublicColorful tall tales and exaggerated humorLargely based in the oral tradition of common people
Similar to preservation goals of oral historians todayDavy Crockett and Sam Houston were popular subjects
Houston’s constant drinking and affinity for whiskeyCrockett’s infamous violin serenade at the AlamoThese were individuals that the common man could identify
with
Newspapers in the RepublicThe Telegraph and Texas Register were fairly successful
publicansAustin started two newspapers that covered political
issues and frontier affairs
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
The Homestead ActPassed in 1839Protected citizens from seizure of their homes, land,
tools, and work animals for any debts they hadSimilar to laws in Hispanic culture
The Texas Empresario SystemInstituted in 1840-1841Modeled on the Mexican colonization program
Based on the Constitution of 1824Issued contracts to immigration agents
Entrusted with the duty of settling colonists in specific areas
President Mirabeau B. Lamar
Houston’s comebackHouston’s faction charged Lamar with fiscal
ineptness alsoLamar racked up $7 million in debt by 1841Houston saw the relocation of the capitol to Austin
as financially irresponsible (and the location was vulnerable to Indian attack)
Houston easily defeated Burnet (the Lamar candidate)
Houston’s second term: December 1841 to December 1844
Sam Houston’s Second Term
Sam Houston Edward Burleson
Bureaucratic RetrenchmentCongress terminated dozens of officesLowered salaries of public officialsReduced military forces
Only a few companies of Texas Rangers were left
Houston’s Fiscal PolicyOverturned fiscal policies passed by LamarOnly $200,000 of legal tender was printedHouston spent less than $600,000 in his second
term
Sam Houston’s Second Term
Occupation of San AntonioAfter Lamar’s blunder in Santa Fe, Santa Anna
orders the army to cross the Rio Grande and into San AntonioHe wanted to spread his influence and goodwill
San Antonio fell again to the MexicansLeft after 2 days, but took 60 prisoners with them
Houston responds by sending General Alexander Somervell to the Rio GrandeExpedition of 750 menGoal was to protect the border from future
invasions
Sam Houston’s Second Term
The Mier Expedition300 of Somervell’s men decided to ignore the
General and begin a counteroffensive into Mexico
On Christmas Day 1842, 260 Texans entered MierThey were captured by Mexican infantrymen
The prisoners were marched to Mexico CityA majority managed to escape temporarilyOnly 4 made it back to Texas
Mexican troops recaptured 176 TexansSanta Anna initially ordered all the Texans to
be executed
Sam Houston’s Second Term
The Black Bean Episode In Mexico City, Santa Anna reduced the number of
Texans to be executed to 10 percentThe men to be executed would be chosen by lottery
The Texans were forced to draw from a pot containing 159 white beans and 17 black beans
Those who drew the black beans would die by firing squad
Results of the Mier ExpeditionTexans began to want U.S. annexation againBenefits of joining the Union
Financial security; Texas was almost bankruptMilitary security; fear of a massive Mexican invasion and
Indian raidsLand values; great potential for land value profits
Sam Houston’s Second Term
Houston on Annexation U.S. sentiment toward annexation was favorable due to
England’s assistance to Texas Afraid that Britain would gain too much influence in North America
again Annexation of Texas fit into most Americans’ goal of Manifest
Destiny However, northern abolitionists and “Free Soilers” were staunchly
opposed to annexing another slave state U.S. President John Tyler supported an annexation treaty in April
1844 Rejected by the U.S. Senate 35 to 16 Former President Martin Van Buren worked especially hard to make
sure Texas was not annexed Houston began courting the British, French, and the pro-
annexation camp in the U.S. Attempting to gain influence with the U.S. through diplomacy
Sam Houston’s Second Term
Martin Van Buren
Manifest Destiny
What is it?• The driving force (one component) behind America’s expansion to the west
(specifically the Pacific Coast)• Was not an official government policy• Promoted heavily in newspapers, posters, and other propaganda• John O’Sullivan first uses the term in a newspaper in 1845
• “manifest destiny to overspread the continent”• Regarding the annexation of Texas• Says America was “chosen” to lead the continent out of wilderness• Americans were “chosen” to establish civilization
What caused it?• Myth of the Chosen Nation – God chose the Americans to establish democracy
from sea to shining sea• The Louisiana Purchase – over 1/3 of the continent is gained by Jefferson’s
legislation• Government saw the appeal of potential land bringing more political power to the
growing nation• Land Availability + Politics + Religion = Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny
What it meant to the country• Through physical expansion to the west, the United States would be set
on a course to become a political and social superpower• Manifest Destiny adds fuel to the fire of expansion
• Advertising potential for great wealth in minerals in the West• Promoting programs to help the downtrodden acquire and keep land in
the West (if they paid their way)
Results• Many Easterners head to the West in search of riches and a new start
• Most believing they were helping the US achieve Manifest Destiny and it was God’s chosen path for them
• Manifest Destiny expands to foreign policy• Becomes the driving force behind the Mexican-American War• Later, the Spanish-American War (after we achieve “sea to shining sea”)• Today, becomes intertwined with globalization
• We must spread democracy throughout the world
Manifest Destiny
Election of 1844Jones was Houston’s
Secretary of StateEasily won the presidency
on a platform similar to Houston’sKenneth Lewis Anderson
was his Vice-PresidentRan a virtually silent
campaign
Last President of the RepublicTerm of office: December
1844 – February 1846
President Anson Jones
Financial Issues Jones was never able to rein in
the Republic’s debtBy the time Texas was
annexed, the debt was roughly $10 million
AnnexationBefore U.S. President John
Tyler left office, he proposed Texas annexation one last time through a joint resolutionOnly required a majority
approval of both houses of Congress
President Anson Jones
John Tyler
President Jones’ Silence Jones was largely silent on the issue of annexation
throughout his presidencyWas attempting to await the outcome of annexation, treaty, and
independence offersMany were the brain-child of Houston’s second term
Late 1844, the Texas Congress declared their intent to join the United StatesPopular sentiment grewPeople began to burn effigies of Jones due to his apparent
complacence on the issue June 1845, Jones put two choices up for consideration
Remain an independent nation Mexico agreed to a treaty recognizing Texas’ independence
Join the United StatesPeople overwhelming wished to join the United States
President Anson Jones
TexiansIndividuals that took extreme pride in the
nation “Rugged Individualism” – valued
resiliency, self-reliance, and couragePlays into Manifest Destiny; these were the
people expected to go and tame the West for the cause of M.D.
Typically a largely undisciplined and lawless societySocial pressures as a result of constant danger
was a significant cause
Social Challenges
IndiansTexas had no clear Indian policy and no standing
treaties Many tribes verged on extinction Cherokees
Sam Houston negotiated a treaty with the Cherokees in 1835 acknowledging their rights to lands in East Texas
The First Congress rejected this agreement, and Lamar’s election extinguished their hopes of becoming recognized landowners
The Cherokees resisted Lamar’s demand for their removal until Texas troops killed Chief Duwali in the Battle of Neches in 1839
Social Challenges
IndiansComanches
Comanches had no real tribal government and constantly breached treaties that Houston had negotiated
Comanche raids were characterized by destruction of property, murder, and hostage taking
In March 1840, Texans met with the Comanches at the Council House in San Antonio to negotiate hostage release. However, the negotiations failed, and both sides resumed their attacks
In October 1844, Houston negotiated a treaty of peace and commerce that led to some tranquility, but they never stopped marauding completely
Social Challenges
TejanosTejanos were torn between viewing their destinies as tied
to Anglo-Americans and expressing caution toward a people who viewed them with disgust and contempt
Tejanos were numerically disadvantaged, business was conducted in a foreign language, and most were not familiar with the new form of politics. They described themselves as “foreigners in their native
land.” Tejanos adopted many of the new customs and habits in
addition to retaining their cultural heritageMost struggled finding a niche in Anglo society and
supported themselves in the ranching and freighting industries
Social Challenges
Election of 1844
• Results• James Polk wins (friend of Andrew Jackson, Tennessee slaveholder)• He supported Texas annexation (even though it was Tyler’s idea)• Supported “reoccupation” of Oregon
Polk’s Goals• Reduce tariffs• Settle the Oregon dispute (“Fifty-four Forty or Fight!!”)• Make California a state
Oregon Territory Controversy• Democrats wanted Polk to be as uncompromising on Oregon as he was on Texas annexation• “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” – U.S. should be prepared to go to war with Britain (again) if
they were unwilling to move their border north to the 54, 40 degree boundary (near Russian-owned Alaska at this point)
• Polk decides to be diplomatic and settles on the 49th parallel (where Washington and Vancouver, B.C. still separate the two countries today)
• Bottom line: Manifest Destiny is attempting to claim British territory in the Northwest
The Road to War with Mexico
Oregon obtained, now on to Mexico!
• Polk tries diplomacy again• Sends John Slidell to buy California, New Mexico, most of Arizona, and the Rio Grande border
of Texas for $30 million• They didn’t take it; government was way too unstable and did not want to be a pawn of U.S.
imperialism• Mexico also felt that they still owned Texas and the U.S. was plotting to take all of Mexico
eventually
• Thornton Affair• Detachment of U.S. troops scouted near the Rio Grande border (near present-day Brownsville)• Skirmish with Mexican troops; 11 U.S. troops die• Gives the U.S. a reason to declare war though the circumstances behind the attack are still
uncertain
• Declaring War• Polk uses the Thornton Affair and Mexico’s refusal to sell their land as a cause for war• Exaggerates and says the Mexicans were actively attacking American soil• War declared on 13 May 1846
• Polarization on the War• Whigs (North and South) vehemently denounce the war; see Manifest Destiny causing
unnecessary expansion with a racist undertone • Democrats (especially Southerners) support the war; see the merits of Manifest Destiny
The Road to War with Mexico
Fighting the War on Three Fronts (1846-1848)• Santa Fe
• Led by General Stephen Kerney• Goal was to move through NM, AZ, and the Sonoran
desert to meet up with troops in California• California
• Kerney brings his troops through NM and AZ; arrives in California in late 1846
• Finally defeats the Mexicans near Los Angeles in January 1847
• Central Mexico• Polk sends General Zachary Taylor, finally occupies
Mexico City in September 1847
The Mexican War
6,000 Texans participated in the warTexas Rangers
Pseudo reconnaissance detachment for Zachary Taylor’s army
Crucial individualsJohn Coffee “Jack” Hayes, Ben McCulloch, William A. “Big
Foot” Wallace, Mustang Grey, and Samuel H. WalkerReceived numerous commendations from the U.S.
militaryNotoriety in Mexico
Known for extreme frontier individualismTook no prisoners, harassed civilians, and killed anyone
suspected of supporting MexicoKnown as “Los Diablos Tejanos” (The Texas Devils) by civilians
Texans in the Mexican War
Samuel H. Walker John Coffee “Jack” Hays Ben McCulloch
William A. “Big Foot” Wallace
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo• Land north of the Rio Grade, California, and everything in between up for
grabs• Mexico sells this land for $18 million (with a lot of influence from U.S.
military)• U.S. gain of 1.2 million square miles
Why Not Take All of Mexico?• Americans tired of expansion into Latin America• Manifest Destiny took on a selective, racist mentality• Americans came to believe Mexicans were inferior and did not want to
include them as citizens
Slavery Issue Many in the U.S. looked to the South for the future of the new territory Texas was now considered a major player in the “free” or “slave” state
debate
Results of the Mexican War
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