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MIGRATION
AS level Geography
Contents
• Migration as a Component of Population
• Internal Migration
• International Migration
MIGRATION AND
POPULATION CHANGES
PART 1
Definition of termsMigration: The movement of people across a specified
boundary, national or international, to establish a new
place of residence. The UN defines permanent as
lasting more than 1 year
The Core: A region of concentrated economic
development with advanced systems of infrastructure,
resulting in high average income and relatively low
unemployment
The Periphery: A region of low or declining economic
development characterized by low income and relatively
low unemployment
Definition of termsMacro level: Large scale
Meso level: Intermediate scale
Micro level: Small Scale
Chain Migration: When one or a small number of
pioneering migrants have led the way in rural urban
migrations, and other in the same rural communities
follow
Step Migration: A series of shorter, less extreme
migrations from a person’s place of origin to final
destination – such as moving from a farm to a village
and finally to a city
Definition of terms
Stepped migration: When a rural migrant initially /heads for a
familiar small town and then after a period of time moves on
to a larger urban settlement. Over the years, migrants may
take several steps up the urban hierarchy
Counterurbanisation: The process of population de-
centralization where an increasing number of population
move from large urban areas to rural areas or smaller urban
settlements
Voluntary migration: A migration of choice where the
individual/ household has a free choice about whether to
move or not
Forced migration: A migration without a choice when the
individual/ household has little or no choice but to move.
Definition of terms
Someone who has been forced to leave home and
country because of a well-founded fear of persecution on
account of race, religion, social group or political opinion.
Someone who has been forced to leave his/her home for
reasons similar to a refugee but who remains in the
same country.
Immigration: Movement of people into a country
Emigration: movement of people out of a country
In-migration: Movement of people into a region
Out-migration: Movement of people out of a region
Definition of terms
• Diaspora: The dispersal of people from
their original homeland
• Multiplier effect: Where an increase in the
money supply in a region sets off an
upward spiral of development as this
money circulates the economy
Models of Migration
1. E.S. Lee’s Origin-Obstacles-Intervention model
2. Akin Mobugunje’s System Approach
3. Todaro’s Cost-Benefit Model
4. Stark-Todaro’s New Economics of Migration
5. Marxist/ Structuralist Theory
6. Ravenstein’s law
7. Structuration theory
8. Gender Analysis
Lee’s Model
• Lee’s Model introduces the idea of push-
pull factor in migration
• Decision is often made as an individual
• Push and Pull factors working to
encourage migration
• With intervening obstacles playing a part
Todaro’s Cost-effective
approach• Migrants’ perception are not
entirely skewed
• They know that initial life in urban
area won’t be entirely positive
• Migrants weigh up the
possibilities of achieving a better
life in the areas of origins to the
areas of destinations
• There are more opportunities in
destinations
Stark’s New Economics of
Migration• An extension of Todaro’s model
• Decision is also by household
• A form of economic diversification
• A cost/reward sharing
• Risk spreading – as a response to rural deprivation
Marxist Theory
• A transition to
capitalism
• Market force is the
main factor
• The only option of
alienation from the
land
• Emphasizes the
control market force
has over migrants
Structuration Theory
• Incorporate personal motives and
structural forces of economy, society and
culture
• Rules designed to regulate can also create
forces that lead to more opportunity
Gender Roles
• Patriarchal society may
lead to men moving more
than women
• Emancipation of women
leads to higher mobility of
the gender
• Higher mobility – whole
movement of household
Ravenstein’s Law
1. The ides of distance decay
2. There are always counter-current
3. Dispersion is inverse of absorption
4. Most migration are two ways
5. Longer distance migration will be movement
toward urban areas
6. Most migrants are rural
7. Female migrants migrate more in shorter distance.
Male migrants migrate more in longer distances
Constraints/ Obstacles/ Barriers
• Legal obstacles e.g. hukou system
• Obstacles: Distance/ Cost
• Migrants may not have enough money to
move out
• Cost for closing up (may be higher in
MEDCs)
• Actual Cost of transport
• Costs of opening up – is also high
Cost for closing up
• Vary according to the
value of the estate
• LEDCs: monetary value
small – personal value
high
• MEDCs: Real estates
agents, legal fees,
possessions
Travelling Cost
• Depends on the mode of transport
• Time taken / distance travelled
• Costs for transporting possession
• Danger associated with journey
• Ethnic tension/ discrimination
• Thieves/ Smugglers
• Natural obstcles
Opening Up cost
• Usually quite high especially in urban area
• To find an area housing
• Deal with legal fees
• Buy furniture
• Unless: lives in informal housing/ share
with relatives
Collecting Data in Migration
• Population censuses
• Migrants registers
• Specific surveys
• Airports etc.
INTERNAL MIGRATION
PART 2
Distance, Direction, Pattern
• Distance may have filtering effects on
migration – Distance Decay
• Direction: Migration’s direction usually
follows the push-pull factor – usually by
rural-urban movement or periphery to core
movements
• Rural-rural migration is equally important
Distance in migration
• Intra-national (within a country)
• Local
• Intra-district/ inter-district (Within district/
between districts)
• Intra-provincial/ Inter-provincial (Within a
province/ between provinces)
• Intra-regional/ Inter regional (Within
regions/ between regions)
Distance
• Distance can differentiate types of movements/
types of movers
• Are they: wealthy/ poor
• LEDCs/ MEDCs
• Ethnicity
• Gender
• Family
• Permanent movement or Temporary
movement
Directions
• Most prevalent: Periphery – core / Rural-
urban
• From culturally traditional – areas of rapid
changes
Directions
• Larger difference in magnitude between
socio-economic (Socio-economic
disparities) = larger scale of rural urban
movement in LEDCs
• Rural-rural movement may also be
common
The Causes of Migration
• Reasons for Rural – urban movement
• Political resettling
Rural-urban movement causes
• Influence by push/pull factors
• PUSH FACTORS:
Land reforms not complete
Inheritance law – causes the land to be
divided over and over again
Low agricultural output
Natural disasters
Rural-urban movement causes
• PUSH FACTORS:
Mechanization – lower farm employment –
rural depopulation – rural service decline
Underemployment
Overpopulation
Activities of governments
Activities of transnational companies
Rural-urban movement causes
• PULL FACTORS: based on the
perception?
Better housing
Employment
Proximity to amenities/ services
Improved lifestyle
Reliable source of food
Division of causes into 3 scales
• Each scale of motives affect migrants at
different levels
• Macro scale: At a national level
• Meso level: At a regional/ village level
• Micro level: At a family/ personal level
Macro-level
• Highlights socio-economic disparity
• Focuses on core-periphery concept
• Akin of the Marxist/ Structuralist concept
• Migrants move in response to market
forces and the need for employment.
Macro-level
• In LEDCs – had its start in the colonial era
– most people are forced to move to cities
as workers or by taxation laws
• LEDCs development – urbanization/
industrialization – leads to migrants
movement by the forces of capitalism
• Disproportionate investment – more in
capital cities
Meso Level
• More detailed analysis of origin, obstacles,
destinations
• Follows more closely E.S. Lee’s model of
migration
• Todaro's/ Stark's model begin to play a
part
• Individual perception highlighted
• Economic reasons are still very dominant
The Micro-level
• Specific circumstances of individual
families
• Conflicts within family?
• Urban relatives/ contact?
• Very important when long distance
involved
The Micro-level
• Level of income
• Size of land holding
• Size of household
• Stage in Life Cycle
• Level of Education
• Cohesiveness in family unit
Impacts
• Socio-economic Impacts
• Political Impacts
• Demographic Impacts
• Environmental Impacts
Socio-Economic
• Remittances has been seen as a benefit to
the area of origin
• Also seen as an out-flow of money from
urban areas
Socio-Economic
• The flow of money/ support is not unilateral
1. Remittance sent home to rural areas vs. money sent
to urban areas as start-up cost/ money for
education
2. Migrants move in for education vs. Return of
educated migrants
3. Lost of workforce vs. Return of experienced, skilled
workforce
4. Young villagers vs. return flow of experienced
workers
Socio-Economic
• Newly developed opportunities tend to
stimulate new migrants
• However, in some extreme LEDCs –
migrants may be illiterate, unskilled and
uninformed of the opportunities
• Development in rural areas – tend to result
in even more out-migration
Socio-Economic
• Rural migrants – young, economically
active workforce
• May provide great workforce
• May also create strains on the resources
Socio-Economic
• Impacts on the areas of origins
1. May reduce unemployment/
underemployment
2. Remittances return
3. Migrants return with skills
4. Promotes development in rural regions
5. Leads to migration becoming unnecessary
6. Patriarchal society reversed?
Socio-Economic
• Impacts on the areas of origins
1. Lost of agricultural workforce
2. Lost of parents to children
3. Higher need for child labor
4. Can have an effect in widening the
economic gaps – remittances are unequal
5. Rural depopulation – less market force
Political Impact
• Depopulation = lower
political
representation
• Increases in migrants
– higher political
influenced
• Changes in the ethnic
composition e.g. Han
Chinese migration
into Tibet
Environmental Impact
• Further urbanization in developing
countries
• Leads to deforestation
• Changes in the ecology
• Pressure on land – resources constraints
Demographic Impact
• Impacts on age structure/ gender
composition
• Pyramids of rural areas: Losses of young
economically active adult
• Pyramids of urban areas: More young,
economically active adults
• Usually more men moving than woman
Stepped Migration
• Occurs – due to the idea of distance decay
– not wanting to leave families, culture,
ethnicity – also could be due to lack of
capital for movements, lack of skills/
connections
• Soon – migrants develop skills,
connections, confidence and financial
capability
Stepped migration
villageMarket
TownRegional
city
National
Conurbation/
Primate city
Intra-Urban Movement• Movement within cities – usually in the form of
family life cycle
• Available housing stocks are important
determining factors
• There are contrasts between the spatial life
cycle of rich and poor
• Life cycle/ incomes influence directions, distance
and patterns
• ALSO – the government’s planning of the
housing areas/ associated organization
Intra urban movement• Wealthy = high mobility
• Hence, the more well-off sector of the population tend to
have higher mobility
• For the lower income groups – choices are more
restricted
• In MEDCs lower income groups may be concentrated in
inner urban areas
Movement within urban areas are response to
employment, growth of cities, finding better environment,
economic changes etc.
Family Life Cycle
Counter-Urbanization
• Caused by the more appealing non-urban
lifestyles
• Increasing mobility of urbanites: higher
incomes
• Improvement in transport network
• Introduction of commuter communities in
rural-urban fringes
Period explanation
• Role of economic/ demographic situations
in 1970 when Counter urbanization first
appeared
• Energy crisis, economic recession, sharp
growth in retirees, post war baby booms
• Emphasis on urban push factors
• Weaken metropolitan growth
• See Counter urbanization as temporary
Regional Restructuring
• New organization of production
• Increase importance of service industries
• Spatial divisions of labor change
• Spread of activities toward rural peripheries
De-concentration
• Less technological/ institutional barriers
now
• Reducing constraints on infrastructures/
technologies in rural areas
• Hence many companies/ households felt
free to leave urban areas
• The improvement have to also be made
accessible by the other 2 reasons
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
PART 3
Changes to International
Migration
• Growth of labor migration/ student migration
due to higher mobility – migrations are now
more temporary, circular
• Spatial impacts have increased with the
scale
• Gender roles – increase female migrants
• Movement is from the weaker to the stronger
economy
Changes to International
Migration
• Controls have been
enforced to prevent
illegal immigrations/
security purposes
e.g. after 911
• Globalization –
increases awareness
of opportunities
Refugees situations
• Late 20th to early 21s Century
• In Africa and Asia – violent conflicts have
broken out
• Lead population movement in large scale
• Internal displacement and refugees have
both become huge issues
• In 2015, refugee situation was worse than
ever
Refugees situations - War
• Increase in weapons and arms availability
• New forms of warfare has impacts that
affect even the civilians
• Light weapons/ land mines at low price –
allow whole population to be armed
• Mass eviction/ expulsion in the form of
ethnic cleansings e.g. in Rwanda
Refugees situations
• UNHCR (United Nation High Commission
for Refugees)
• Guarantees security for refugees and
asylum seekers
• Fund more people forced to uproot from
their home – to live nomadic lifestyles
WAR
Refugees situations
• Natural disasters
• Droughts, floods, volcanic eruptions
• Soil degradation/ Desertification
• Water constraint – e.g. Aral sea
• Almost all was the cause of human actions
• LEDCs most heavily affected – no capital
for prevention
Refugees situations
• Large infrastructure projects may also
displace large number of people
• The Xayaburi dam in Mekong
• The Aswan high dam in Egypt
Voluntary migration
• Large number of voluntary international
migrations nowadays are for economic
reasons
• Tends to be movement from LEDCs to
MEDCs
• There are also those from MEDCs to
LEDCs – may be for lower living cost
Voluntary migration
• Most recent movements – coinciding with
global economic recessions are into the
OECDs (Organization of economic
cooperation and development)
Voluntary migration
• Factors influencing movements
• The extent of economic opportunities
• Presence of family members/ those of the
same ethnic origin
• Point of entry
Socio-Economic
• Socio-economic status of migrants in
OECDs countries
1. Unemployed compared with nationals/
locals
2. Dirty, dangerous, difficult/dull works
3. Over represented in some industries
Industries for foreign migrants in
OECD• Construction workers
• Hospitality/ hotel
• Catering
• Household services
Socio-Economic
• Value of remittances are very important
• Philippines – highest remittance in the
world
• Some will argue it to be the most essential
source of income
• ‘Globalization bottom up’
• Helps alleviate poverty
• Increases investment/ businesses
• Reduces impact of global recession
Socio-Economic
• Remittances – multiplier effect in donor
countries
• Although: Brain drain from the donor
countries – are they well compensated by
remittances
Socio-Economic
• Assimilation in receiving
countries: racial tension,
differences in language,
culture
• Donor countries: Lost of
dynamic population,
returned migrants have
ideas that may clash
with traditional values
Cultural
• Cultural exchange/ globalization
• Multi-cultural society
• Cultural hybrid
• Diaspora population forming ethnic areas
in receiving countries
• Once again, lost of traditional can be an
issue
• Changes in ethnicity/ languages
Political
• Migrants have political opinions – tend to be
more to the left wing
• Movement of migrants will also influence the
political importance of areas
• When immigrant population reaches a certain
size – they may form their own real political
union – a representation
• Political tension between donor/ receiving
nations
• Pro-migration agenda of developing nation
Environmental
• May argue that environmental problems
(ecological footprints) are increased by
movement of migration fro the receiving
countries
• Increase in resource constraints
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