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8/14/2019 U2 - Compendium Review Oxygen/Microbes/Immunity Part 3
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Compendium ReviewCompendium Review
Major Topic One: Oxygen, Microbes, ImmunityMajor Topic One: Oxygen, Microbes, Immunity
Table of Contents
Part 1
The Cardiovascular System and Blood Vessels
The Heart
Cardiovascular Pathways and Features
Cardiovascular Disorders
Part 2
Blood, Red Blood Cells, Oxygen Transportation, and RBC Disorders
White Blood Cell Types and Disorders
Platelets, Their Functions, and Disorders
Blood Types and Transfusions
Part 3
Lymphatic System
Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
Immunity and its Defenses
Immunization and Antibodies
Immune System Complications and Disorders
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Part 3 Lymphatic System Microbes, Pathogens, and
Humans (Oh My!) Immunity and its Defenses Immunization andAntibodies Immune SystemComplications and Disorders
Picture from http://www.womentowomen.com/detoxification/default.aspx
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Lymphatic SystemThe lymphatic system has 4 functions which play a part in homeostasis: lymphatic vessels,organs, lymphocytes, and defense. The red bone marrow, located in the center of certainbones, creates all blood cells. Located in the thoracic cavity is the thymus gland whichproduces thymic hormones and aids in maturation of T-cells. The largest organ of thelymphatic system is known as the spleen and its job is to filter blood of pathogens and waste.A collection of lymphatic tissue (no capsule) is known as a lymphatic nodule, such as thetonsils. They perform the same duties as the lymph nodes and are usually the first to comeacross a pathogen. Any pathogens which enter through the intestinal tract are encounteredby Peyers Patches, a cluster of lymph tissue.
Lymphatic vessels transport excess
lymph (fluid) from tissues tocardiovascular system. The fluid isfiltered in lymph nodes bylymphocytes and macrophages. Theyhelp fight infections.
Lymphatic organs: Consist of primary
(thymus gland and red bone marrow)and secondary (spleen and lymphnodes). WBCs and lymphocytes (B-cells and T-cells) are made in redbone marrow, but T-cells have anadditional screening process in thethymus gland before maturation.
Picture from http://www.siteman.wustl.edu/xmlfiles/Media_big/CDR0000533339.jpg
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Part 3 Lymphatic SystemMicrobes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
Immunity and its Defenses Immunization and Antibodies Immune System Complications and Disorders
Picture from http://neuroscience.ucdavis.edu/healthandsafety/OccupationalHealthandSafety.html
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Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)Microbes, short for microorganisms, are a class or organisms that are too small to see
with the naked eye; they must be viewed by a microscope. Microbes include thefollowing organisms: bacteria's, fungi, archaea (prokaryotic, single-celled organisms),and protists (eukaryotes not classified in plant, fungi, or animal kingdoms). Microbes
are found all over the world. They are on the Earths surface, airs and waters; on and inhumans, animals, and plants. Pathogens are infectious agents, such as bacteria or
viruses, which cause disease and illness.Bacteria
Prokaryotes
Three shapes: Bacillus (rod), Coccus(spherical), and Spirillum (curved).
Some have sticky capsule which allowsthem to bind to things; makesphagocytosis difficult.
Some have stiff hair-like fibers calledfimbriae which allow them to bind andhold to surfaces such as a host cell.
A larger hair-like structure on thesurface of bacteria, known as a pilus,acts like a bridge and transfersplasmids.
Many have plasmids, DNA rings, whichcarry antibiotic resistant genes. Picture from http://www.arabslab.com/
vb/showthread.php?t=577
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Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria &http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Proteobact
eria & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella
Salmonella is a rod-shaped bacteria
C. Jejuni is a
spiral-shapedbacteria
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/SalmonellaNIAID.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/ARS_Campylobacter_jejuni.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Bacterial_morphology_diagram.svg8/14/2019 U2 - Compendium Review Oxygen/Microbes/Immunity Part 3
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Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)
Virus is Latin for poison or toxin. Viruses are not composed of cells and do notreproduce or grow outside of a host cell. However, they do contain genes and canreproduce once they are in a cellular life form. A virus is an infectious agent which
causes disease and illness and cannot be treated by antibiotics. Some diseases causedby viruses are the common cold and flu, polio, chicken pox, measles, cold sores, genitalwarts and herpes, rabies, Ebola, SARS, certain influenzas like bird flu, Hepatitis B and C,
and AIDS. Viruses can be spread by a vector, such as an animal (mosquito). Anotherinfectious agent known as Prions (proteinaceous infectious particle) cause Creutzfeldt-
Jakob disease in humans and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) incattle. The disease effects the brain and nervous tissue of individuals.
Ebola Virus
Pictures and verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola &http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus#Viruses_and_disease
The range of sizes shown by
viruses, relative to those of otherorganisms and biomolecules.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9c/Ebola_virus.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Relative_scale.svghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9c/Ebola_virus.jpg8/14/2019 U2 - Compendium Review Oxygen/Microbes/Immunity Part 3
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A virus attaches to the host cell andenters endocytosis. The capsid protein
dissociates and the viral RNA is
transported to the nucleus. In the nucleus,the viral polymerase complexes transcribe
and replicate the RNA. Viral mRNAsmigrate to cytoplasm where they are
translated into protein. Then the newlysynthesized virions bud from infected cell.
Microbes, Pathogens, andHumans (Oh My!)Description fromScheme of Influenza A virus replication
(NCBI): "A virion attaches to the host cell membrane via
HA and enters the cytoplasm by receptor-mediated
endocytosis (Step 1), thereby forming an endosome. A
cellular trypsin-like enzyme cleaves HA into products HA1
and HA2 (not shown). HA2 promotes fusion of the virusenvelope and the endosome membranes. A minor virus
envelope protein M2 acts as a ion channel thereby making
the inside of the virion more acidic. As a result, the major
envelope protein M1 dissociates from the nucleocapsid and
vRNPs are translocated into the nucleus (Step 2) via
interaction between NP and cellular transport machinery. In
the nucleus, the viral polymerase complexes transcribe(Step 3a) and replicate (Step 3b) the vRNAs. Newly
synthesized mRNAs migrate to cytoplasm (Step 4) where
they are translated. Posttranslational processing of HA, NA,
and M2 includes transportation via Golgi apparatus to the
cell membrane (Step 5b). NP, M1, NS1 (nonstructural
regulatory protein - not shown) and NEP (nuclear export
protein, a minor virion component - not shown) move to thenucleus (Step 5a) where bind freshly synthesized copies of
vRNAs. The newly formed nucleocapsids migrate into the
cytoplasm in a NEP-dependent process and eventually
interact via M1 with a region of the cell membrane where
HA, NA and M2 have been inserted (Step 6). Then the
newly synthesized virions bud from infected cell (Step 7).
NA destroys the sialic acid moiety of cellular receptors,thereby releasing the progeny virions."Pictures and verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola &
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus#Viruses_and_disease
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Virus_Replication.svghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Virus_Replication.svghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Virus_Replication.svghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Virus_Replication.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Virus_Replication.svg8/14/2019 U2 - Compendium Review Oxygen/Microbes/Immunity Part 3
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Part 3 Lymphatic System Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!) Immunity and its Defenses Immunization and Antibodies Immune System Complications and Disorders
Picture & verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_%28medical%29
Specific, or adaptive immunity is often sub-divided into two major types depending on how theimmunity was introduced. Natural immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent,when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificial immunity develops only through deliberateactions. Both natural and artificial immunity can be further subdivided, depending on the amount of
time the protection lasts. Passive immunity is short lived, and usually lasts only a few months,whereas protection via active immunity lasts much longer, and is sometimes life-long. The diagram
below summarizes these divisions of immunity... The innate system is present from birth andprotects an individual from pathogens regardless of experiences, whereas adaptive immunity
arises only after an infection or immunization and hence is "acquired" during life.
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Immunity and its Defenses
Immunity is the defense that a body takes to fight disease, infection, and unwanted pathogeninvasion. The immune system does this two ways: the body builds barriers and produces aninflammatory response.
Barriers
2. Skin and mucousmembranes are a barrier
3. Chemical secretions onthe skin, along with salivaand tears containantibacterial enzymes
4. Microbes which presentlylive in the body aid inpathogen occupancy
Inflammatory Response
Histamine (chemical) released which promotes capillarydilation
Skin turns red and hot due to increase in blood flow.WBCs also come to area due to blood flow increase
Blood clotting takes place
Neutrophils and monocytes phagocytize pathogens
Pus is created if neutrophils die in large numbers. If theyare overwhelmed they will secrete a chemical calledcytokines which attract more phagocytic cells, such asmacrophages (large phagocytic cell) and WBCs, to thedamaged area.
Skin
Capillary
Tissue
Picture from Human Biology bySylvia S. Mader page 129
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Immunity and its DefensesPart of the Immune system, known as the compliment system, aids in fighting pathogens byway of compliment proteins (blood plasma proteins). Some proteins aid in the inflammatoryresponse by attaching to mast cells and activate chemical release. Other complimentproteins attract phagocytic cells to certain areas. Some proteins stick to the surface of
pathogens to ensure phagocytosing will take place, while others form a membrane attackcomplex by making holes in the surface of the pathogen, allowing salts and fluids to enterwhich ultimately burst it. Once a cell is infected by a virus, it sends interferons, or proteinsignals, to noninfected cells to warn them of the foreign agent.
The classical pathway of activation of the complement
system is a group of blood proteins that mediate the specificantibody response. The alternative pathway of thecomplement system is a humoral component of the immunesystem's natural defense against infections which canoperate without antibody participation. The alternativepathway is one of three complement pathways thatopsonizes and kills pathogens. The alternative pathway doesnot require a specific antibody to commence.
Complement proteins circulate in the blood in an inactiveform. When the first protein in the complement series isactivated typically by antibody that has locked onto anantigenit sets in motion a domino effect. Each componenttakes its turn in a precise chain of steps known as thecomplement cascade. The end product is a cylinder insertedintoand puncturing a hole inthe cells wall. With fluidsand molecules flowing in and out, the cell swells and bursts.
Picture & verbiage fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_complement_pathway&oldid=19
2341349 &http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alternative_complement_pathway&oldid=1
http://www.answers.com/main/Record2?a=NR&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FImage%3AComplement%2520pathway.png8/14/2019 U2 - Compendium Review Oxygen/Microbes/Immunity Part 3
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Immunity and its Defenses
If barriers, inflammatory response, or thecomplementary system do not prevent infection,
then the body has specific defenses which itutilizes. Protein or polysaccharide substancesknown as antigens alert the system to createantibodies. B-cells and T-cells pick up on the
alerts and bind their receptors to the antigens,go through clonal expansion, and produce
antibodies to the antigen. B-cells are stimulatedto clone by T-cells cytokines. Some cloned B-cells become memory cells (ready to make
specific antibody in future) and others becomeplasma cells (make specific antibody). When the
infection clears, the plasma cells undergoapoptosis (cell death). This whole process is
known as antibody-mediated immunity.
Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 131
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Immunity and its Defenses
Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page134-135
T-cells pick up on the alerts from antigen-presenting cells (APC).Without APCs, a T-cell cannot recognize an antigen. The APC willphagocytize the pathogen and then move to a place where T-cells gather, such as the spleen or lymph nodes. The APC breaksthe pathogen apart and moves a piece to a major
histocompatibility complex (MHC) protein in the plasmamembrane (the protein in humans is called human leukocyteantigens). The T-cells receptor bind with the antigen whichactivates clonal expansion, and produce either cytotoxic T-cellsor helper T-cells depending on what HLA protein the antigen ispresented in (HLAI or HLAII).
The helper T-cells releasecytokines (chemical) whichincreases all immune cellsefforts. The remaining memoryT-cells stay in the body as aback-up to the immune systemincase that antigen everybecomes present again.
The cytotoxic T-cells bind to the
infected cells, release periforinand granzymes, and cause theinfected cells to undergoapoptosis. Periforin moleculesmake holes in the infected cellsmembrane while granzymesenter the holes and cause thecells to die. This whole process
is known as cell-mediatedimmunity.
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Immunity and its Defenses: Antibody Structures
There are 5 groups of AntibodiesPicture from HumanBiology by Sylvia S.Mader Page 132
The structure of an antibody is Y-shaped made out of polypeptidechains. Some antibodies cover
antigens by means ofneutralization, causing an immune
complex by the bundling ofantigens.
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Part 3 Lymphatic System Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)Nonspecific and Specific DefensesImmunization and Antibodies Immune System Complications and Disorders
This child is receiving aPolio vaccination
Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunization
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Immunization and Antibodies
Active immunity is when antibodies areproduced by the body. A person can
naturally develop antibodies if theyhave been immunized. Immunization isthe process of injecting, by means ofvaccination, antigen substances toinduce immune system responses.Once vaccinated, ones plasma can be
observed for antibodies. This is knownas the antibody titer.
Passive immunity is when the body isgiven antibodies because the individualdoes not make them. For example,
babies receive certain antibodies whenthey cross the placenta or throughbreast feeding. Gamma globulininjections are given to people to helpboost their immune systems. Gammaglobulin is a substance which contains
antibodies to particular infectiousdiseases.
Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 137
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Immunization and Antibodies
The plasma cells which are cloned from B-cellssecrete monoclonal antibodies, or antibodies whichare of the same type as the antibodies from the
cloned cell. Monoclonal antibodies are used beingused for certain cancers, by binding to infected cellsantigens and promoting an immunological response.Monoclonal antibody therapy (MAb) is also being usedto deliver radioisotopes to certain tumors.
This picture shows how a plasma cell fused with a cancer cellproduces hybridoma cells which manufacture the monoclonal
antibodies
Macrophages haveidentified a cancer
cell (the large,spiky mass). Upon
fusing with thecancer cell, the
macrophages(smaller whitecells) will inject
toxins that kill thetumor cell.
Immunotherapy forthe treatment of
cancer is an active
area of medicalresearch.
Pictures from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 137 &http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system#Disorders_of_human_imunity
P 3
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Part 3 Lymphatic System Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)Nonspecific and Specific Defenses Immunization and Antibodies Immune System Complications and Disorders
[this is a] picture of a human cell amplified bya powerful microscope; the cell on the left is whata normal healthy cell should look like covered inglycoforms and complement proteins. The cell on
the right has altered glycoforms and missing
complement proteins due to specific glycoproteindeficiencies. (Lupus)
Pictures fromhttp://www.diseaseeducation.com/diseases/Lupus.php
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Immune System Complications and Disorders
Disorders of the immune system fall into three categories:immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, and hypersensitivities.
Immunodeficiencies
When part(s) of the immune systemis inactive it is known asimmunodeficiency. One may lack theability of the phagocyte function, thecomplement activity, or cytokine
production. Immunodeficiencies canbe brought on by poor health andlack of nutrients, or it can beinherited (Chronic granulomatousdisease) or acquired (AIDS).
Autoimmunity
Autoimmunity is when the immunesystem attacks part(s) of the body, suchas cells and tissues, because it fails torecognize between self and non-self.Some autoimmune diseases are multiplesclerosis, myasthenia gravis, systemic
lupus erythematosus, and rheumatoidarthritis.
Hypersensitivities
Hypersensitivities is a bad reaction from anormal immune systems to a substance such as
allergies. Coming in contact with a foreignsubstance, known as a allergen, can evoke an
immediate allergic response. Some people
undergo an instantaneous reaction to allergensknown as anaphylactic shock, where their blood
pressure drops and they have difficultybreathing. Some people experience delayed
allergic responses due to the regulation ofcytokines.
Pollen is a largecause of allergies
Picture fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay_fever
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Misc_pollen.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Misc_pollen.jpg8/14/2019 U2 - Compendium Review Oxygen/Microbes/Immunity Part 3
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Immune System Complications and Disorders
Some organs can be implanted fromone human to another; however there
can be complications. Due to tissuerejection, because the immune systemdoes not recognize the new organs asself, transplantees have to takeimmunosuppressive drugs.Immunosuppressive drugs are used to
suppress the immune system toprevent rejection of transplantedorgans. In addition to human organtransplants, genetically engineeredanimal organs are being used in hopesof less rejection. The use of animal
organs is known asxenotransplantation. Also, with theadvances in technology, tissueregeneration is helping to make organsthat will be rejection free because theyare grown from the patients own stem
cells.
A series of steps thatmay be undertaken to
generatehistocompatible lungs
and kidneys for patientswith diseases of these
organs. ES = embryonicstem.
Picture & Verbiage from http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/inside.asp?AID=866&UID=
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This diagram shows theprocess of making atransgenic animal forxenotransplantation
purposes.
Picture from
http://cseserv.engr.scu.edu/StudentAccounts/ENGR019Winter2002/MSaeed/ResearchPape
r.htm
Works CitedWorks Cited
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Works CitedWorks Cited
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"Classical complement pathway." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 18 Feb 2008, 17:34 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 5 Mar 2008
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Disease Education.Alternative to Traditional Lupus Treatment. Accessed 6 Mar 2008.
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"Ebola." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Mar 2008, 18:42 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008 .
"Hay fever." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 2 Mar 2008, 03:23 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008 .
"Immunity (medical)." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 6 Mar 2008, 02:38 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008 .
"Immunization." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Mar 2008, 17:29 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008
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Mader, Sylvia S. Human Biology. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, 2008. Pages 121-141.
Marilia Cascalho, Jeffrey L. Platt. New Technologies for Organ Replacement and Augmentation. MAYO CLIN PROC. 2005;80:370-378.Accessed 6 Mar 2008.
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"Salmonella." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Mar 2008, 17:36 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008 .
Woman to Woman. Detoxification: The Lymph System and your Health. 11 Jan 2008. Accessed 5 Mar 2008
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Xenotransplantation: Is it Ethical? Accessed 6 Mar 2008.
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