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Understanding the Role of Culture
Chapter 3Chapter 3
2
What is Culture?
The culture of a society comprises the shared values, understandings, assumptions, and goals that are learned from earlier generations, imposed by present members of a society, and passed on to succeeding generations.
DEFINITIONS OF CULTUREDEFINITIONS OF CULTURE
Culture is something - shared by all or almost all members of
some social group; passed on to the younger members by the
older members; shapes behavior, or structures one’s
perception of the world. ----- Carrol (1982)
The collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.
----- Hofstede (1980)
Nature of Culture
LearnedSharedTransgenerationalSymbolicPatternedAdaptive
INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON BEHAVIORINFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON BEHAVIOR
Culture
Values
Attitudes
Behaviors
Source: Adler (1991)
Values in Culture
U.S. Cultural Values Alternative Values Examples of Management Function Affected
U.S.Values and Possible Alternatives
Individuals can influence the future (when there is a will there is a way).
Life follows a preordained course, and, human action is determined by the will of God.
Planning and scheduling
Individuals should be realistic in their aspirations.
Ideals are to be pursued regardless of what is “reasonable.”
Goal setting and career development
We must work hard to accomplish our objectives (Puritan ethic).
Hard work is not the only prerequisite for success. Wisdom luck, and time also are required.
Motivation and reward system
Values in Culture
U.S. Cultural Values Alternative Values Examples of Management Function Affected
U.S.Values and Possible Alternatives
A primary obligation of an employee is to the organization.
Individual employees have a primary obligation to their family and friends.
Loyalty, commitment, and motivation
Employees can be removed if they do not perform well.
The removal of an employee from a position involves a great loss of prestige and will rarely be done.
Promotion
Company information should be available to anyone who needs it within the organization.
Withholding information to gain or maintain power is acceptable.
Organization, communication, and managerial style
Values in Culture
U.S. Cultural Values Alternative Values Examples of Management Function Affected
U.S.Values and Possible Alternatives
Competition stimulates high performance.
Competition leads to unbalances and disharmony.
Career development and marketing
What works is important.. Symbols and the process are more important than the end point.
Communication, planning, and quality control.
Environmental Variables Affect Management
National Sociolocultural
Economic Physical ReligionLegal Technological EducationPolitical know-how Language
Cultural Attitudes Values Work Individualism Norms Time Change Beliefs Materialism
Employee Job Behavior Motivation Commitment Productivity Ethics
Cultural Orientations---Individual
What is the basic nature of people?
* GOOD: People are generally to be
trusted
* EVIL: People are not to be trusted
without prior knowledge of them
* CHANGEABLE/UNCHANGEABLE:
Kluckhoha & Strodtbeck (1961)
Cultural Orientations---World
What is our basic relationship to the environment around us ?
* MASTERY: To control and master nature and the environment around us.
* HARMONY: To be part of and to maintain the balance of forces in the world around us.
* SUBJUGATION: To follow our predetermined path and obey the natural and supernatural forces around us.
Cultural Orientations---Human Relations
What is the natural relationships among humans?
* INDIVIDUAL: Our main responsibility is to and for ourselves and immediate family.
* COLLECTIVE: Our main responsibility is to and for a large group of people.
* HIERARCHY: Power and responsibility are unequally distributed, with those having power over others also having responsibility for them.
Cultural Orientations---Activity
What is human’s naturally preferred of activity?
* DOING: To constantly work to achieve goals.
* BEING: To be spontaneous, do things in their own time, and live life to its fullest.
* THINKING: To be rational, think things through carefully and thoroughly before acting.
Cultural Orientations---Time
What is human’s orientation to time? * PAST: The past serves as the best precedent
for the present and future and past experience is the most important criterion by which to make decisions.
* PRESENT: Current and short-term future needs provide the most important criteria by which to make decisions.
* FUTURE: Long-term future goals are most important, and current needs should be sacrificed willingly for future gains.
Cultural Orientations---Space
What is human orientation to space?
* PRIVATE: Space and its contents belong to people, territories are important, and people cannot freely enter each other’s territories.
* PUBLIC: Space and its contents belong to no one in particular and can be used by everyone freely.
Strengths of the Model
In general terms, cultures can be compared along distinct orientations;
Comparative models apply to cross-cultural management.
Weaknesses of the Model
The orientations and variations are imprecisely defined;
Interpretations are bound to be subjective.
Not centrally concerned with management studies, and did not describe the implications for management.
DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE BY HOFSTEDEDIMENSIONS OF CULTURE BY HOFSTEDE
Power Distance Individualism vs. Collectivism Masculinity vs. Femininity Uncertainty Avoidance Long-term vs. Short-term
Based on the survey of more than 116,000 managers and employees in over 60 countries (Hofstede, 1980) and the research by the Chinese Culture Connection team (1987).
POWER DISTANCEPOWER DISTANCE
The extent to which the members of a society accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
High Power Distance
Managers should be careful not to ask the opinions of subordinates too frequently, otherwise the manager might appear to be weak and incompetent;
Higher level managers should receive more benefits and privileges than lower level managers;
Managers should make most decisions without consulting subordinates.
POWER DISTANCE IN THE WORKPLACEPOWER DISTANCE IN THE WORKPLACE
Small power distance Hierarchy - inequality
of roles Decentralization Subordinates expect to
be consulted Ideal boss is a
resourceful democrat
Large power distance Hierarchy - existential
inequality Centralization Subordinates expect to
be told what to do Ideal boss is a good
father
INDIVIDUALISM VS. INDIVIDUALISM VS. COLLECTIVISMCOLLECTIVISM
Individualism relates to “societies in which the ties between individuals are loose”.
Collectivism pertains to societies in which people are “integrated into strong, cohesive ingroups”
Collectivism
It is important for a manager to encourage loyalty and a sense of duty in subordinates;
Being an accepted member of the group is more important than having autonomy and independence on the job;
Individual rewards are not as important as group welfare;
Group success is more important than individual success.
INDIVIDUALISM AND COLLECTIVISM
IN THE WORKPLACE
Collectivist Relationship is perceived in
moral terms Management of groups Relationship more
important than task Reward given to the group
Individualist Relationship is a contract
based on mutual advantage Management of individuals Task more important than
relationship Reward linked to
individual’s performance
Masculinity/FemininityMasculinity/Femininity
Masculinity is the extent to which the dominant values in society emphasize assertiveness and the acquisition of money and things.
Femininity is the extent to which the dominant values in society emphasize relationships among people, concern for others, and the overall quality of life.
Masculinity
It is more important for men to have a professional career than it is for women.
Women do not value recognition and promotion in their work as much as men do.
It is preferable to have a man in higher level position rather than a woman.
There are some jobs in which a man can always do better than a woman.
MASCULINITY/FEMININITY IN MASCULINITY/FEMININITY IN WORKPLACEWORKPLACE
Feminine Work in order to live Stress on equality and
quality of work life Managers use intuition
and strive for consensus Resolution of conflicts by
compromise and negotiation
Masculine Live in order to work Stress on equity,
competition, and performance
Managers expect to be decisive and assertive
Resolution of conflicts by fighting them out
Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance
The extent to which the people in a society feel threatened by ambiguous situations, and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these.
Strong Uncertainty Avoidance
It is important to have job requirements and instructions spelled out in details so that people always know what they are expected to do.
It is better to have a bad situation that you know about than to have an uncertain situation which might be better.
People should avoid making changes because things could get worse.
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE IN WORKPLACEUNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE IN WORKPLACE
Weak UA No more rules than is
strictly necessary Time is a framework for
orientation Comfortable feeling
when lazy Motivation by
achievement and esteem
Strong UA Emotional need for rules Time is money
Inner urge to work hard Motivation by security
and esteem or belongingness
Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation
The degree of values oriented towards the future or towards the past and present.
Key Differences between Long-Term and Short-Term Orientation Societies Societies
Short-Term Respect for social and
status obligations regardless of cost
Small savings quote Concern with
possessing the truth Respect for traditions
Long-Term Respect for social and
status obligation within limits
Large savings quote Concern with respecting
the demands of Virtue Adaptation of traditions
to a modern context
Weaknesses of Hofstede’s Model
It assumes that national territory and the limits of the culture correspond.
The respondents worked within a single industry and a single multinational.
Inappropriate assumption of bipolarity in two dimensions: Individualism and masculinity.
Strengths of Hofstede’s Model
The information populations controlled across countries.
The four dimensions tap into deep cultural values and make significant comparisons between national cultures.
The connotations of each dimension are highly relevant.
No other study compares so many cultures in so much details.
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Trompenaar’s research was conducted over a 10-year period and published in 1994.
He gathered data from 15,000 managers from 28 countries, representing 47 national cultures.
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Universalism: belief that ideas and practices can be applied everywhere in the world without modification– In countries with high universalism, focus is more on
formal rules, business contracts are adhered to closely, people believe “a deal is a deal”
– Includes Canada, U.S., Germany, U.K., Netherlands, France, Japan, Singapore, Thailand, and Hong Kong.
VS.Universalism Particularism
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Particularism: belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and practices should be applied and something cannot be done the same everywhere– In countries with high particularism, legal
contracts often modified, well-acquainted people often change the way in which deals are executed
– Includes China and South Korea
VS.Universalism Particularism
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Individualism: people regard themselves as individuals
– In countries high on individualism, people stress personal and individual matters, and are more likely to make negotiated decisions on the spot by a representative, achieve things alone and assume great personal responsibility
– Includes Canada, Thailand, U.K., and U.S.
VS.Individualism Communitarianism
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Communitarianism: people regard themselves as part of a group– In countries high on communitarianism, people
value group-related issues, refer decisions to committees, achieve things in groups and jointly assume responsibility
– Includes Singapore, Malaysia and Korea
VS.Individualism Communitarianism
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Neutral: culture in which emotions are held in
– In high neutral culture countries, people try not to show their feelings, act stoically and maintain their composure
– Includes Japan and the U.K. Affective: culture in which emotions are expressed openly and
naturally
– In high emotional culture countries, people smile a great deal, talk loudly when excited and greet each other with enthusiasm
– Includes Mexico and China
VS.Neutral Affective
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Specific culture: individuals have a large public space shared with others and a small private space they guard closely and share only with close friends and associates– In high specific cultures, people are more open
and extroverted, and there is a strong separation of work and private life
– Includes U.K., U.S. and France
VS.Specific Diffuse
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Diffuse culture: public and private space are similar in size, individuals guard public space carefully because it is shared with private space– In high diffuse cultures, people often appear to be
indirect and introverted, and work and private life often are closely linked
– Includes China and Spain
VS.Specific Diffuse
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Achievement culture: status is accorded based on how well people perform their functions– Includes U.S., Switzerland and the U.K.
Ascription culture: status is based on who or what a person is– Includes Spain, Japan, and China
VS.Achievement Ascription
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Sequential approach– People do only one activity at a time, keep appointments
strictly, prefer to follow plans as laid out (United States) Synchronous approach
– People tend to multi-task, view appointments as approximate, schedules are seen as subordinate to relationships (France, and Mexico)
Present oriented/future oriented– Future is more important (U.S., Italy, and Germany)– Present is more important (Venezuela, Indonesia, and Spain)– All three time periods equally important (France and Belgium)
Time
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Inner-directed: people believe in controlling outcomes
– Includes U.S., Switzerland, Australia, Belgium, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Greece, Singapore, and Japan
Outer-directed: people believe on letting things take their own course
– Includes China and many other Asian countries
The Environment
GLOBE Project The GLOBE (Global Leadership and
Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) Multi-country study and evaluation of
cultural attributes and leadership behavior Dimensions are based on data gathered by
170 researchers over seven years. The data were collected from 18,000 managers in sixty-two countries.
GLOBE Project Based on beliefs that
– Certain attributes that distinguish one culture from others can be used to predict the most suitable, effective and acceptable organizational and leader practices within that culture
– Societal culture has direct impact on organizational culture
– Leader acceptance stems from tying leader attributes and behaviors to subordinate norms
GLOBE Project: Nine Dimensions
Assertiveness Future orientation Performance orientation Humane orientation Gender differentiation Uncertainty avoidance Power distance Institutional collectivism vs. individualism In-group collectivism
GLOBE Dimensions
Assertiveness concerns how much people are expected to be tough, confrontational, and competitive versus modest and tender. Low assertiveness countries have sympathy for the weak and emphasize loyalty and solidarity.– Low: Sweden, New Zealand, Switzerland– High: Greece, Austria, Germany
GLOBE Dimensions Performance orientation concerns the importance
of performance improvement and excellence and refers to whether people are encouraged to strive for continued improvement. Low performance orientation countries place priority on things like tradition, loyalty, family, and background. They associate competition with defeat.– Low: Russia, Argentina, Greece– High: New Zealand, Hong Kong, Singapore
GLOBE Dimensions Future orientation Future orientation refers
to the importance a society attaches to future-oriented behaviors, such as planning and investing in the future. High future orientation countries tend to save and have a longer time horizon for decisions. Low future orientation countries are the opposite.– Low: Russia, Argentina, Poland– High: Netherlands, Switzerland, Singapore
GLOBE Dimensions Humane orientation concerns the extent to
which a society encourages and rewards being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind. Paternalism and patronage, tolerance, and harmony are values in high humane orientation cultures. In low humane orientation cultures people value power, material possessions, and self-enhancement.– Low: Germany, Spain, France– High: Malaysia, Ireland, Philippines
Cultural Clusters
How Culture Affects Managerial Approaches
In some societies, top managers make all important organizational decisions. In others, these decisions are diffused throughout the enterprise, and middle- and lower-level managers actively participate in, and make, key decisions.
VS.Centralized Decision
MakingDecentralized
Decision Making
How Culture Affects Managerial Approaches
In some societies, organizational decision makers are risk averse and have great difficulty with conditions of uncertainty. In others, risk taking is encouraged, and decision making under uncertainty is common.
VS.Safety Risk
How Culture Affects Managerial Approaches
In some countries, personnel who do outstanding work are given individual rewards in the form of bonuses and commissions. In others, cultural norms require group rewards, and individual rewards are frowned on.
VS.Individual Rewards Group Rewards
How Culture Affects Managerial Approaches
In some societies, much is accomplished through informal means. In others, formal procedures are set forth and followed rigidly.
VS.Informal Procedures Formal Procedures
How Culture Affects Managerial Approaches
In some societies, people identify very strongly with their organization or employer. In others, people identify with their occupational group, such as engineer or mechanic.
VS.High Organizational
LoyaltyLow Organizational
Loyalty
How Culture Affects Managerial Approaches
Some societies encourage cooperation between their people. Others encourage competition between their people.
VS.Cooperation Competition
How Culture Affects Managerial Approaches
Some cultures focus most heavily on short-term horizons, such as short-range goals of profit and efficiency. Others are more interested in long-range goals, such as market share and technologic development.
VS.Short-term Horizons Long-term Horizons
How Culture Affects Managerial Approaches
The culture of some countries encourages stability and resistance to change. The culture of others puts high value on innovation and change.
VS.Stability Innovation
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