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Waterbirds and Human Disturbance IN URBANized Areas. John Takekawa USGS Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo, California Jules Evens Avocet Research Associates Point Reyes Station, California Kevin Lafferty USGS Western Ecological Research Center Santa Barbara, California. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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John TakekawaUSGS Western Ecological Research Center
Vallejo, California
Jules EvensAvocet Research Associates
Point Reyes Station, California
Kevin LaffertyUSGS Western Ecological Research Center
Santa Barbara, California
Disturbance
Species Composition
ActivityHarvest
Habitat Modification
Pollution1. Causes of Impact
2. Immediate Response
3. Long-term Effects on:
a. Individuals
c. Communities
b. Populations
BehaviorChange
Death
AlteredBehavior
DeathAltered
VigorAltered
Productivity
Abundance DemographicsDistribution
Interactions
Size correlation: larger birds are less tolerant of human disturbance than smaller ones (Rodgers and Schwikert 2003, Fernandez-Juricic et al. 2002)
Larger flocks flush at greater distances than smaller flocks or individuals.
Flight distance correlated positively with flock size and species diversity. Flight distances longer for species that used open water for foraging than for resting (Mori et al. 2003, ARA 2008)
To compensate for increased disturbance, birds may increase food intake or relocate to less profitable areas to feed.
Size of area available: the larger the habitat patch, the shorter the distance of flight response, the lower the disturbance.
Proximity of refuge.
The “shyness” of the species (Scaup versus Ring-billed Gull)
Size of the species (a black rail allows closer approach than a heron)
Season: periods of high-energy costs exact more “expensive” responses.
Flight distances are longer for waterfowl that used an area for foraging than for resting (Mori et al. 2001)
Solitary nesting birds
Colonial nesting birds
Flocking shorebirds
Rafting waterbirds
More sensitive than roosting and foraging birds
Response depends on site, colony size, species and time of year.
Recommended buffer
zones around colonies range from 100 m (Rodgers and Smith 1995), to 300 m (Butler 1992), recommended by JE (Jan-Sep).
Tidal flat specialists
Peak numbers occur during migratory pulses in fall and winter, but large numbers of overwinter; a few species nest.
Foraging shorebirds somewhat protected from watercraft on tidal flats or in very shallow (<10 cm) water. However, high tide roosts are susceptible to disturbance (Burger and Gochfield 1991, Davidson 1993, Kelly 1997).
Majority occur in SFB during “winter” (Oct-Apr).
Divers on open water, dabblers on seasonal wetlands.
Divers gather in large flocks (rafts) concentrated at the mouths of tributaries, bays and coves.
Scaup and scoters combined comprised 87 percent of waterfowl on open water.
Large flocks of scaup, scoter and others key on herring spawn in eelgrass beds (Zostera marina)
Mid-winter aerial surveys from 1970-1991 averaged 425,000 waterfowl present in mid-Feb.
Mid-winter waterfowl surveys 1992-2007 (exclusive of 1996) averaged 182,818 birds present in mid-Jan.
Numbers of waterfowl decreased 25% from the 1950s until 1990 (Takekawa et al. 2000).
Waterfowl continue their downward trend from 300,000 in the late 1980s (Accurso 1992) to 184,160 (SE±65,670) from 1992-2007.
Table 11. Mean and standard deviation (SD) of ln-transformed disturbance response distances, back-transformed mean response distance, and recommended distances (m) to avoid disturbance of waterbird, based on species behavioral responses to 1 or 2 approaching kayaks.
Species n trials Meana SDa
Mean response distance
(m)b Flock sizec
Recommended distance
(m)d
American Coot 28 3.18 0.621 24 107 Bufflehead 51 4.06 0.556 58 1 92 50 174 Canada Goose 19 3.99 0.602 54 186 Clark's Grebe 23 3.72 0.668 41 1 78 12 202 Com. Goldeneye 24 3.62 0.724 37 163 Common Loon 16 3.93 0.756 51 218 Double-crested Cormorant 23 4.11 0.628 61 213 Greater Scaup 31 4.59 0.433 99 1 127 120 246 Horned Grebe 37 3.17 0.779 24 126 Lesser Scaup 16 3.94 0.699 51 1 86 8 252 Mallard 19 2.87 0.534 18 83 Red-br. Merganser 13 3.32 1.136 28 219 Ruddy Duck 56 4.10 0.623 60 209 Scaup species 30 4.54 0.549 94 1 141 100 218 Surf Scoter 37 4.11 0.762 61 1 97 25 e 153 Western Grebe 30 3.68 0.649 40 156
` a Mean and standard deviation of log-transformed data: yi = ln(xi) bBack-transformed mean: ^ = exp(yų ) cIf the linear effect of species flock size on disturbance response was significant (P < 0.05), the regression equation was used to calculate recommended distance for solitary individuals (Flock size = 1) and maximum observed floc k size (Flock size > 1):
Bufflehead: y = 3.81 + 0.017*(Flock size) - 0.0012*(Intraseasonal day) Clark's Grebe: y = 3.08 + 0.110*(Flock size) + 0.002*(Intraseasonal day) Greater Scaup: y = 4.16 + 0.007*(Flock size) + 0.002*(Intraseasonal day) Lesser Scaup: y = 3.17 + 0.194*(Flock size) + 0.001*(Intraseasonal day) Scaup species: y = 4.16 + 0.004*(Flock size) + 0.003*(Intraseasonal day) Surf Scoter: y = 3.64 + 0.024*(Flock size) + 0.003*(Intraseasonal day)
d Recommended distance = exp ( ^ + 1.6495 * ^) + 40 m. e Outlier observations for Surf Scoters flocks of 70 and 35 occurred but the remainder of the Surf Scoter flocks observed during trials were less than 25 individuals.
N =74
Earliest (most distant) response: 52% swimming 31% diving 16% flight
ANOVA to examine differences in species disturbance responses between number of kayaks (1 vs. 2 or 3), tide level, year, weekday s weekend, and transect area (depth)
No significant differences were found in species responses related to the main effects of year, tide level, transect area, weekday vs. weekend, or number of kayaks (P > 0.05)
Species buffer zones based on observed flush distances (mean plus one SD, after Rodgers and Schwikert 2003)
Add 40 m to buffer to minimize agnostic responses and to account for mixed species (Thompson and Thompson 1985, Gutzwiller et al. 1998).
Buffer zones should be based on the species most sensitive to disturbance (scaup)
“One size fits all” approach for management: “therefore a buffer
zone of 250 meters from areas of high-use by rafting waterbirds as a quideline for minimizing the impacts of non-motorized watercraft on rafting waterbirds.”
SFB FERRIES
Resource Concerns:Open Water DisturbanceDisplacement EffectsHabitat Erosion
1. Conduct ferry surveys in San Francisco Bay to assess species-specific buffer distances.
2. Examine waterbird avoidance of watercraft in land-based surveys at selected areas.
3. Document distribution of waterbirds along ferry routes with aerial surveys.
Distance?
Distance?
Flight Response
Diving Response
ScaupNV=not visible, ND=not disturbed, A=alert,
SA=swim away, DI=dive, FL=fly
0 100 200 300 400
FL
DI
SA
A
ND
NV
Disturbance Behavior
Average Distance (meters)
ScoterNV=not visible, ND=not disturbed, A=alert,
SA=swim away, DI=dive, FL=fly
0 200 400 600 800
FL
DI
SA
A
ND
NV
DisturbanceBehavior
Average Distance (meters)
GrebesNV=not visible, ND=not disturbed, A= alert,
SA= swim away, DI=dive, FL=fly
0 100 200 300 400
FL
DI
SA
A
ND
NV
Disturbance Behavior
Average Distance (meters)
Photo Ann Cook
Distance?
Distance?
Elapsed Time?
Counts of Birds After Ferry Passage1/19/2005
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
-10 0 10 20
SP
SS
DivingDuck
WCR
Grebe
ParadiseBeach PierTotal
Time since last ferry, minutes
Total Number By Site After Ferry Passage
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
-50 0 50 100
Time since last ferry, categorized (minutes)
Nu
mb
er
Alameda Terminal
Bay Farm Terminal
Larkspur Terminal
Oakland Terminal
Point Orient
Point Pinole Pier
Sandy Beach Road
Sausalito Terminal
Shoreline Park, Oakland
Tiburon Terminal
Vallejo Terminal
Grand Total
Coal Oil Point ReserveCoal Oil Point ReserveUniversity of CaliforniaUniversity of CaliforniaNatural Reserve SystemNatural Reserve System
-Up to 150 wintering snowy plovers-No successful breeding for 30 years-Uncontrolled public access-No previous plover management
Lafferty, K. D. 2001. Birds at a Southern California beach: seasonality, habitat use Lafferty, K. D. 2001. Birds at a Southern California beach: seasonality, habitat use and disturbance by human activity. Biodiversity and Conservation 10:1949-1962.and disturbance by human activity. Biodiversity and Conservation 10:1949-1962.Lafferty, K. D. 2001. Disturbance to wintering western snowy plovers. Biological Lafferty, K. D. 2001. Disturbance to wintering western snowy plovers. Biological Conservation 101:315-325.Conservation 101:315-325.Lafferty, K. D., D. Goodman, and C. P. Sandoval. 2006. Restoration of breeding by Lafferty, K. D., D. Goodman, and C. P. Sandoval. 2006. Restoration of breeding by snowy plovers following protection from disturbance. Biodiversity and Conservation snowy plovers following protection from disturbance. Biodiversity and Conservation 15:2217-2230.15:2217-2230.
Initiate applied researchInitiate applied research• Why study disturbance?• Project goals
– Sources of disturbance– Rates of disturbance– Management model
Who uses the beach?
72% are students 7 visits / mo. for 2 yrs
Lack of Awareness 98% could not identify
a snowy plover 67% did not know the
area was a reserve
• What do they do?• 85% walk• 68% jog
• 46% sunbathe• 38% surf• 21% watch sunset• 20% party• 15% beach cleanup• 14% dog walk• 13% bird watch• 12% painting• 12% ride horses
How much disturbance does each plover experience?
Weekday: every 43 min. Weekend: every 27 min.
16 times higher than at protected beaches
Assess plover sensitivity
Examine disturbance with distance
Model habitat need
•Close delta trail•Rope roost area
•Place signs•Initiate a docent program
Undertake management actions
Erect rope fence: winterErect rope fence: winter
•EducationEducation•Compliance (leash law, trespass)Compliance (leash law, trespass)•Scare crows from nestsScare crows from nests
Initiate docent program
Create increased awareness
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Wintering Breeding Wintering Breeding Wintering Breeding
2000 2001 2002
% o
f pu
blic
that
iden
tifi
ed p
love
rs Before management After docentsAfter signs
Increase compliance
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Wintering Breeding Wintering Breeding Wintering Breeding
2000 2001 2002
Unl
eash
ed d
ogs/
hr
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
% le
ashe
d do
gs
unleashed dogs/hr
% leashed
Before management After management
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Win
teri
ng
Bre
edin
g
Win
teri
ng
Bre
edin
g
Win
teri
ng
Bre
edin
g
Win
teri
ng
Bre
edin
g
Win
teri
ng
Bre
edin
g
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Time
Dis
turb
ance
s pe
r pl
over
/hr run/move fly
before protection during protection
Reduce disturbance
Year Pairs Nests Chicks Fledged
1970-2000 few 0-2 0
2001 1 1 1
2002 5 9 14
2003 12 24 40
2004 14 51 29
2005 30 64 30
2006 34 43 48
Recover breeding population
How do we measure non-lethal costs of disturbance and weigh those at the population level?
The effects of disturbance may be primarily behavioral rather than numerical; do multiple regression studies designed to examine the effects of independent variables measure disturbance effectively?
Site specific habitat elements may override expected responses by waterbirds: How do we identify which sites are peculiar and which are normal.
How does habituation factor in and what are the costs to reproductive fitness?
What would be the habitat values if background disturbance didn’t eliminate larger and more sensitive species?
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